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1200

1200

Events

- University of Paris receives charter from Philip II of France
- Mongol victory over Northern China — 30,000,000 killed

Births

- Al-Abhari, Persian philosopher and mathematician (died 1265)
- Ulrich von Liechtenstein, German nobleman and poet (died 1278)
- Adam Marsh, English Franciscan (approximate date; died 1259)
- John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry
- Matthew Paris, English Benedictine monk and chronicler (approximate date; died 1259)
- Rabbi Isaac ben Moses of Vienna (died 1270)
- Dogen Zenji, founder of Soto Zen (died 1253)

Deaths

- Joscelin III of Edessa
- Zhu Xi, Chinese philosopher (born 1130) Category:1200 ko:1200년

University of Paris

The historic University of Paris (French: Université de Paris) first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was in 1970 reorganized as 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII). The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, but the university as such is older and was never completely centered on the Sorbonne. Of the 13 current successor universities, the first four have a presence in Sorbonne, and three include Sorbonne in their names. The 13 universities still stand under a common chancellor, the Rector of the Académie of Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. The Sorbonne remains one of the most famous and prestigious of universities in the world, having produced Nobel Prize winners from its faculty and student body, as well as a number of the greatest intellectuals, political theorists, scientists, engineers, physicians, theologians, and artists of the Western tradition and canon. Rector

Origin and organization of the medieval university

Similarly to the other of the earliest medieval universities (University of Bologna, University of Oxford, University of Coimbra, University of Salamanca), but in opposition to later ones (such as the University of Prague or the University of Heidelberg), the University of Paris was never established through a specific foundation act, such as a royal charter or papal bull. It grew up in the latter part of the 12th century around the Notre Dame Cathedral as a corporation similar to other medieval corporations, such as guilds of merchants or artisans. The medieval Latin term universitas actually had the more general meaning of a guild, and the university of Paris was known as a universitas magistrorum et scholarium (a guild of masters and scholars). The university, which (together with that in Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities had four faculties, of Arts, Medicine, Law and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest as students had to graduate there to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students there were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, those of France, Normandy, Picard, and England, the last one of which later came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply and the English-German nation in fact included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.

The Collège de Sorbonne

The Collège de Sorbonne was founded in 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, after whom it is named. It is also the name of its main campus in the Ve arrondissement of Paris, which now houses several universities (heirs to the former University of Paris) as well as the Paris rectorate. It was originally created for the use of 20 theology students in 1257 as Collège de Sorbonne by Robert de Sorbon (1201-1274), a chaplain and confessor to King Louis IX of France. It quickly built a prodigious reputation as a center for learning, and by the 13th century there were as many as twenty thousand foreign students resident in the city, making Paris the capital of knowledge of the Western world. Today, foreign students still make up a significant part of its campus. The Sorbonne became the most distinguished theological institution in France and its doctors were frequently called upon to render opinions on important ecclesiastical and theological issues. In 1622-1626, Cardinal Richelieu renovated the Sorbonne (the present buildings date from this time, with restorations dating from 1885). In his honour, the chapel of the Sorbonne was added in 1637. When Richelieu died in 1642 he was placed in a tomb within this chapel. The faculty's close association with the Church resulted in it being closed down during the French Revolution before it was reopened by Napoleon in 1808 to serve as part of the University of Paris. Between then and 1885 the Sorbonne served as the seat of the university's theology faculties and of the Académie de Paris. At the end of the 19th century, the Sorbonne became an entirely secular institution.

Other colleges

Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, there were other collegia, providing housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: The oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257. Swedish students could during the 13 and 14th centuries live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after diocesal centres in Sweden (Uppsala, Skara and Linköping), the cathedral schools of which the scholars had presumably attended before travelling to Paris. The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scottish college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a remerger of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville.

Student revolt and reorganization

In 1968 it was the starting point of the cultural revolution commonly known as "the French May" (see also situationism), resulting in the closing of the university for only the second time in history (the first having been the invasion by the German army of 1940). The University of Paris has since been reorganized into several autonomous universities and schools, some of which still carry the Sorbonne name. The historical campus, located in the Quartier Latin, in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, featuring mural paintings by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, was split for use between several of the universities of Paris and the Rector's services.

Present universities

External links

- [http://www.sorbonne.fr/ Sorbonne - Universités Paris I, III, IV and V] (official homepage)
- [http://www.univ-paris1.fr/universite/historique/article164.html History of the University of Paris] (in French)
- ja:パリ大学

Mongol

The Mongols are an ethnic group that originated in what is now Mongolia, Russia, and China, particularly Inner Mongolia. They currently number about 8.5 million and speak the Mongol language. There are approximately 2.3 million Mongols in Mongolia, 4 million Mongols living in Inner Mongolia, and 2 million Mongols living in neighboring provinces. In addition, there are a number of ethnic groups in North China and Russia related to the Mongols: the Daur, Buryat, Evenk, Dorbod and Kalmyk. In history, the word Mongols are ethnically very diverse and doesn't literally mean the people living in Mongolia as there were many that identified themselves as Mongols that now live in Middle East, Europe, and China.

History

Genghis Khan

China and subsequent Great Khans]] The Mongols were originally a confederation of tribes in competition with the Tatar, Kerait, Merkit and Naiman confederations and therefore only one division of what we call the Mongol nation. Genghis Khan unified the Mongol people by absorbing the other confederations into his own and the word Mongol came to mean the entire people. Though few in number (approximately 200,000 people at the height of their empire), Mongols were important in Eurasian history. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongols created the second largest empire in world history, ruling 35 million km² (13.8 million miles²) and more than 100 million people, nearly equal to the British Empire in land area. At its height, the Mongol Empire spanned from Korea to Hungary, and included most of the lands in between, such as Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia, Russia, Persia, China, and much of the Middle East. The Mongols were a nomadic people who in the 13th century found themselves encompassed by large, city-dwelling agrarian civilizations. However, none of these civilizations, with the possible exception of the Islamic Caliphate located in Baghdad, were part of a strong central state. Asia, Russia, and the Middle East were either declining kingdoms, or divided city states. Taking the strategic initiative, the Mongols exploited this power vacuum and linked all of these areas into a mutually supportive trade network.

Mongol Empire

In the 1100's Mongols were a small pastoral society on the steppes of Mongolia and spoke a language close to Turkish. They were only a local threat, but much feared by their neighbors. Timujin was born in 1167 and was the son of a minor chieftian. When he was ten his father died and it is thought that his mother taught him to ride and shoot. By the 1180's Timujin had distinguished himself as a good warrior and had many allies. Once he was chieftain, he defeated and incorporated all the rest of the tribes and incorporated them into Mongolia. In 1206 Timujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan (his name was not Genghis Khan as some think). The weapons and tactics of the Mongols developed over many centuries. The Mongols lived in one of the harshest places on earth, and because of this were very resourceful and tough. Their main items of food were milk and some powdered millet. They also drank a powerful fermented milk beverage. War was a normal condition of life for the Mongols and they lived almost constantly at war with each other. Consequently all Mongols were warriors. They wore leather armour and a tightly woven silk undergarment whose purpose was to keep wounds clean. One of the first peoples to use the stirrup, they were excellent horsemen and could jump from horse to horse while riding. Their tactics developed from hunting techniques where they would string out in a wide circle and corral their prey into ever tightening circles, then slaughter them. The Mongols used a composite bow made of layers of wood, bone and sinew, with a string typically made of dried horsehide for strength and durability. Unlike Welsh longbows which were narrower at one end than the other, the Mongol bow was even and symmetrical, also more powerful (with a range of aproximately 350 yards.) The Mongols pulled back the bow string with a ring so that the fingers of a archer did not interfere with the release. Though there is some dispute over the pull of the bows [http://www.coldsiberia.org/monbow.htm], they likely had at least a 100-pound pull and were quite capable of defeating the best armor available in Europe at the time. Mongol horses were medium sized and very nimble with considerable endurance. The horses were accustomed to extremes of temperature, could subsist on pasturage, and dig for grass under the snow. Therefore the Mongols had little fear of winter campaigns, and frequently attacked when least expected. Each Mongol had four to six horses with him at any time. The horses were reared to run in a herd, so the warrior did not have to worry about his horses wandering off. Their mobility and hardiness made them strategically superior to every other military force yet seen in the world. In 1227, Genghis Khan died; his third son Ogedei Khan was elected by the tribes to succeed him. Ogedei Khan continued the expansion into North-Eastern Asia, conquering Korea and Northern China in the process. The armies of the Mongols, led by the brilliant strategist Subutai, had reached Poland, Hungary, and Egypt by 1241, and were poised to continue. When Ogedei Khan suddenly died, Mongol law required all descendants of Genghis to return to elect a new Khan. The leader of the European expedition rushed back to press his claim. Nearly a decade later, Mongka Khan, grandson of Genghis and nephew of Ogedei, took the throne, through the assistance of his mother Sorghaghtani Beki. By this time, the Western expansion had lost its momentum. These events are credited in several counterfactual historical scenarios with saving nascent European civilization from a second "Dark Age" precipitated by Mongol conquest. However, some historians have recently begun to conclude that the Mongols brought great benefits to European civilization after the period of invasion was over through cultural cross-pollination. By 1230, the Mongols had almost overrun Persia and by the mid-1240s they had conquered Russia, with great loss of life by contemporary reports. The Mongols also sacked and razed Baghdad, which was the greatest city in the world at the time. In destroying Baghdad they are estimated to have killed over 800,000 people, however estimates of actual deaths attributed to the Mongols may have been skewed by contemporary chroniclers, who have been accused of bias. Many histories based on these chronicles established a commonly accepted view of the Mongols as bloodthirsty barbarians, which has recently been shaken by new evidence. Regardless, many historians continue to trace the conservatism and xenophobia of Islamic culture to this defeat. A small portion of the Mongol army was finally defeated at Ain Jalut by the Mamluk Army from Egypt; this marked their point of furthest expansion in the Middle East, and is seen by many as the turning point in their fortunes. With the riches from the new empire, they created a new capital for themselves in Karkaroum, which after Genghis Khan's death, Ogedei (his successor) aggrandized with palaces and permanent structures, turning it into a permanent settlement that his father never would have taken part in. The Mongol leadership promoted religious tolerance, so that the people they conquered would be more docile than they would have been if they had imposed a religion on them. The Mongols encouraged trade and opened up the "silk road". The Mongols were the ones who introduced gunpowder to Europe which they in turn had gotten from the Chinese. They also used and spread the printing press throughout their Empire, though it is uncertain whether the European printing press developed by Johann Gutenberg was a case of separate development or imitation. Regardless, it was centuries before the invention would spark the Renaissance in Europe.

Ethnic, cultural and religious diversity

Johann Gutenberg The term Mongol referring to the 12th and 13th century Mongol reign presumably included soldiers and generals in Middle East, China, Eastern and central Europe who all fought under the identity of being Mongols although not exclusively having a heritage in modern Mongolia. The name probably was very symbolic and powerful concept to those that pledged allegiance to the Mongol Empire, to Genghis Khan and his successor Great Khans, and to themselves. It was probably the genius of Genghis Khan to unify all these different people under one identity as a single and powerful fighting force with superb military strategy, dedication and mobility. The word Mongol should not be interpreted literally in historical perspective to many of those who identified themselves as being Mongols. Various members of the Mongol Court, including Sorghaghtani Beki, were Nestorian Christians. While the court was nominally Buddhist and maintained a policy of being open to all religions, it was known as particularly sympathetic to Christians (which may have helped contribute to the legend of Prester John). In 1253 the court followed the suggestion of Crusader Kingdoms in Syria to attack the Muslim capitals of Baghdad and Cairo. Baghdad was conquered and sacked in 1258 with the city's Christians spared, and the Abbasid Caliph killed. However, with the troops on the road to Cairo, Mongka Khan died in 1259 and much of the force returned home for the selection of the new leader. Egyptian troops finally repelled the attack in 1260. This, and the ultimately "gates of Vienna," marked the farthest West the Mongol Empire would progress. Kublai Khan quickly succeeded Mongka Khan, moved the court to Beijing, formed the Yuan dynasty, and re-started the invasion of China, in the first war with guns on both sides. After 18 years, Kublai Khan conquered both Northern and Southern China, forming the largest empire in history (famously described by Marco Polo). However, by the early 14th century, the prominence of trade and a possible cooling of the world's climates led to worldwide outbreaks of plague, which encouraged revolt and invasion. Early Ming Emperors led campaigns into Mongolia and destroyed Harhorin and Khar Khot, but later Ming Emperors resorted to more defensive policies. Meanwhile, various Mongolian tribes fought against each other, usually Western Mongols (Oirat) against Eastern Mongols (Chahar, Tumed, Ordos or Khalkha), and continued to threaten China's borders. The internal struggle gave the emerging Manchu the possibility of assimilating the Mongol tribes bit by bit. In 1636, the Chahar of Inner Mongolia were conquered, in 1691, the Khalkha of Outer Mongolia submitted to the Kangxi Emperor in order to escape from the threat of being conquered by the Oirat, and in the 1750s, the Qianlong Emperor completely destroyed the Oirat Jungar Empire in today's Xinjiang.

Timeline of conquest

The Mongols attempted two unsuccessful invasions of Japan (see Mongol invasions of Japan). The first attempt ended in a retreat after the Battle of Bun'ei in 1274. The second attempt was cancelled after many ships had been destroyed by a famous typhoon, called kamikaze (divine wind) in 1281. The Mongols succeeded very briefly in their invasion of Dai Viet in the northern part of contemporary Vietnam, but were soon defeated by the Vietnamese general Tran Hung Dao after almost three decades. The attack on the Javanese kingdom of Singhasari in 1293 caused the collapse of that state, but the new empire of Majapahit remained independent. Estimated fatalities from the Mongol campaigns are:
- 1200, Northern China — unknown
- 1215, Yanjing China (present-day Beijing) — unknown
- 1221, Nishapur, Persia — ~1.7 million killed in assault
- 1221, Merv, Persia — ~1.4 million killed in assault
- 1221, Meru Chahjan, Persia — ~1.3 million killed in assault
- 1221, Rayy, Persia — ~1.6 million killed in assault
- 1236, Bilär, Bulgar cities, Volga Bulgaria — 150,000 or more, nearly half of population
- 1237-1240, Kievan Rus' — half of population
- 1241, Battle of Legnica — defeat of a combined Polish-German force in Lower Silesia (Poland); the Mongols turn back to attend to the election of a new Grand Khan.
- 1258, Baghdad — ~800,000 people. Results in destruction of Abbasid dynasty and ending of the Caliphate.

1265

For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

War and politics

- January 20 - In Westminster, the first elected English parliament (De Montfort's Parliament) conducts its first meeting in the Palace of Westminster, now also known as the Houses of Parliament.
- Before August - Future King Edward I of England escapes captivity in the hands of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester.
- August 4 - The Battle of Evesham of the Second Barons' War is fought in Worcestershire, with the army of Edward defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort and killing de Montfort and many of his allies. This is sometimes considered the death of chivalry in England.
- King Alfonso X of Castile captures the city of Alicante, Spain from the Moors during the Reconquista.
- The Isle of Man comes under Scottish rule.

Culture

Scottish
- The Book of Aneirin, a Welsh manuscript of poetry, is penned.
- The brewing of Budweiser Budvar beer begins in Bohemia (now part of the Czech Republic); Budweiser Budvar has been produced continuously there to this day.
- Correspondence from Pope Clement IV contains the first known mention of the ring of the Fisherman, an item of papal regalia then used to seal personal correspondence from the pope and later for papal bulls.

Africa and Asia

- The Mamluk Bahri dynasty of Egypt captures several cities and towns from Crusader states in the Middle East, including the cities of Haifa, Arsuf, and Caesarea Palaestina; these events eventually precipitate the Eighth Crusade in 1267.
- Kublai Khan sends a delegation to Japan, which loots islands along the way.
- Fire destroys parts of Old Cairo.

Births

- May 10 - Emperor Fushimi of Japan (died 1317)
- c. June 1 - Dante (died 1321)
- King Alfonso III of Aragon

Deaths

- February 8 - Hulagu Khan of the Mongol Empire (born 1217)
- April 25 - Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester, English politician (born 1195)
- August 4 - Killed in the Battle Of Evesham:
- Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer (b. 1223)
- Henry de Montfort (born 1238)
- Peter de Montfort
- Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester (born 1208)
- December 3 - Odofredus, Italian jurist
- Al-Abhari, Persian philosopher and mathematician (born 1200)
- John Maunsell, Lord Chancellor of England

1278

For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century.

Events

- August 26 - Kings Rudolph I of Germany and Ladislaus IV of Hungary defeat King Otakar II of Bohemia in the Battle of Marchfield, a match of over 80,000 men and the largest battle of knights in the middle ages. The battle ends a power struggle between Rudolph and Otakar over the fate of central Europe, and Rudolph's Habsburg family will continue to rule Austria and other captured territories until the end of World War I in 1918.
- The independence, boundaries, and political structure of Andorra are agreed to by the Spanish Bishop of Urgell and the French Count of Foix.
- The earliest known written copy of the Avesta, a collection of ancient sacred Persian Zoroastrian texts previously passed down orally, is produced.
- An edict by Pope Nicholas III requires all Jews to attend conversion sermons.
- The Japanese era Kenji ends, and the Koan era begins.

Births

- Constantine III of Armenia (died c. 1310)
- Ferdinand of Majorca (died 1316)
- Philip I of Taranto (d. 1332)

Deaths

- February 10 - Margaret II, Countess of Flanders (born 1202)
- May 1 - William II Villehardouin
- May 8 - Emperor Duanzong of China (born 1268)
- June 30 - Pierre de la Broce, French courtier
- August 26 - King Otakar II of Bohemia
- Al-Nawawi, Syrian writer (born 1233)
- Ulrich von Liechtenstein, knight, politician, and minnesinger (born 1200)
- Nicola Pisano, Italian sculptor Category:1278 ko:1278년

1259

For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

- September - The Empire of Nicaea defeats the Principality of Achaea at the Battle of Pelagonia, ensuring the eventual reconquest of Constantinople in 1261.
- December 4 - Kings Louis IX of France and Henry III of England agree to the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry renounces his claims to French-controlled territory on continental Europe (including Normandy) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.
- The famous frescoes of the Boyana Church in Bulgaria are completed (the church and its murals are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
- The German cities of Lübeck, Wismar, and Rostock enter into a pact to defend against pirates of the Baltic Sea, laying the groundwork for the Hanseatic League.
- Nogai Khan leads the second Mongol Golden Horde attack against Poland.

Asia

- Lannathai, a kingdom in the north of Thailand, is founded by King Mengrai.
- The Goryeo kingdom in Korea surrenders to invading Mongol forces.
- The Chinese era Kaiqing begins and ends in the Northern Song Dynasty of China.
- The Japanese Shoka era ends, and the Shogen era begins.

Births

- Pietro Cavallini, Italian painter (died 1330)
- Demetre II of Georgia (died 1289)
- John II of Jerusalem (died 1285)
- Richard Og de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster (died 1326)

Deaths

- May 29 - King Christopher I of Denmark (born 1219)
- November 18 - Adam Marsh, English scholar and theologian
- Gojong of Goryeo
- Ezzelino da Romano III, Italian ruler
- Möngke Khan of the Mongol Empire
- Matthew Paris, French chronicler
- Thomas II of Savoy

John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry

John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry (born 1200) was Lord of Clun and Oswestry, in Shropshire. He married Isabel d'Aubigny, daughter of William d'Aubigny, 3rd Earl of Arundel and Mabel of Chester. They were parents of John FitzAlan, 6th Earl of Arundel. Oswestry, John Fitzalan, Lord of

Matthew Paris

:For the British newspaper columnist and MP, see Matthew Parris. Matthew Parris Matthew Paris (c. 1200 - 1259) was a Benedictine monk and English chronicler, based at St Alban's Abbey in Hertfordshire. In spite of his surname, and of his knowledge of the French language, he was of English birth but may have studied at Paris in his youth after early education at the St Albans Abbey School (now St Albans School). The first we know of him (from his own writings) is that he was admitted as a monk at St Albans in 1217. His life was mainly spent in this religious house. In 1248, however, he was sent to Norway as the bearer of a message from Louis IX of France to Haakon VI; he made himself so agreeable to the Norwegian sovereign that he was invited, a little later, to superintend the reformation of the Benedictine monastery of St Benet Holme at Trondheim. Apart from these missions, his activities were devoted to the composition of history, a pursuit for which the monks of St Albans had long been famous. Having been admitted to the order in 1217, he inherited the mantle of Roger of Wendover, the abbey's official recorder of events, in 1236. Paris revised Roger's work, and that of Abbot John de Celia, adding new material to cover his own tenure, and this Chronica Majora is an important historical source document. Equally interesting and innovative are the illustrations Paris used in his work. From 1235, the point at which Wendover dropped his pen, Matthew continued the history on the plan which his predecessors had followed. He derived much of his information from the letters of important people, which he sometimes inserts, but much more from conversation with the eye-witnesses of events. Among his informants were Richard, Earl of Cornwall and King Henry III himself, with whom he appears to have been on intimate terms. The king knew that Matthew was writing a history, and wanted it to be as exact as possible. In 1257, in the course of a week's visit to St Albans, Henry kept the chronicler beside him night and day, "and guided my pen," says Paris, "with much good will and diligence." It is therefore curious that the Chronica majora should give so unfavourable an account of the king's policy. Henry Reynolds Luard supposes that Matthew never intended his work to see the light in its present form, and many passages of the autograph have against them the note offendiculum, which shows that the writer understood the danger which he ran. On the other hand, unexpurgated copies were made in Matthew's lifetime; though the offending passages are duly omitted or softened in his abridgment of his longer work, the Historia Anglorum (written about 1253), the real sentiments of the author must have been an open secret. In any case there is no ground for the old theory that he was an official historiographer. Matthew Paris lived at a time when English politics were peculiarly involved and tedious. His talent is for narrative and description. Though he took a keen interest in the personal side of politics, his portraits of his contemporaries throw more light on his own prejudices than on their aims and ideas. Like most "historians" of the period, he never pauses to weigh the evidence or to take a comprehensive view of the situation. He admires strength of character, even when it goes along with a policy of which he disapproves. Thus he praises Robert Grosseteste, while denouncing Grosseteste's scheme of monastic reform. Matthew is a vehement supporter of the monastic orders against their rivals, the secular clergy and the mendicant friars. He is violently opposed to the court and the foreign favourites. He despises the king as a statesman, though for the man he has some kindly feeling. The frankness with which he attacks the court of Rome is remarkable; so, too, is the intense nationalism which he displays in dealing with this topic. His faults are often due to carelessness and narrow views, but he sometimes invents rhetorical speeches which are misleading as an account of the speaker's sentiments. In other cases he tampers with the documents which he inserts (as, for instance, with the text of Magna Carta). His chronology is, for a contemporary, inexact; and he occasionally inserts duplicate versions of the same incident in different places. Hence he must always be rigorously checked when other authorities exist and used with caution where he is our sole informant. None the less, he gives a more vivid impression of his age than any other English chronicler; and it is a matter for regret that his great history breaks off in 1259, on the eve of the crowning struggle between Henry III and the baronage.

Modern Study of Matthew Paris

The relation of Matthew Paris's work to those of John de Celia and Roger of Wendover may be studied in Henry Reynolds Luard's edition of the Chronica majora (7 vols., Rolls series. 1872–1881), which contains valuable prefaces. The Historia Anglorum sive historia minor (1067– 1253) has been edited by Frederic Madden (3 vols., Rolls series, 1866–1869). Matthew Paris is sometimes confused with "Matthew of Westminster," the reputed author of the Flores historiarum edited by Luard (3 vols., Rolls series, 1890). This work, compiled by various hands, is an edition of Matthew Paris, with continuations extending to 1326. Matthew Paris also wrote a life of St. Edmund of Canterbury, which has been edited and translated by C.H. Lawrence (Oxford, 1996). Moreover, he wrote the Anglo-Norman "La Estoire de Seint Aedward le Rei" (the History of Saint Edward the King), which survives in a beautifully illuminated manuscript version, Cambridge, Cambridge University Library MS. Ee.3.59. The text is edited in K. Y. Wallace, "La Estoire de Seint Aedward le Rei", Anglo-Norman Text Society 41 (1983). Paris house at St. Albans High school for girls is named after him.

External links

- [http://www.bartleby.com/211/0919.html Latin Chroniclers from the Eleventh to the Thirteenth Centuries: Matthew Paris] from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Volume I, 1907–21. ---- Paris, Matthew Paris, Matthew Paris, Matthew Paris, Matthew Category:Medieval literature Paris, Matthew

Chronicle

Generally a chronicle (Latin chronica) is historical account of facts and events in chronological order. Typically equal weight is given for important events and less important events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred. This is in contrast to a narrative or history, which focuses on important events and excludes those the author does not see as important. chronological, British Museum, London]] Scholars categorize the genre of chronicle into two subgroups: live chronicles, and dead chronicles. A dead chronicle is one where the author gathers his list of events up to the time of his writing, but does not record further events as they occur. A live chronicle is where one or more authors add to a chronicle in a regular fashion, recording contemporary events shortly after they occur. Because of the immediacy of the information, historians tend to value live chronicles over dead ones. The term often refers to a book written by a chronicler in the Middle Ages describing historical events in a country, or the lives of a nobleman or a clergyman, although it is also applied to a record of public events. Various contemporary newspapers or other periodicals have adopted "chronicle" as part of their name.

List of notable chronicles

- Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
- Annals of Inisfallen
- Annals of the Four Masters
- Annals of Spring and Autumn
- Croyland Chronicle
- Dioclean Priest's Chronicle
- Froissart's Chronicles
- Galician-Volhynian Chronicle
- Henry of Livona Chronicle
- Jermone Chronical
- Kano Chronicle
- Lethrense Chronicle
- Maha Wamsa or Mahavamsa
- Paschale Chronicle
- Russian Primary Chronicle
- Sanguo Zhi
- Slavorum Chronicle
- Swiss illustrated chronicles

1259

For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

Asia

Births

- Pietro Cavallini, Italian painter (died 1330)
- Demetre II of Georgia (died 1289)
- John II of Jerusalem (died 1285)
- Richard Og de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster (died 1326)

Deaths

Isaac ben Moses of Vienna

Isaac ben Moses of Vienna (also called Isaac Or Zarua; Hebrew: Yitzchak ben Moshe) was one of the greatest rabbis of the Middle Ages. He was probably born in Bohemia and lived between 1200 and 1270. He attained his fame in Vienna and his major work, the halachic guide known as the Or Zarua, was very popular among Ashkenazic Jewry. He was a member of the Chassidei Ashkenaz and studied under many scholars, including the Ra'avyah and Rabbi Elazar Rokeach. He was among the teachers of Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg.

Life

In his Or Zarua, the only primary source of information on his life, Isaac ben Moses mentions as his teachers two Bohemian scholars, Jacob ha-Laban and Isaac ben Jacob ha-Laban (author of Arugat ha-Bosem). Led by a thirst for Talmudic knowledge, he undertook in his youth extensive journeys to the prominent yeshivot of Germany and France. According to Gross he went to Ratisbon first; but S. N. Bernstein conjectures that previously he stopped for a long time at Vienna, and became closely identified with the city, as he is usually quoted as "Isaac of Vienna." From among the many scholars at Ratisbon he selected for his guide the mystic Judah ben Samuel he-Chasid (d. 1217). About 1217 he went to Paris, where the great Talmudist Judah ben Isaac Sir Leon (d. 1244) became his chief teacher. He also visited for a short time the yeshiva of Jacob ben Meir in Provins (see Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 495). Then he returned to Germany, and studied under the mystic Eleazar ben Judah at Worms, and, at Speyer, under Simchah ben Samuel, his intimate friend, and Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi, author of Abi ha-'Ezri and Abi'asaf (see Zunz, Z. G. p. 36). At Würzburg, where Meir of Rothenburg was his pupil (c. 1230), he became rosh yeshiva. Later on Isaac returned to Ratisbon, and then settled for some time in Vienna, where he held the position of "ab beth din" and rosh yeshiva. Finally, he went to Saxony and Bohemia. Isaac lived a long but unsteady and troubled life. He saw the law compelling Jews to wear the yellow badge put into force in France, and he deplored the massacres of the Jews in Frankfurt-am-Main (1241) and the extortions practised upon them by the nobles of Austria. His son-in-law was Samuel ben Shabbethai of Leipzig; his son Chayyim Eliezer, called Or Zarua, like him a scholar, carried on a comprehensive halachic correspondence, a part of which (251 responsa) was printed under the title Sefer She'elot u-Teshubot (Leipzig, 1860).
Work
Toward the end of his life, about 1260, Isaac composed his ritual work Or Zarua. He is usually quoted as "Isaac Or Zarua" It was printed from the Amsterdam manuscript (incomplete) by Lipa and Höschel in Jitomir, 1862 (parts i. and ii.); other manuscripts are at Oxford (Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. No. 650) and in the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York City (MS. Halberstam No. 454). In the edition of Lipa and Höschel Seder Nezikhin is wanting; most of the rest of the work was afterward printed at Jerusalem by J. M. Hirschensohn (part iii., 1887; part iv., 1890) (Harkavy, Chadashim gam Yeshanim, No. 10; Grätz, Gesch. v. 20, Hebr. ed.). The Or Zarua comprises the whole ritual, and is arranged according to the Talmudic tractates, while at the same time the halachot are kept together. The author, unlike Maimonides in his Mishneh Torah, does not confine himself to giving the halachic decisions, but gives also the passage of the Talmud, explains the subject-matter, and develops the "din" from it. Thus the Or Zarua is at the same time a ritual code and a Talmudic commentary. As it contains, in addition, explanations of some passages in the Bible, the author is also quoted as a Bible commentator. Moreover, the book contains a part of the halachic correspondence which the author carried on with Talmudic scholars of Italy, France, and Austria. Older collections of halachic decisions which the author had gathered together during his lifetime seem also to be embodied in the work. Isaac explains unknown words in Bohemian, his mother tongue (see Harkavy, Die Juden und die Slavischen Sprachen, pp. 53 et seq.), and cites the Palestinian Talmud, to which he ascribes great authority in halachic decisions. The work is introduced by a treatise couched in words to whose meanings mystical significance is attached. It is an imitation of the Alphabet of Akiba ben Joseph, and was composed at the order of Isaac's teacher Eleazar ben Judah of Worms. Isaac's son Chayyim Eliezer arranged a compendium of this work which exists in several manuscripts. The Or Zarua succeeded in displacing all the older ritual works. It is very important also for the Culturgeschichte of the German Jews in the Middle Ages (see, for instance, Berliner, Aus dem Leben der Juden im Mittelalter, on almost every page). According to Gross, Isaac's chief importance rests upon the fact that he introduced among the Slavs the study of the Talmud from France and the west of Germany. Isaac was of a mild and peace-loving character and it was for this reason, perhaps, that he did not participate in the struggle against the study of secular sciences, though an incorrect ritual decision would rouse him to indignant energy. He carried on a controversy with several rabbis concerning the legal status of a betrothed girl who had been forced by circumstances to adopt Christianity and had afterward returned to Judaism. His anxiety for correct observance led him to counsel the more difficult rather than the easier ritual practise. His mystical studies account for his belief in miracles. He was held in high regard by his pupils, and, like other teachers of the time, was given the title Ha-Kadosh (the holy; Asheri, Ta'an. iv.). His contemporary Isaiah di Trani described him as "the wonder of the age" (Or Zarua i. 226).
Bibliography

- S. N. Bernstein. in Ha-Tzefirah, 1902, Nos. 229, 231, 232.
- Grätz, Gesch. vii. 101.
- Gross, in Monatsschrift, 1871, pp. 248 et seq.
- Güdemann, Gesch. i. 114, 152, 153.
- Zunz, Z. G. Index.
- Zunz, in Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. 1865, pp. 1 et seq.
- Zunz, G. S. iii. 128 et seq.
- Weiss, Dor, v. 73. Category:1200 births Category:1270 deaths Category:Middle Ages rabbis

1270

For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

- December - Crucial aspects of the philosophy of Averroism (itself based on Aristotle's works) are banned by the Catholic church in a condemnation enacted by papal authority at the University of Paris.
- The Summa Theologiae, a work by Thomas Aquinas that is considered within the Roman Catholic Church to be the paramount expression of its theology, is completed (year uncertain).
- Witelo translates Alhazen's 200-year-old treatise on optics, Kitab al-Manazir, from Arabic into Latin, bringing the work to European academic circles for the first time.
- The Sanskrit fables known as the Panchatantra, dating from as early as 200 BCE, are translated into Latin from a Hebrew version by John of Capua.
- Construction of the Old New Synagogue in Prague is completed.
- The cathedral on the Rock of Cashel in Ireland is completed.

Asia

- In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion begins against the Goryeo Dynasty, a puppet government of the Mongol Empire.
- The ancient city of Ashkelon is captured from the crusader states and utterly destroyed by the Mamluk sultan Baibars, who goes so far as to fill in its important harbor, leaving the site desolate and the city never to be rebuilt.
- The city of Tabriz, in present-day Iran, is made capital of the Mongol Ilkhanate empire (approximate date).
- The independent state of Kutch is founded in present-day India.
- A census of the Chinese city of Hangzhou establishes that some 186,330 families reside within it, not including visitors and soldiers. (Historian Jacques Gernet argues that this means a population of over 1 million inhabitants, making Hangzhou the most populous city in the world.)

Africa

The Eighth Crusade

- Before August - King Louis IX of France launches the Eighth Crusade in an attempt to recapture the crusader states from the Mamluk sultan Baibars; the opening engagement is a siege of Tunis.
- August 25 - King Louis IX of France dies while besieging the city of Tunis, possibly due to poor quality drinking water.
- October 30 - The siege of Tunis and the Eighth Crusade end by an agreement between Charles I of Sicily (Louis IX's brother) and the sultan of Tunis.

Other events in Africa

- Yekuno Amlak overthrows the Ethiopian Zagwe dynasty, claims the throne and establishes the Solomonid dynasty (approximate date).

Births

- March 12 - Charles of Valois, son of Philip III of France (died 1325)
- Jacob ben Asher, Spanish rabbi and religious writer
- Theodore Metochites, Byzantine statesman and author
- Michael of Cesena, Franciscan theologian (died 1342)
- Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk (died 1306)
- Marsilius of Padua, Italian scholar (died 1342)
- Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (died 1324)
- Cino da Pistoia, Italian poet (died 1336)
- Ma Zhiyuan, Chinese poet

Deaths

- February 23 - Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France (born 1225)
- July 14 - Boniface of Savoy Archbishop of Canterbury
- August 25 - King Louis IX of France
- August 25 - Alphonso of Brienne
- December 4 - Theobald V of Champagne, King of Navarre
- Philip of Montfort, Lord of Castres
- Béla IV of Hungary (born 1206)
- Mansa Wali Keita, second mansa of the Mali Empire
- Roger Bigod, 4th Earl of Norfolk (born 1212)
- Philip of Montfort, Lord of Tyre
- David VII Ulu, King of Georgia (born 1215)
- Isaac ben Moses of Vienna, Jewish rabbi and scholar (born 1200) Category:1270 ko:1270년

Soto

:For the vegetable, see Celosia. Sōtō (曹洞宗; Japanese: Sōtō-shū, Chinese: Caodong-zong) is one of the two major Japanese Zen sects (the other major one being Rinzai). It is an extension or subbranch of the Chinese Caodong, which was brought to Japan by Dogen Zenji (1200-1253), and which after his death became known as the Soto school.

Characteristics

With 14,700 temples and nearly 7 million adherents (in 1989) Soto is the largest Zen sect in Japan, surpassing Rinzai and Obaku. In Japanese history, Soto gained ground among provincial rulers and ordinary people, while Rinzai won the support of the central samurai government. Soto is practised both in Japan and in the West, and stresses shikantaza, the meditation in simply sitting in a fixed posture. Sitting is not seen as the means to an end, but as an end in itself, a direct means of expressing enlightenment and Buddhahood in an instant.

History

The characteristics of Soto as a distinct style of Zen go back to Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien (J. Sekito Kisen, 700-790) who led an important practice center in the mountains of Hunan province in China. From this school there developed three different schools of Zen of which Soto is one, being founded by Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807-69) in China. Its transmission to Japan was done by Eihei Dogen Zenji (1200-1253). Similarly to the traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, a senior monk will be appointed to be a lineage bearer in a Dharma Transmission ceremony. This monk will have previously been acknowledged to have some degree of enlightenment or satori by a current Zen master, as well as having lived and served for some decades in a Zen monastery. The lineage documents typically trace the chain of transmission back to Gautama Buddha, the original historical Buddha and founder of Buddhism.

Important texts

Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien's poem "The Harmony of Difference and Sameness" is an important early expression of Zen Buddhism and is chanted in Soto temples to this day. One of the poems of Tung-shan Liang-chieh, the founder of Soto, is "The Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness" is also still chanted in Soto temples. Another set of his poems on the Five Positions of Absolute and Relative is important as a set of koans used in the Rinzai school. Dogen's teaching is characterized by the identification of practice as enlightenment itself. This is to be found in the Shobogenzo.

External links

- [http://www.sotozen-net.or.jp www.sotozen-net.or.jp Website] of the Soto Sect

References

- Dogen, Eihei /Masunaga, R. (trans). (1971) Primer of Soto Zen: A Translation of Dogen's Shobogenzo Zuimonki(East West Center Book), University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0824803574
- Williams, D. R. (2004) The Other Side of Zen : A Social History of Soto Zen Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan (Buddhisms: A Princeton University Press Series), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691119287
- Koho, K.C. (2000) Soto Zen: An Introduction to the Thought of the Serene Refection Meditation School of Buddhism, Shasta Abbey Press, ISBN 093006609X
- Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005). 'Zen Buddhism: A History (Volume 2: Japan)'. World Wisdom Press, ISBN 0941532909 Category:Zen sects ja:曹洞宗

Joscelin III of Edessa

Joscelin III of Edessa (d. 1200) was the titular Count of Edessa 1159–1200. He was the son of Joscelin II of Edessa and his wife Beatrice. He inherited the title of "Count of Edessa" from his father, Joscelin II; but Edessa had been captured in 1144 and the remnants of the county (such as the Lordship of Turbessel) conquered or sold years before he took the title. Joscelin lived in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and managed to gather enough land around Acre to set up the Seigneurie of Joscelin. His sister, Agnes of Courtenay, was the wife of King Amalric I and mother of Baldwin IV. In 1164 Joscelin was taken captive by Nur ad-Din, and remained a prisoner until 1176 when Agnes paid his ransom. She then made him seneschal of Jerusalem. He was therefore allied with the inner circle of the royal family in Jerusalem, which was opposed by the lesser nobles led by Raymond III, count of Tripoli. In 1180 Joscelin became an ambassador to the Byzantine Empire, replacing William of Tyre, who had lost influence in the royal court. In 1184 he became guardian of the young Baldwin V while Raymond III was regent, thus allying himself with the lesser nobles rather than the royal family; Agnes had probably died by this point, and although Joscelin was Baldwin V's great uncle, Raymond's party of nobles held the most power. However, when Baldwin died in 1186 Joscelin switched sides again, barring Raymond from the funeral. At the Battle of Hattin in 1187, Joscelin commanded the rearguard with Balian of Ibelin. Both escaped the disastrous defeat and fled to Tyre. Joscelin played little role in the Third Crusade and the politics of the Kingdom in the 1190s, and seems to have died in 1200. He married Agnes of Milly, daughter of Henry of Milly, Lord of Petra, by whom he had two daughters: # Beatrice (d. aft. 1245), married Otto von Henneberg, Count of Botenlauben # Agnes, married William of Mandalee, Lord of Scandeleon Joscelin's seigneurie was bought from his daughters by Hermann of Salza, the master of the Teutonic Knights, in 1220.

Sources

- R. L. Nicholson, Joscelyn III and the Fall of the Crusader States, 1134-1199. Brill, 1973. Category:Counts of Edessa Category:1200 deaths

Zhu Xi

Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (1130–1200) was a Song Dynasty (960-1279) Confucian scholar who became one of the most significant Neo-Confucians in China. He taught at the famous White Deer Grotto Academy for some time. Zhu Xi was also influential in Japan, where his followers were called the Shushigaku (朱子学) school. During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be unorthodox. Zhu Xi and his fellow scholars codified what is now considered the Confucian canon of classics: the Four Books, consisting of the Analects of Confucius, the Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean; and the Five Classics: the Classic of Poetry, the Classic of History, the Book of Changes (I Ching), the Classic of Rites and the Spring and Autumn Annals. Zhu Xi also wrote extensive commentaries for all of these classics. The writings were not widely recognised in Zhu Xi's time; however, they later became accepted as standard commentaries on the Confucian classics. Zhu Xi considered the earlier philosopher Xun Zi to be a heretic for departing from Confucius's beliefs about innate human goodness. Zhu Xi contributed to Confucian philosophy by articulating what was to become the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of beliefs in Daoism and Buddhism. He adapted some ideas from these competing religions into his form of Confucianism. He argued that all things are brought into being by two universal elements: vital (or physical) force (qi), and law or rational principle (li). The source and sum of li is the Tai Ji (Wade-Giles: Tai Chi), which means Great Ultimate. According to Zhu Xi, the Tai Ji causes qi to move and change in the physical world, resulting in the division of the world into the two energy modes (yin and yang) and the five elements (fire, water, wood, metal, and earth). In terms of li and qi, Zhu Xi's system strongly resembles Buddhist ideas of li (again, principle) and shi (affairs, matters), though Zhu Xi and his followers strongly argued that they were not copying Buddhist ideas. Instead, they held, they were using concepts present in the Book of Changes. According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person contains li and therefore has contact with the Tai Ji. What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is defined as the Great Ultimate (Tai Ji), or the supreme regulative principle at work in a person. Zhu Xi argued that the fundamental nature of humans was morally good; even if people displayed immoral behaviour, the supreme regulative principle was good. It is unclear whence exactly immorality arises; Zhu Xi argued that it comes about through the muddying effect of li being shrouded in qi, but this does not fully answer the question, as qi itself shares part of the Tai Ji. According to Zhu Xi, vital force (qi) and rational principle (li) operate together in mutual dependence. These are not entirely non-physical forces: one result of their interaction is the creation of matter. When their activity is rapid the yang energy mode is generated, and when their activity is slow, the yin energy mode is generated. The yang and yin constantly interact, gaining and losing dominance over the other. This results in the structures of nature known as the five elements. Zhu Xi discussed how he saw the Great Ultimate concept to be compatible with principle of Daoism, but his concept of Tai Ji was different from the understanding of Dao in Daoism. Where Tai Ji is a differentiating principle that results in the emergence of something new, Dao was something that was still and silent, operating to reduce all things to equality and indistinquishability. He argued that there is a central harmony that is not static, empty but dynamic, and that the Great Ultimate is in constant movement. He did not hold to traditional ideas of God or Heaven (Tian), though he discussed how his own ideas mirrored the traditional concepts. He encouraged an agnostic tendency within Confucianism, because he believed that the Great Ultimate was a rational principle, and he discussed it as an intelligent and ordering will behind the universe. He did not promote the worship of spirits and offerings to images. Although he practiced some forms of ancestor worship, he disagreed that the souls of ancestors existed, believing instead that ancestor worship is a form of remembrance and gratitude. Zhu Xi practiced a form of daily meditation similar to, but not the same as, Buddhist dhyana or chan ding (wg ch'an-ting). His meditation did not require the cessation of all thinking as in Buddhism, but was characterised by quiet introspection that helped to balance various aspects of one's personality and allowed for focused thought and concentration. His form of meditation was by nature Confucian in the sense that it was concerned with morality. His meditation attempted to reason and feel in harmony with the universe. He believed that this type of meditation brought humanity closer together and more into harmony. The teachings of Zhu Xi were to dominate Confucianism, though dissenters would later emerge, such as Wang Yangming two and a half centuries later. Life magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last millennium.

External links

- [http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln471/Divination.htm Chu Hsi and Divination] - Joseph A. Alder
- [http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln471/ChouChu2.htm Stillness & Activity] - Joseph A. Alder Category:Taoists Category:Chinese thinkers Category:Chinese philosophers category:Song Dynasty category:1130 births category:1200 deaths ja:朱子

Category:1200

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1200

Events

Births

Deaths

University of Paris

Origin and organization of the medieval university

The Collège de Sorbonne

Other colleges

Student revolt and reorganization

Present universities

See also

External links

Mongol

History

Genghis Khan

Mongol Empire

Ethnic, cultural and religious diversity

Timeline of conquest

See also

1265

Events

Europe

War and politics

Culture

Africa and Asia

Births

Deaths

See also

1278

Events

Births

Deaths

1259

Events

Europe

Asia

Births

Deaths

See also

John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry

Matthew Paris

Modern Study of Matthew Paris

External links

Chronicle

List of notable chronicles

See also

1259

Events

Europe

Asia

Births

Deaths

See also

Isaac ben Moses of Vienna

Life

Work

Bibliography

1270

Events

Europe

Asia

Africa

The Eighth Crusade

Other events in Africa

Births

Deaths

Soto

Characteristics

History

Important texts

See also

External links

References

Joscelin III of Edessa

Sources

Zhu Xi

External links

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