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1210

1210

Events

- End of the reign of Emperor Tsuchimikado, emperor of Japan
- Emperor Juntoku ascends to the throne of Japan
- Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor excommunicated by Pope Innocent III for invading southern Italy in 1210
- Gottfried von Strassburg writes his epic poem Tristan about 1210
- Beginning of Delhi Sultanate

Births

- May 5 - King Afonso III of Portugal (died 1279)
- July 22 - Joan of England, queen of Alexander II of Scotland (died 1238)
- Ibn Nafis, Persian anatomist (died 1288)

Deaths

- Lu You, Chinese poet (born 1125) Category:1210 ko:1210년

Emperor Tsuchimikado

Emperor Tsuchimikado (土御門天皇 Tsuchimikado Tennō) (January 3, 1196 – November 6, 1231) was the 83rd imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from February 18, 1198 to December 12, 1210. His personal name was Tanehito (為仁).

Genealogy

He was the firstborn son of Emperor Go-Toba. His mother was ?? (在子), daughter of Minamoto no Michichika (源通親).
- Empress (Chūgū): Ōinomikado (Fujiwara) ?? (大炊御門（藤原）麗子)
- Lady-in-waiting: Tsuchimikado (Minamoto) ?? (土御門（源）通子)
- First daughter: Princess Haruko (春子女王)
- Second daughter: Imperial Princess ?? (覚子内親王)
- Third son: Prince Jinsuke (仁助法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
- Fourth son: Prince Chikahito (静仁法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
- Sixth son: Prince Kunihito (邦仁王) (Emperor Go-Saga)
- Fifth daughter: Princess Hideko (秀子女王)

Life

In 1198, he became emperor upon the abdication of Emperor Go-Toba, who continued to rule in actual fact as cloistered emperor. However, in 1210, Go-Toba persuaded him to abdicate in favor of his younger brother, who became Emperor Juntoku. In Kyōto, Minamoto no Michichika took power as steward, and in Kamakura, in 1199, upon the death of Minamoto no Yoritomo, Hōjō Tokimasa began to rule as Gokenin.

Eras of his reign

- Kenkyū
- Shōji
- Kennin
- Genkyū
- Ken'ei
- Jōgen
- Kenryaku Tsuchimikado Tsuchimikado Tsuchimikado ja:土御門天皇

Emperor of Japan

The Emperor of Japan (天皇 tennō) is a constitutionally-recognized symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people. He is the head of the Japanese Imperial Family, the imperial family of Japan. Historically, the role of the Emperor of Japan has alternated between that of a supreme-rank cleric with largely symbolic powers and that of an actual imperial ruler from the dawn of history until the mid-twentieth century. An underlying imperial cult (Arahitogami) has played a role, as monarch's high-priestly (mediator between people and divine) position has regarded to have come from his close (hereditary) ties with Japanese gods. Whereas violence and military operations have been regarded inconsistent with Tennō's role for at least 14 centuries - thus Japanese monarchs have not been military commanders at least since, contrary to the role of monarchs usually and in the West. However, the main function of the Emperor for most of the last millennium has usually been merely to authorize and legitimize those in power. Under Japan's present constitution, the emperor is largely a ceremonial figurehead in its constitutional monarchy (see Politics of Japan). The current Emperor is Emperor Akihito (referred to in Japan simply as Tennō Heika), who has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father Emperor Hirohito died in 1989. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kōkyo (皇居), and located on the site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries. Certain dates and details may be in dispute among Japanese historians. Many Emperors cited in the formal list of Emperors of Japan died at a very young age and can hardly be said to have "ruled" in any serious sense of the word. Others were overshadowed by their predecessors, who had ostensibly retired to a monastery but continued to exert influence in a process called "cloistered rule." It is nevertheless important to maintain the entire list, because, even today, dating by the reigns of emperors is the standard way of referencing Japanese history. Cloistered Emperors have been known to come into conflict with their official counterparts from time to time; a notable example is the Hogen Rebellion of 1156, in which former Emperor Sutoku attempted to seize power from the then current Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Other instances, such as Emperor Go-Toba's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kenmu Restoration under Emperor Go-Daigo, clearly show the power struggle that has taken place between the Imperial House and the military governments of Japan.

Roles

Emperor Go-Daigo The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 Constitution of Japan. Article 1 defines the emperor as the symbol of state and the unity of the people, Article 3 requires the approval of the cabinet for all acts of the emperor in matters of state, Article 4 specifically states that the emperor shall not have powers related to government, Article 6 gives the emperor the power to appoint the Prime Minister and the Chief Judge of the Supreme Court, each as designated by the diet and cabinet, respectively, and Article 7 gives the emperor power to perform various ministerial functions typical of a head of state, subject to the advice and approval of the cabinet. In contrast with other constitutional monarchs, the Emperor of Japan has no reserve powers. Although the emperor performs many of the roles of a head of state, there has been a persistent controversy within Japan as to whether the emperor is in fact a true monarch in a political sense or merely a hereditary pretender, as a political servant of a constitutional parliamentary republic. In a traditional monarchy, political power devolves from the sovereign that is the monarch, with power being exercised by elected legislators on behalf of the so-called Royal prerogative and by practice of long established custom or constitutional convention. However, if there is no royal prerogative then the people who made it so by the right to make and amend the constitution are the sovereign, and the system is reversed, with the monarch actually being subordinate to them. According to this theory the emperor is best understood as a political actor whose embodiment is a mock up of a role required under Westminster system of government, but not the "head of the state" as such because he is not the sovereign. Efforts in the 1950s by conservative powers to amend the constitution to explicitly name the emperor as head of state were rejected. Regardless, the emperor does perform all the diplomatic functions normally associated with a head of state and as a result is recognized as such by foreign powers.

History

1950s, Princess Aiko (title: Toshi-no-miya), HIM The Emperor, HM Empress Michiko, HIH Crown Prince Naruhito (Hiro-no-miya) back left to right: HIH Princess Sayako (Nori-no-miya), HIH Princess Mako, HIH Prince Akishino (Akishino-no-miya), HIH Princess Kako, HIH Princess Kiko (Princess Akishino)]] Although the emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the emperor of Japan has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. The earliest emperors recorded in Kojiki and Nihonshoki, such as Emperor Jimmu, are considered today to have no historical credibility. Historians think the first emperor who existed historically was Emperor Ōjin, but the time of his reign is uncertain. These two books state that the imperial house kept a continuous lineage, though today some historians believe that many ancient emperors who were stated as descendants of Emperor Ōjin had no actual genealogic tie to their predecessor. The members of the imperial house of Japan rarely marry members of royal families of other countries. However, according to the Chronicles of Japan II (續日本紀), Emperor Kanmu's mother (Takano no Niigasa) was a descendant of 200-years-earlier King Muryeong of Baekje, Korea. Takano's clan was low-class nobility in Japan, so Kanmu was not a prospective candidate for emperor. Kanmu and his father became emperor through a power game between clans. From the 1100s to 1868, the real power was in the hands of the shōguns, who were in theory always given their authority through the emperor. When Spanish and Portuguese explorers first contacted Japan (see Nanban period), they likened the relationship between emperor and shōgun to that of the Catholic Pope (godly, but with little political power) and king (earthly, but with a relatively large amount of political power). The title "Emperor of Japan" is in some sense an expedient Western construct of a hereditary officer who has historically had a deeply ingrained position in Japanese society, without any necessary role in government. Japanese administrations have usually been in a position where the emperor was something that had to be accepted as a necessary inconvenience - as the Italian government has had to live with the Pope residing within the borders of Italy. We conventionally regard such a figurehead as a monarch, in the same sense as the Caliph and the Pope and, in its time, the Stadtholder of the Netherlands, a republic, have been regarded as monarchs. In most (if not all) periods, that monarch has had at least some official role in the government of Japan - we should perhaps say that governments have utilized the influence of the emperor to their own advantage. Up to rather recent centuries, Japan did not include several remoter regions of what is now regarded as its territory. The name Nippon came into use only many many centuries after the start of the current imperial line. Centralized government really only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shotoku. The emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divinity rather than the head of an actual governing administration. In Japan it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power, as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the emperor's position. Parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the emperor as have various shoguns, regents, warlords, guardians, etc. It is perhaps technically a distortion to refer to such a monarch as an emperor. In Europe, people holding similar offices have retained the titles used in their own native language, which is perhaps more accurate than trying to translate such a unique office into a preexisting English term. Historically the titles of Tenno in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs. The position of emperor is a territory-independent phenomenon - the emperor is the emperor, even if he has followers only in one province (as was the case sometimes with the Southern and Northern courts). By the constitution of 1889, the emperor of Japan transferred a large part of his former powers as absolute monarch to the representatives of the people, but remained as head of the empire. Though inspired by the constitutions of Europe, the new Meiji Constitution was not as democratic as some had initially hoped. The emperor was given broad and vague "reserve powers" which in turn were exploited by the prime minister and various cliques around the emperor. By the 1930s the Japanese cabinet was largely composed of pseudo-fascist military leaders who used the emperor and his supposed divinity as an ultra-nationalistic rallying point for expansion of the Empire. When World War II erupted, the emperor was the symbol soldiers were indoctrinated to fight and die for. The emperor himself was hidden from sight however, and his actual role during this period is disputed. It is commonly believed he was largely sidelined by the military. Controversy still remains as to the role Hirohito played in commanding Japanese forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War.

Post World War II

Pacific War After Japan's surrender to Allied forces ending WWII, 'emperor' became a ceremonial title only, with real power residing in a legislative body; in essence, its de jure status is similar to the de facto status of the British monarchy. US General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Hirohito remain emperor to keep him as a symbol of continuity and cohesion within Japanese society. Despite Truman's desire to have Hirohito tried for war crimes, Truman consented, and Hirohito kept his status, though he was forced to disavow the emperor's previous claims of being an arahitogami, living god. Since the war, the emperor has become a strictly ceremonial figure within Japanese society. Though he presides over certain government events, he is now simply a figurehead who is explicitly banned from participating in politics in any way. Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law excludes females from the succession despite the historical existence of female occupants of the throne. A change to this law is being considered, since, as of 2005, the only child of The Imperial Highness the Crown Prince Naruhito is female. (In the list of emperors of Japan, the empresses regnant are those with an asterisk after their reigning periods.) This creates a logistical challenge as well as political, any change in the law would most likely mean a revision to allow the succession of the first born rather than the first born son, however, the current emperor is not the first born, he has elder sisters.

Marriage traditions

Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs. Many such alliances were sealed by marriages. The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning. Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries, emperors primarily took women of the Fujiwara clan as their highest wives - the most probable mothers of future monarchs. This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two kamis, Shinto gods: descendants of Amaterasu with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara. (Originally, the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility, thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world.) The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord, his father-in-law or grandfather, the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government. These arrangements created the tradition of regents (sessho and kampaku), with these positions allowed to be held only by a Fujiwara sekke lord. Earlier, the emperors had married females from families of the government-holding Soga lords, and females of the imperial clan itself, i.e various-degree cousins and often even their own sisters (half-sisters). Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries were children of a couple of half-siblings. These marriages often were alliance or succession devices: the Soga lord ensured the domination of a prince, to be put as puppet to the throne; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents, to strengthen his own and his children's claim to the throne. Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches. After a couple of centuries, emperors could no longer make anyone from outside such families a primary wife, whatever would have been the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such. Only very rarely was a prince without a mother of said traditional descents allowed to ascend. The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity, but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides, because they had produced eligible brides for centuries. Tradition is sometimes more forceful than a law. The five Fujiwara families Ichijo, Kujo, Nijo, Konoe and Takatsukasa were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century, even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself. Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of emperors. The result has been a relative inbreeding in the imperial family. The five Sekkan families and the branches of the imperial clan (Yamato) form a genetic "village". The acceptable imperial wives, brides for an emperor and for a crown prince, were even legislated into the Meiji-era imperial house laws, which stipulated that daughters of Sekke (the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides. Since that law was repealed in the aftermath of WWII, the present emperor Akihito became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to have an empress outside the previously eligible circle.

Naming

Due to linguistic and cultural differences between Japan and the Western world, naming the emperors of Japan is often troublesome. While scholastic texts in Japan use " tennō" consistently, in texts by English-speaking academics several variants have been used, such as "Emperor ", "the Emperor", and " Tenno", although "Emperor " appears to be the most common among these, particularly for the emperors prior to Emperor Meiji. What is often not understood, however, is that emperors are posthumously named " tennō", and thus the word "tennō, or "emperor", actually forms a part of their proper name. This is particularly misunderstood with respect to the emperors from Emperor Meiji onward, since the convention now is to posthumously name the emperors the same name as the era over which they preside. This leads to references such as "the Meiji emperor", meaning the emperor of the Meiji era. Such constructs are never used in Japanese, however. In English, the term Mikado (御門 or 帝 or みかど), which literally means "exalted gate", used to be used to refer to the emperor of Japan; this usage is now outdated, as it is in Japanese. In Japanese, the emperors of Japan, but not of other countries, are known as tennō (天皇), which literally means "heavenly emperor" or "god-king". Sumeramikoto (lit. "heavenly ruler above the clouds") was also used in Old Japanese. There are three Japanese words that describe the concept of "emperor": tennō (天皇) is used specifically to describe the emperor of Japan, kōtei (皇帝, lit. "emperor of emperors") is used primarily to describe a Chinese emperor or a foreign emperor, and teiō (帝王, lit. "emperor of kings") is used to describe foreign emperors as well but never a Chinese emperor. Some scholars point out that the use of ten (天, "heaven") was, in relation to the Chinese concept of tentei (天帝, "heaven's emperor" or "the god in the sky"), meant to show that the emperor's duty was not limited to political or military duties but included spiritual and religious duties as well. Traditionally, East Asians consider it discourteous to call a person of noble rank by their given name. This convention is almost dead, but still observed for the Imperial family. In fact, the emperor is never to be referred to by name (imina) unless he is dead. Instead, past emperors are called by posthumous names such as Emperor Jimmu, Emperor Kammu and Meiji. Since the Meiji era, era names are also used as posthumous names. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to as Tennō Heika (天皇陛下, lit. "His Majesty the Emperor") or solemnly as Kinjō Tennō (今上天皇). On the other hand, in ordinary conversations he is referred to simply as Heika, Okami or To-gin san ('To-gin' is a frank expression of Kinjō). The current emperor is not called by the current era name: the era will become his posthumous name. But today this custom tends to be followed more loosely, as described below. In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names according to Western convention. As explained above, in Japanese this sounds offensive and, in some contexts, blasphemous. For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, but after his death he was renamed Shōwa Tennō and is now referred to exclusively by this name in Japanese. However, during his reign, he was never referred as Hirohito or Shōwa Tennō in Japanese. Rather, he was simply referred to as Tennō Heika (meaning "His Majesty the Emperor"). See also List of Japanese Emperors.

Succession

Millennia ago, the Japanese Imperial Family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture - in other words, pure Salic law. It was adopted from Prussia, from which Japan took much influence in the 1870s. Strict agnatic primogeniture is, however, directly contradictory to several old Japanese traditions of Imperial succession. The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been:
- Females were allowed to succeed (but not allowed to be inherited by their own children, unless the father of the child also happened to be an agnate of the imperial house). However, female accession was clearly much rarer than male.
- Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession-entitled heirs (however, the adopted child had to be a child of another member of the Imperial House).
- Abdication was used very often, and occurred more often than a death on the throne. In those days, the tenno's chief task was priestly (or godly), containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former emperor.
- Primogeniture was not used - rather, in the early days, the imperial house practised something resembling a system of rotation. Very often a brother (or sister) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children. The "turn" of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation. Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house, thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other. Emperor Go-Saga even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons, which system continued for a couple of centuries (leading finally to shōgun-induced (or -utilized) strife between these two branches, "Southern" and "Northern" Emperors). Towards the end, the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent (but all that time, intermarriages occurred within the imperial house). After a while, however, probably due to Confucian influence, inheritence by sons - but not always, or even most often, the eldest son - became the norm. Historically, the succession to Japan's Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. Generally they have been males, though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been eight women as tenno. In part, the Japanese imperial dynasty owes its longevity in the male line to the use of concubines, a practice that only ended in the Taishō period (1912-1926). The Japanese monarchy also relied on the specially designated collateral lines or shinnōke (shinnō houses). It seems that for the recent thousand years, sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman had preferential position in the succession. Also, sons of the empress had preferential position to sons of concubines - but quite often, Fujiwara women were empresses and concubines came from some less exalted nobility. Some emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (kogo, chugu) after a decree from the reign of Emperor Ichijō. There are indications that between a son of a Fujiwara woman and son of an imperial princess, the Fujiwara descent was given precedence. This may have been caused by the higher influence of the said Fujiwara's relatives, but may also have been a part of tradition, perhaps due to the preference to have an emperor with two-side descent from the two kamis. The two influential patterns of maternal descent were:
- a powerful maternal grandfather ensured a puppet on the throne in the person of an underage grandson, himself becoming their guardian. This pattern was usual in the Soga and Fujiwara eras, and even some later shoguns used their daughters in that way. This sometimes also occurred with a father-in-law and an imperial son-in-law (but regent lords preferred underage grandsons to adult son-in-laws).
- a prince having descent from two rival branches of the imperial dynasty, one from the paternal side and the other from the maternal side, was elevated to the throne as a symbol of reconciliation. Besides the empress, the emperor could take concubines, and the son he had by a concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir. Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (shinno, o). With the help of polygamy, the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more male offspring, increasing the probability that the dynasty survived in the male line. If the immediate imperial family failed to produce an heir, one of the shinnōke could provide the future emperor. There were four such collateral lines in the Edo period: Fushimi, Katsura, Arisugawa, and Kan'in. Emperor Kōkaku (reigned 1780-1817), the lineal ancestor of all subsequent emperors, was a scion of the Kan'in house. A shinnoke could be inherited by a prince of another branch by permission of the emperor, and alternatively could be revived (the princedoms, shinnoke, seem more or less the common property of the imperial clan). The Edo-period Katsura and Arisugawa houses died out in 1881 and 1913, respectively (though they were revived later, the Arisugawa as Takamatsu, its older name, and the Katsura in the person of the second son of Prince Mikasa). The Fushimi branch, originating from the 15th century, produced a vast number of children in two generations in the 19th century. A scion of the Fushimi house succeeded to the Kan'in house in 1884. The Fushimi house was the progenitor of nine other cadet branches (ōke) of the imperial family during the Meiji period. This house and its offshoots were reduced to commoner status in 1947. Before the Meiji Restoration, Japan had eight female tennō or reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the imperial clan. None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an emperor. Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a "stop gap" measure - if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of emperors abdicated - many empresses once a suitable male descendant in the male line of imperial descendants became old enough. (Suitable male means after his toddler years - Japanese emperors have often ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old, as reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child - and several emperors abdicated/reached their entitled retirement while still in their teens.) Three empresses, Empress Suiko, Empress Kōgyoku (also Empress Saimei) and Empress Jitō, were widows of deceased emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right. One, Empress Gemmei, was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial. The other four, Empress Genshō, Empress Kōken (also Empress Shōtoku), Empress Meishō and Empress Go-Sakuramachi, were unwed daughters of previous emperors. None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne. A panel that was dealing with the succession issue recommended on October 25, 2005 that females be allowed to ascend to the Japanese throne. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi said that he would submit a bill to the Diet by the end of the year.[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051025/ap_on_re_as/japan_imperial_succession]

References

External links

- [http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html The Imperial Household Agency]
- [http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=158 Photos of Emperor's birthday at the Imperial Palace]
- [http://www.friesian.com/sangoku.htm#japan List of the Emperors], accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family
- [http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/GLOSSARY/TENNO.HTM A Page from Washington State University]
- [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=17&ItemID=8081 Emperor, Shinto, Democracy]: Japan's Unresolved Questions of Historical Consciousness Category:Japanese monarchy Category:Positions of authority Category:Monarchy Category:Tokyo Category:Yamato line Category:History of Japan ko:덴노 ja:天皇

Emperor Juntoku

Emperor Juntoku (順徳天皇 Juntoku Tennō) (October 22, 1197 – October 7, 1242) was the 84th imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from December 12, 1210 to May 13, 1221. His personal name was Morinari (守成).

Genealogy

He was the third son of Emperor Go-Toba. His mother was Shigeko (重子), the daughter of Fujiwara Hanki (藤原範季)
- Empress (chūgū): Kujō (Fujiwara) Ritsuko (?) (九条（藤原）立子)
- Second daughter: Imperial Princess Taiko (?) (諦子内親王)
- Fourth son: Imperial Prince Kanenari (懐成親王) (Emperor Emperor Chūkyō)
- Lady-in-waiting: Daughter of Fujiwara Norimitsu (藤原範光)
- Sixth son: Imperial Prince Zentō (善統親王)
- Seventh son: Prince Hikonari (彦成王)
- Consort: Daughter of Fujiwara Sayaki (藤原清季)
- Fifth son: Prince Tadanari (忠成王)

Life

Emperor Chūkyō In the year 1200, he became Crown Prince. He became emperor after Emperor Go-Toba pressured Emperor Tsuchimikado into abdicating. It is said that Juntoku had a violent disposition, the opposite of the mild Tsuchimikado. In actuality, Emperor Go-Toba ruled as cloistered emperor. In 1221, he was forced to abdicate for participating in Go-Toba's attempt to overthrow the Kamakura bakufu (the Jōkyū War). After the Jōkyū Incident, he was sent into exile on Sado Island until his death in 1242.

Names

Because he was sent to Sado Island, he was known posthumously as Sado-no-in (佐渡院)

Eras of his reign

- Jōgen
- Kenryaku
- Kempō
- Jōkyū Juntoku Juntoku Juntoku ja:順徳天皇

Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor

Otto IV of Brunswick (died 1218) was King of Germany (1208-1215) and Holy Roman Emperor from 1209 - 1215. The son of Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Matilda Plantagenet, Otto was elected king when his rival for the throne, Philip of Swabia (Hohenstaufen), was murdered. Otto had been supported by the Pope Innocent III, but Innocent withdrew his support after Otto's military adventures in Italy. In 1211 the Diet of Nuremberg ordered Otto deposed and Frederick II Hohenstaufen elected in his place, but nothing came of this decree until Otto decisively lost the battle of Bouvines (July, 1214) to the forces of Philip II of France. He was deposed in 1215 and died in 1218. Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor Category:Holy Roman emperors Category:German Kings Category:Kings of Burgundy Category:Dukes of Swabia ja:オットー4世

Innocent III

Innocent III, né Lotario de' Conti (Gavignano, near Anagni, ca. 1161 – Perugia, June 16, 1216), was Pope from January 8, 1198 until his death. He was the son of Count Trasimund of Segni and nephew of Pope Clement III. His father was a member of the famous house of Conti, which has produced nine popes, including Gregory IX, Alexander IV and Innocent XIII. His mother, Claricia, belonged to the noble Roman family of Scotti. He was educated in Rome, Paris (under Peter of Corbeil), and Bologna (under Huguccio); he was considered an intellectual and one of the greatest canon lawyers of his time. After the death of Pope Alexander III, he returned to Rome and held office during the short reigns of Lucius III, Urban III, Gregory VIII, and Clement III, reaching the rank of Cardinal Deacon in 1190. During the reign of Pope Celestine III (1191–1198), a member of the House of Orsini, enemies of the counts of Segni, he left Rome to live in Anagni. Celestine III died in 1198. On the day he was buried, de' Conti was elected pope and took the name of Innocent III, at only thirty-seven years of age. The Imperial throne had become vacant by the death of Henry VI in 1197, and no successor had as yet been elected. Innocent took advantage of this vacuum to lessen German influence in Italy—his first act was the restoration of the papal power in Rome. The Prefect of Rome, who reigned over the city as the emperor's representative, swore allegiance to Innocent. He demanded the restoration of the Romagna and the March of Ancona to the Church from Markwald of Anweiler, and used papal troops to bring this about. In a similar way, the Duchies of Spoleto, Assisi and Sora were taken from the German Conrad von Uerslingen. The pope made use of the weakness of Frederick II (who was four years old) to reassert papal power in Sicily, and acknowledged Frederick II as king only after the surrender of the privileges of the Four Chapters, which William I of Sicily had previously extorted from Pope Adrian IV. The pope then invested Frederick II as King of Sicily in November, 1198. He also induced the young king to marry the widow of King Emeric of Hungary in 1209. After the death of the Holy Roman emperor Henry VI in 1197, the Ghibellines and the Guelfs had elected different emperors—Philip of Swabia (of the Hohenstaufen family) and Otto of Brunswick (of the Welf family). In 1201 the pope openly supported Otto IV, announcing that Otto had been approved as Roman king and threatened with excommunication all those who refused to acknowledge him. Innocent III made clear to the German princes by the Decree Venerabilem in May, 1202, how he considered the relationship between the Empire and the Papacy (this decree was afterwards embodied in the Corpus Juris Canonici). The chief points of the decree were: the right to decide whether a king is worthy of the imperial crown belongs to the pope; in case of a double election the electors must ask the pope to arbitrate or pronounce in favour of one of the claimants. electorInnocent changed his mind and declared in favour of Philip in 1207, and sent cardinals to Germany to induce Otto to renounce his claims to the throne. Otto murdered Philip on June 21, 1208 and at the Diet of Frankfurt of November 11, 1208, Otto was acknowledged as king and the pope invited him to Rome to receive the imperial crown. He was crowned emperor in Rome, October 4, 1209. Before his coronation Otto promised to leave the Church in possession of Spoleto and Ancona and to grant the freedom of ecclesiastical elections, unlimited right of appeal to the pope and the exclusive competency of the hierarchy in spiritual matters; he also promised to assist in the destruction of heresy (the stipulation of Neuss, repeated at Speyer, 1209). But soon after he had been crowned, Otto seized Ancona, Spoleto and other property of the Church, giving it to some of his vassals. He also invaded the Kingdom of Sicily. Otto was excommunicated on November 18, 1210. The pope managed to get most of the princes to renounce the excommunicated emperor and elect in his place Frederick II of Sicily, at the Diet of Nuremberg in September, 1211. Frederick made the same promises as Otto IV and his election was ratified by Innocent and he was crowned at Aachen on July 12, 1215. Otto allied with England (he was nephew of King John 'Lackland' of England) to fight Philip Augustus of France, but he was defeated in the Battle of Bouvines in what is now Belgium, July 27, 1214. Then he lost all influence (and died on May 19, 1218), leaving Frederick II, the undisputed emperor. Innocent played a further role in the politics of France, Sweden, Bulgaria, Spain and especially England. Innocent was a strenuous opponent of heresy. He had the Papal States cleared of the Manichean heretics, and under the leadership of Simon de Montfort a campaign was started against the Albigenses. The Church also took on the role of organising the Crusades. They were to be launched against heretics at the direction of the Pontiff and were to be used to impose the rule of the Church on the unbeliever. This was a prelude to the legitimisation of the Inquisition in 1233. Heresy was to be punished for the spiritual good of the individual as well as for the preservation of the Church. Innocent called for the Fourth Crusade in 1198, directing the call towards the knights and nobles of Europe, rather than the kings (he preferred that neither Richard I of England and Philip II of France, who were still engaged in war, nor his German enemies, participate). This call was generally ignored until 1200, when a crusade was finally organized in Champagne, which the Venetians re-directed into the sacking of Zara in 1202 and Constantinople in 1204. Innocent excommunicated the Venetians in return, and although he was not pleased with the means by which it was done, he accepted the end result of the temporary reunification of the Catholic and Orthodox churches after the Great Schism of 1054. He also summoned the Fourth Lateran Council (12th ecumenical council), in November, 1215. It decided on a general crusade to the Holy Land (the Fifth Crusade), as well as issuing seventy reformatory decrees. Innocent died at Perugia. He was buried in the cathedral of Perugia where his body remained until Pope Leo XIII had it transferred to the Lateran in December, 1891. See also: list of popes named Innocent Category:Crusades Innocent 03 Innocent 03 Innocent 03 ko:교황 인노첸시오 3세 ja:インノケンティウス3世 (ローマ教皇)

Gottfried von Strassburg

Gottfried von Strassburg, was one of the chief German poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von der Vogelweide, and his epic Tristan was written about the year 1210. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as he is entitled Meister, never Herr, by his contemporaries; his poem - the only work that can with any certainty be attributed to him besides two short lyric poems - bears witness to a learned education. The story of Tristan had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the French trouvères of the early 12th century, and had already found its way into Germany before the close of that century, in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. The Tristan legend developed further as a prose novel of substantial proportions in the French and Italian tradition, but its final form in the German-speaking world was essentially that of Gottfried until Richard Wagner re-wrote it in the nineteenth century. Contemporary references to Gottfried indicate that he died before he was able to complete his work, although the missing section can be extrapolated in broad outline from the surving fragments of the version by Thomas of Britain, whose work Gottfried directly informs us was his source. The story centres on the life of Tristan, his parentage, youth, establishment at the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal (Cornwall), two journeys to Ireland, the second of which he undertakes in order to to bring back Isolde, the Irish king's daughter as Marke's bride. On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other. The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which the two lovers ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where he marries another Isolde—Isolde with the white hands without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. At this point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close of the story as it appears in the surviving manuscripts of the work we have to turn to the conclusions of two minor poets of the time, Ulrich von Türheim and Heinrich von Freiberg - the latter much the superior. The source of both continuators is generally reputed to be the version of Eilhart von Oberge, though this is disputed. As they do not use the version of Thomas of Britain, their continuations are unlikely to reflect Gottfried's intentions for his work. After further adventures that differ in the two continuations Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned spear in Normandy; the blond Isolde, as the only person who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, a black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concerning the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side in Kurnewal. It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence of his French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French; he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing and seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never for a moment disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from moralizing which was easier to attain in the 13th than in later centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and rhythms than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, and indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent that proved fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression is concerned, Gottfried's Tristan is the masterpiece of the German court epic but also a masterpiece of European Literature. K Immermann left unfinished at his death an epic of Tristan und Isolde (1840); Richard Wagner's opera Tristan and Isolde (1865) has proven more famous.

Editions and translations

Gottfried's Tristan has been frequently edited:
- H F Massman (Leipzig, 1843), with the continuation of Ulrich von Türheim
- R Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed., Leipzig, 1890, 1891), re-issued in a revised version by Peter Ganz (2 volumes, Wiesbaden 1978)
- Bechstein edited the continuation of Heinrich von Freiberg separately (Leipzig, 1877)
- W Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889)
- K Marold (1906). Translations into modern German have been made by:
- Hermann Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844)
- K Simrock (Leipzig, 1855)
- W Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). A more recent and complete translation (with the Tristan of Thomas) was made by A. T. Hatto (London: Penguin, 1960). ISBN 0140440984

Bibliography

- R. Bechstein, Tristan und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit (Leipzig, 1877).
- W. Golther, Die Sage von Tristan und Isolde (Munich, 1887)
- R. Heinzel, Gottfried's von Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle in the Zeit. fr deut. Alt. xiv. (1869), pp. 272ff.
- W.T.H. Jackson, "Gottfried von Strassburg" in Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, Roger S. Loomis (ed.). Clarendon Press: Oxford University. 1959. ISBN 0198115881
- F. Piquet, L'Originalité de Gottfried de Strasbourg dans son poème de Tristan et Isolde (Lille, 1905)
- Mark Chinca, Gottfried von Strassburg Tristan. Cambridge 1997 ISBN 0521402948
- Christoph Huber, Gottfried von Straßburg Tristan. Klassiker Lektüren 3. Berlin 2000. ISBN 3503049592 Category:13th century deaths Category:Medieval literature

Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate (دلی سلطنت), or Sulthanath-e-Hind(سلطنتِ ہند)/Sulthanath-e-Dilli(سلطنتِ دلی) refers to the various Afghan dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties ruled from Delhi: the Slave dynasty (1206-90), the Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and the Lodi (1451-1526). During the last quarter of the twelfth century, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Indo-Gangetic plain, conquering in succession Ghazni, Multan, Sindh, Lahore, and Delhi. Qutb-ud-din Aybak, one of his generals, proclaimed himself Sultan of Delhi and established the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, the Slave or Mamluk dynasty (mamluk means "slave") after Muhammad's death in 1206. The territory under control of the sultans expanded rapidly. By mid-century, northern India from the Khyber Pass to Bengal was under control of the sultanate, although the northwest was contested with the Mongols. Iltutmish (1210-35), and Balban (1266-87) were among the dynasty's most well-known rulers. Faced with revolts by conquered territories and rival families, the Mamluk dynasty came to an end in 1290. The Khilji or Khalji dynasty, who had established themselves as rulers of Bengal in the time of Muhammad Ghori, took control of the empire in a coup which eliminated the last of the Mamluks. The Khiljis conquered Gujarat and Malwa, and sent the first expeditions south of the Narmada River, collecting tribute and sacking temples as far south as Tamil Nadu. Muslim rule continued to extend into southern India, first by the Delhi sultans, then by the breakaway Bahmani Sultanate of Gulbarga, and, after the breakup of the Bahmani state in 1518, by the five independent Deccan sultanates. The Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar united southern India and arrested Muslim expansion for a time, but it fell to the Deccan sultanates in 1565. In the first half of the 14th century the Sultanate introduced a monetary economy in the provinces (sarkars) and districts (parganas) that had been established and founded a network of market centers through which the traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated and drawn into the wider culture. State revenues remained based on successful agriculture, which induced sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-51) to have village wells dug, offer seed to the peasants and to encourage cash crops like sugar cane (Braudel 1984, pp 96f, 512ff). The Delhi Sultanate is the only sultanate to stake a claim to possessing one of, if not the only female ruler in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240). While her reign was unfortunately short she is regarded well in the eyes of historians. The sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if superficial, relations with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. The sultans based their laws on the Qur'an and the sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they paid jizya or head tax. The sultans ruled from urban centers--while military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for towns that sprang up in the countryside. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the sultanate was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the thirteenth century. The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance resulting from the stimulation of Islam by Hinduism. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. The sultanate suffered from the sacking of Delhi in 1398 by Timur (Tamerlane), and independent Muslim sultantates were established in Awadh, Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat and Malwa. The Delhi Sultanate revived briefly under the Lodhis before it was conquered by the Mughal emperor Babur in 1526. Note: Islamic Empires in India (part of the History of South Asia series) has more information at Islamic Empires in India#Delhi Sultanate

Sultans of Delhi

Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290)

- Qutb-ud-din Aybak (1206 - 1210)
- Aram Shah (1210 - 1211)
- Shams ud din Iltutmish (1211 - 1236)
- Rukn ud din Firuz (1236)
- Raziyyat ud din Sultana (1236 - 1240)
- Muiz ud din Bahram (1240 - 1242)
- Ala ud din Masud (1242 - 1246)
- Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246 - 1266)
- Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266 - 1286)
- Muiz ud din Qaiqabd (1286 - 1290)

Khilji (Khalji) Dynasty (1290 - 1321)

- Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji (1290 - 1294)
- Ala ud din Khilji (1294 - 1316)
- Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah (1316 - 1321)

Tughlaq Dynasty (1321 - 1398)

- Ghiyas ud din Tughluq Shah I (1321 - 1325)
- Muhammad Shah II (1325 - 1351)
- [Mahmud Ibn Muhammad] ( March 1351)
- Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351 - 1388)
- Ghiyas ud din Tughluq II (1388 - 1389)
- Abu Baker (1389 - 1390)
- Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III (1390 - 1393)
- Sikander Shah I ( March - April 1393)
- Mahmud Nasir ud din (Sultan Mahmud II) at Delhi (1393 - 1394)
- Nusrat Shah at Firuzabad (1394 - 1398)

Lodi Dynasty

- Daulat Khan (1413 - 1414)

Sayyid (Syed) Dynasty (1414 - 1451)

- Khidr Khan (1414 - 1421)
- Mubarrak Shah II (1421 - 1435)
- Muhammad Shah IV (1435 - 1445)
- Aladdin Alam Shah (1445 - 1451)

Lodhi (Lodi) Dynasty (1451 - 1526)

- Bahlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489)
- Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517)
- Ibrahim II (1517-1526) 1526-1540: Mughal rule

Suri Dynasty (1540 - 1555)

- Sher Shah (1540 - 1545)
- Islam Shah (1545 - 1553)
- Muhammad V (1553 - 1554)
- Firuz ( 29 April - 2 May 1554)
- Ibrahim III (1554 - 1554/5)
- Sikander Shah (1554/5 - 1555)

References

- - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html Pakistan]
- Braudel, Fernand, The perspective of the World, vol III of Civilization and Capitalism 1984 (original French ed. 1979)

Literature

- Elliot and Dowson: The History of India as told by its own Historians, New Delhi reprint, 1990.
- Majumdar, R. C. (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume VI, The Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1960; Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.

External links

- [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/delhisultanate.html Delhi Sultanate Dynasty]
- [http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Delhi List of rulers of Delhi] ---- Category:Turkic peoples Category:History of Pakistan ja:デリー・スルタン朝

May 5

May 5 is the 125th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (126th in leap years). There are 240 days remaining. The Northern Hemisphere is considered halfway through Spring on May 5, since there are usually 92 days in that season of the year.

Events

- 1260 - Kublai Khan becomes ruler of the Mongol Empire.
- 1640 - King Charles I of England disbands the Short Parliament.
- 1646 - King Charles I of England and Scotland surrenders to the Scottish Presbyterian Army at Newark.
- 1762 - Russia and Prussia sign the Treaty of St. Petersburg.
- 1789 - In France, the Estates-General convenes for the first time in 150 years.
- 1809 - Mary Kies becomes the first woman awarded a US patent, for a technique of weaving straw with silk and thread.
- 1809 - The Swiss canton of Aargau denies citizenship to Jews.
- 1835 - In Belgium, the first railway in continental Europe opens between Brussels and Mechelen.
- 1862 - Cinco de Mayo in Mexico: Troops led by Ignacio Zaragoza halt a French invasion in the Battle of Puebla.
- 1864 - American Civil War: The Battle of the Wilderness begins in Spotsylvania County, Virginia.
- 1865 - In North Bend, Ohio (a suburb of Cincinnati), the first train robbery in the United States takes place.
- 1877 - Indian Wars: Sitting Bull leads his band of Lakota into Canada to avoid harassment by the United States Army under Colonel Nelson Miles.
- 1891 - The Music Hall in New York (now known as Carnegie Hall) has its grand opening and first public performance, with Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky as the guest conductor.
- 1893 - Panic of 1893: Crash on the New York Stock Exchange starts a depression.
- 1904 - Pitching against the Philadelphia Athletics at the Huntington Avenue Grounds, Cy Young of the Boston Americans threw the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball.
- 1912 - The 1912 Summer Olympics open in Stockholm, Sweden.
- 1916 - American marines invade the Dominican Republic.
- 1922 - In The Bronx, construction begins on Yankee Stadium.
- 1923 - Coco Chanel introduces Chanel No. 5 perfume.
- 1925 - Scopes Trial: Dayton, Tennessee, biology teacher John Scopes is arrested for teaching Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution.
- 1936 - Italian troops occupy Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
- 1940 - World War II: In London, a Norwegian government-in-exile is formed.
- 1941 - Emperor Haile Selassie returns to Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; this date has been since commemorated as Liberation Day.
- 1943 - The film curator of the Library of Congress, Howard Walls, announces that about 5,000 films will be preserved in the library.
- 1944 - Mohandas Gandhi is freed from prison.
- 1945 - World War II:
- German troops in the Netherlands and Denmark capitulate to Canadian and British forces, liberating these countries from Nazi occupation.
- Prague uprising against the Nazis.
- Mauthausen concentration camp is liberated.
- Admiral Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases.
- A Japanese bomb, launched by balloon and called a fire balloon, explodes near Lakeview, Oregon, United States, killing a woman and five children who were examining it during a church picnic.
- 1949 - The Council of Europe is formed.
- 1950 - Bhumibol Adulyadej is crowned as King Rama IX of Thailand.
- 1954 - A coup d'état carries General Alfredo Stroessner to power in Paraguay.
- 1955 - West Germany gains full sovereignty.
- 1961 - Mercury program: Mercury 3 – Alan Shepard becomes the first American to travel into space, making a sub-orbital flight of 15 minutes.
- 1975 - The Busch Gardens Williamsburg theme park opens in Virginia.
- 1978 - Pete Rose of the Cincinnati Reds hits his 3000th major league hit.
- 1980 - Operation Nimrod: The Special Air Service storm the Iranian embassy in London after a six day siege.
- 1987 - Iran-Contra affair: Start of Congressional televised hearings.
- 1990 - Capital punishment: Jesse Tafero is executed in Florida after three electric chair malfunctions cause flames to shoot from his head.
- 1990 - In Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now Croatia), Toto Cutugno wins the thirty-fifth Eurovision Song Contest for Italy by singing "Insieme: 1992" ("Together: 1992").
- 1991 - A riot breaks out in the Mt. Pleasant section of Washington, DC after a Salvadoran man is shot by police.
- 1992 - Wolfenstein 3D is released, the first-ever first-person shooter computer game.
- 1994 - American Michael P. Fay is caned in Singapore as punishment for spray-painting two cars.
- 1995 - British film producer Ray Santilli unveils his alien autopsy footage to a group of UFO researchers. The film is widely regarded as a hoax.
- 2000 - Planets in the Solar System align.
- 2005 - The United Kingdom general election takes place.

Births

- 867 - Uda, Emperor of Japan (d. 931)
- 1210 - King Afonso III of Portugal (d. 1279)
- 1546 - Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, English politician (d. 1623)
- 1747 - Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1792)
- 1764 - Robert Craufurd, British general (d. 1812)
- 1813 - Søren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher (d. 1855)
- 1818 - Karl Marx, German political philosopher (d. 1883)
- 1826 - Empress Eugenie of France, wife of Napoleon III (d. 1920)
- 1832 - H.H. Bancroft, American historian and publisher (d. 1918)
- 1833 - Ferdinand von Richthofen, German geographer (d. 1905)
- 1846 - Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1916)
- 1865 - Elizabeth Jane Cochran, American journalist and writer (d. 1922)
- 1869 - Hans Pfitzner, Russian-born composer (d. 1949)
- 1883 - Archibald Wavell, British general (d. 1950)
- 1887 - Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1972)
- 1890 - Christopher Morley, American writer (d. 1957)
- 1901 - Blind Willie McTell, American singer (d. 1959)
- 1903 - James Beard, American chef and cookbook writer (d. 1985)
- 1908 - Kurt Böhme, German bass (d. 1989)
- 1914 - Tyrone Power, American actor (d. 1958)
- 1915 - Alice Faye, American actress (d. 1998)
- 1916 - Zail Singh, President of India (d. 1994)
- 1921 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- 1923 - Richard Wollheim, British philosopher (d. 2003)
- 1926 - Ann B. Davis, American actress
- 1935 - Douglas Marland, American television writer (d. 1993)
- 1936 - Patrick Gowers, English composer
- 1941 - Alexander Ragulin, Russian hockey player (d. 2004)
- 1942 - Marc Alaimo, American actor
- 1943 - Michael Palin, British writer, actor, and comedian
- 1944 - Roger Rees, Welsh actor
- 1944 - John Rhys-Davies, Welsh actor
- 1952 - Campbell McComas, Australian impersonator and broadcaster (d. 2005)
- 1957 - Richard E. Grant, British actor
- 1959 - Steve Stevens, American guitarist (Billy Idol)
- 1966 - Shawn Drover, Canadian drummer (Megadeth)
- 1972 - Devin Townsend, Canadian musician (Strapping Young Lad)
- 1976 - Juan Pablo Sorín, Argentine footballer
- 1979 - Vincent Kartheiser, American actor
- 1982 - Jay Bothroyd, English footballer

Deaths

- 311 - Galerius, Roman Emperor
- 1028 - King Alfonso V of Castile, León, and Galicia
- 1192 - Duke Ottokar IV of Styria (b. 1163)
- 1194 - King Casimir II of Poland (b. 1138)
- 1219 - King Leo II of Armenia (b. 1150)
- 1309 - King Charles II of Naples
- 1525 - Frederick III of Saxony (b. 1463)
- 1586 - Henry Sidney, Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1529)
- 1604 - Claudio Merulo, Italian composer (b. 1533)
- 1671 - Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, English politician (b. 1602)
- 1672 - Samuel Cooper, English painter (b. 1609)
- 1705 - Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1640)
- 1760 - Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, English murderer (hanged) (b. 1720)
- 1766 - Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar (b. 1684)
- 1808 - Pierre Jean George Cabanis, French physiologist (b. 1757)
- 1811 - Robert Mylne, architect (b. 1734)
- 1821 - Napoleon I of France (b. 1769)
- 1827 - Frederick Augustus I of Saxony (b. 1750)
- 1855 - Sir Robert Inglis, Bt, English politician (b. 1786)
- 1859 - Peter Gustav Dirichlet, German mathematician (b. 1805)
- 1900 - Ivan Aivazovsky, Russian painter (b. 1817)
- 1921 - Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1864)
- 1959 - Carlos Saavedra Lamas, Argentine politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1878)
- 1962 - Ernest Tyldesley, English cricketer (b. 1889)
- 1971 - Violet Jessop, Titanic survivor (b. 1887)
- 1981 - Bobby Sands, Irish activist (b. 1954)
- 1985 - Sir Donald Bailey, British civil engineer (b. 1901)
- 1988 - Michael Shaara, American author (b. 1928)
- 1992 - Jean-Claude Pascal, French singer (b.1927)
- 1995 - Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player (b. 1911)
- 1997 - Walter Gotell, German actor (b. 1924)
- 2001 - Cliff Hillegass, American writer and publisher
- 2003 - Walter Sisulu, South African activist (b. 1912)

Holidays and observances

- Ascension Day in Western Christianity (2005)
- Feast day of the following saints in the Roman Catholic Church:
- Saint Angelus (d. 1222)
- Pius V (1505-1572)
- Jutta Kulmsee or Saint Judith of Prussia (d. 1260)
- Aventinus (d. 1189)
- Saint Gerontius (d. 472)
- Nicetius
- Hilary of Arles (d. 449)
- Denmark: Liberation Day (1945)
- The Netherlands: May 5, Liberation day (1945)
- Ethiopia: Liberation Day (1941)
- Northern Territory, Australia: May Day
- Japan: Tango no Sekku - Boy's Day; or Kodomo no hi - Children's Day
- Mexico and the Southwestern United States: Cinco de Mayo (1862)
- Guyana: Indian Immigration Day (1838)
- Council of Europe: Europe Day
- Albania: Martyrs' Day
- South Korea:Children's Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/5 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050505.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- May 4 - May 6 - April 5 - June 5 – listing of all days ko:5월 5일 ms:5 Mei ja:5月5日 simple:May 5 th:5 พฤษภาคม

Afonso III of Portugal

Afonso III of Portugal (Portuguese pron. IPA //; English Alphonzo), or Affonso (Archaic Portuguese), Alfonso or Alphonso (Portuguese-Galician) or Alphonsus (Latin), the Bolognian (Port. o Bolonhês) or the Brave (Port. o Bravo), the fifth king of Portugal (May 5 1210 in Coimbra – February 16 1279 in Alcobaça, Coimbra or Lisbon). He was the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal and his wife, Urraca of Castile; he succeeded his brother, King Sancho II of Portugal in 1247. As the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal, Afonso was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his brother Sancho. He lived mostly in France, were he married Matilda, the heiress of Boulogne, in 1238, thereby becoming Count of Boulogne. In 1246, conflicts between his brother, the king, and the church became unbearable. Pope Innocent IV then ordered Sancho II to be removed from the throne and be replaced by the Count of Boulogne. Afonso, of course, did not refuse the papal order and marched to Portugal. Since Sancho was not a popular king, the order was not hard to enforce; he was exiled to Castile and Afonso III became king in 1247. To ascend the throne, he abdicated from the county of Boulogne and later (1253) divorced Matilda. In 1253 he married Brites (Beatrix), an illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso X of Castile. Determined not to commit the same mistakes as his brother, Afonso III paid special attention to what the middle class composed of merchants and small land owners had to say. In 1254, in the city of Leiria, he held the first session of the Cortes, a general assembly, comprised of the nobility, the middle class and representatives of all municipalities. He also made laws intended to restrain the upper classes from abusing the least favoured part of the population. Remembered as a notable administrator, Afonso III founded several towns, granted the title of city to many others and reorganized public administration. municipalities]Secure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the Muslim communities that still thrived in the south. In his reign the Algarve became part of the kingdom following the capture of Faro—Portugal thus becoming the first Iberian kingdom to complete its Reconquista. Following his success against the Moors, Afonso III had to deal with a political situation arising from the borders with Castile. The neighbouring kingdom considered that the newly acquired lands of Algarve should be Castilian, not Portuguese, which led to a series of wars between the countries. Finally, in 1267, a treaty was signed in Badajoz, determining that the southern border between Castile and Portugal should be the River Guadiana, as it is today.

Afonso's marriages and descendants

Afonso's first wife was Matilda II of Boulogne, daughter of Renaud, Count of Dammartin, and Ida of Boulogne. She had two sons but both died young (Roberto and an unnamed one). He divorced Matilda in 1253 and in the same year married Beatrix of Castile, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso X, King of Castile, and Maria de Guzman.

References

- Category:1210 births Category:1279 deaths Category:Portuguese monarchs

July 22

22 July is the 203rd day (204th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 162 days remaining.

Events

- 1298 - Battle of Falkirk - Edward I (Longshanks) of England and his longbowmen defeat William Wallace and his scottish schiltrons outside the town.
- 1499 - Battle of Dornach - The Swiss decisively defeat the Imperial army of Emperor Maximilian I.
- 1587 - Colony of Roanoke: A second group of English settlers arrive on Roanoke Island off of North Carolina to re-establish the deserted colony.
- 1793 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first Euro-American to complete a transcontinental crossing north of Mexico.
- 1796 - Surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company name an area in Ohio "Cleveland" after Gen. Moses Cleaveland, the superintendent of the surveying party.
- 1805 - Napoleonic Wars: War of the Third Coalition - inconclusive battle of Cape Finisterre fought between a combined French and Spanish fleets under Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve of Spain and a British fleet under Admiral Robert Calder.
- 1812 - Napoleonic Wars: Peninsular War - Battle of Salamanca - British forces led by Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) defeat French troops near Salamanca, Spain.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Atlanta - Outside of Atlanta, Georgia, Confederate General John Bell Hood leads an unsuccessful attack on Union troops under General William T. Sherman on Bald Hill.
- 1908 - Albert Fisher establishes the Fisher Body Company to manufacture carriage and automobile bodies.
- 1916 - In San Francisco, California, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a Preparedness Day parade killing 10 and injuring 40.
- 1933 - Wiley Post becomes first person to fly solo around the world traveling 15,596 miles in 7 days, 18 hours and 45 minutes.
- 1934 - Outside Chicago's Biograph Theatre, "Public Enemy No. 1" John Dillinger is mortally wounded by FBI agents.
- 1937 - New Deal: The