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21 March

21 March

March 21 is the 80^th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (81^st in leap years). It is also the first day of the astrological year. There are 285 days remaining.

Events

- 1556 - In Oxford, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer is burned at the stake.
- 1788 - A fire destroys 856 buildings in New Orleans and leaves most of the town in ruins.
- 1800 - With the church leadership driven out of the Rome during an armed conflict, Pius VII was crowned Pope in Venice with a temporary papal tiara made of papier-mâché.
- 1801 - The Battle of Alexandria was fought between British and French forces near the ruins of Nicopolis in Egypt.
- 1804 - Code Napoléon was adopted as French civil law.
- 1857 - Earthquake in Tokyo, Japan kills over 100,000.
- 1871 - Journalist Henry Morton Stanley began his trek to find the missionary and explorer David Livingstone.
- 1919 - The Chinese High School is established in Singapore by Tan Kah Kee.
- 1918 - World War I: Second Battle of the Somme begins
- 1928 - Charles Lindbergh is presented the Congressional Medal of Honor for his first trans-Atlantic flight.
- 1935 - Shah Reza Pahlavi formally asked the international community to call Persia by its native name, Iran, which means 'Land of the Aryans'.
- 1940 - Paul Reynaud becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1945 - World War II: British troops liberate Mandalay, Burma
- 1952 - Alan Freed presents the Moondog Coronation Ball, the first rock and roll concert, in Cleveland, Ohio
- 1960 - Apartheid: Massacre in Sharpeville, South Africa: Police open fire on a group of unarmed black South African demonstrators, killing 69 and wounding 180
- 1963 - Alcatraz, a federal penitentiary on an island in San Francisco Bay, closes.
- 1964 - In Copenhagen, Denmark, Gigliola Cinquetti wins the ninth Eurovision Song Contest for Italy singing "Non ho l'età" (I'm not old enough).
- 1965 - Ranger program: NASA launches Ranger 9 which is the last in a series of unmanned lunar space probes.
- 1965 - Martin Luther King Jr leads 3,200 people on the start of the third and finally successful civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery Alabama.
- 1970 The first Earth Day proclamation was issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph Alioto.
- 1970 - Vinko Bogataj crashes during a ski-jumping championship in Germany; his image becomes that of the "agony of defeat guy" in the opening credits of ABC's Wide World of Sports.
- 1970 - In Amsterdam, Netherlands, Dana wins the fifteenth Eurovision Song Contest for Ireland singing "All Kinds of Everything".
- 1980 - President Jimmy Carter announces a United States boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow to protest the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan.
- 1980 - On the season finale of the soap opera Dallas, the infamous character J.R. Ewing is shot by an unseen assailant, leading to the catchphrase "Who Shot JR?"
- 1985 - Canadian paraplegic athlete and humanitarian Rick Hansen begins his circumnavigation in a wheelchair in the name of spinal cord injury medical research.
- 1989 - Sports Illustrated reports allegations that tie baseball player Pete Rose to baseball gambling.
- 1990 - Namibia becomes independent after 75 years of South African rule.
- 1999 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon.
- 2002 - In Pakistan, Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh along with three other suspects are charged with murder for their part in the kidnapping and killing of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl.
- 2004 - In Malaysia, the 11th Federal and State elections are held, returning the ruling coalition Barisan Nasional to power with an increased majority.
- 2005 - In Red Lake, Minnesota, 10 are killed in a school shooting, the worst since the Columbine High School massacre.

Births

- 1521 - Maurice, Elector of Saxony (d. 1553)
- 1527 - Hermann Finck, German composer (d. 1558)
- 1685 - Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer (d. 1750)
- 1713 - Francis Lewis, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1803)
- 1763 - Jean Paul, German writer (d. 1825)
- 1768 - Joseph Fourier, French mathematician (d. 1830)
- 1806 - Benito Juárez, Mexican statesman and national hero (d. 1872)
- 1839 - Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky, Russian composer (d. 1881)
- 1869 - Florenz Ziegfeld, theatrical producer (d. 1932)
- 1876 - John Tewksbury, American athlete (d. 1968)
- 1882 - Gilbert M. 'Broncho Billy' Anderson, American actor (d. 1971)
- 1895 - Zlatko Baloković, Croatian violinist (d. 1955)
- 1901 - Karl Arnold, German politician (d. 1958)
- 1902 - Son House, American musician (d. 1988)
- 1904 - Forrest Mars Sr., American candymaker (d. 1999)
- 1906 - Jim Thompson, American designer and businessman
- 1913 - George Abecassis, English race car driver (d. 1991)
- 1920 - Georg Ots, Estonian singer (d. 1975)
- 1921 - Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist (d. 1986)
- 1922 - Russ Meyer, American film director and producer (d. 2004)
- 1923 - Shri Mataji Nirmala Shrivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga
- 1927 - Hans-Dietrich Genscher, German politician
- 1932 - Walter Gilbert, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1932 - Joseph Silverstein, American violinist and conductor
- 1930 - James Coco, American actor (d. 1987)
- 1934 - Al Freeman, Jr., American actor
- 1935 - Brian Clough, English footballer and football manager (d. 2004)
- 1940 - Solomon Burke, American singer
- 1943 - Vivian Stanshall, British musician (Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band)
- 1945 - Rose Stone, American musician (Sly & the Family Stone)
- 1946 - Timothy Dalton, British actor
- 1956 - Ingrid Kristiansen, Norwegian runner
- 1958 - Sabrina Le Beauf, American actress
- 1958 - Gary Oldman, English actor
- 1959 - Nobuo Uematsu, Japanese composer
- 1960 - Ayrton Senna, Brazilian race car driver (d. 1994)
- 1961 - Lothar Matthäus, German footballer
- 1962 - Matthew Broderick, American actor
- 1962 - Rosie O'Donnell, American comedienne, actress, talk show host, and publisher
- 1963 - Ronald Koeman, Dutch footballer and football manager
- 1967 - Jonas "Joker" Berggren, Swedish musician (Ace of Base)
- 1975 - Justin Pierce, British actor (d. 2000)
- 1975 - Mark Williams, Welsh snooker player
- 1976 - Liza Harper, French actress
- 1977 - DJ Premier, American rapper (Gang Starr)
- 1980 - Ronaldinho, Brazilian footballer
- [[1980{months

March 21

March 21 is the 80^th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (81^st in leap years). It is also the first day of the astrological year. There are 285 days remaining.

Events

Births

80 (number)

80 (eighty) is the natural number following 79 and preceding 81. 80 is a Harshad number

In astronomy

- Messier object M80, a magnitude 8.5 globular cluster in the constellation Scorpius
- The New General Catalogue object NGC 80, a magnitude 12.1 spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda
- The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which began on 333 BC June 13 and ended on 929 July 9. The duration of Saros series 80 was 1262.1 years, and it contained 71 solar eclipses. Further, the Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which began on 121 BC January 27 and ended on 1213 April 6. The duration of Saros series 80 was 1334.2 years, and it contained 75 lunar eclipses.

In other fields

April 6 Eighty is also:
- The atomic number of mercury
- the number of units in a fourscore
- the age at which one becomes an octogenarian
- in the title of Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne
- the model number of the computers TRS-80, IBM 80, Sinclair ZX80, and Aster CT-80
- the model number of:
- T-80, a Soviet tank
- IAR 80, a Romanian WWII fighter aircraft
- McDonnell Douglas MD-80, Arado Ar 80, and F-80 Shooting Star
- part of the name of the bands Eighty-D and Eighty Proof Soul
- the upper age limit for cardinals to vote in papal elections
- the percentage of consequences that stem from 20% of the causes according to the "80-20 rule"
- the length of a beach in Western Australia: Eighty Mile Beach
- the length of the Eighty Years' War or Dutch revolt (1568-1648)
- the number of the French department Somme
- the designation of Interstate 80, a freeway that runs from California to New Jersey; the European route E80 from Lisbon to Gürbulak
- the standard TCP/IP port number for HTTP connection
- the 80A, 80B and 80C photographic filters correct for excessive redness under tungsten lighting
- The ISBN Group Identifier for books published in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
- The year AD 80, 80 BC, or 1980.

External links

- wiktionary:eighty for 80 in other languages. Category:Integers ko:80 ja:80

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

1556

Events

- January 16 - Abdication of Emperor Charles V. His son, Philip II becomes King of Spain, while his brother Ferdinand becomes Holy Roman Emperor
- January 23 - The Shaanxi Earthquake, the deadliest earthquake in history, occurs with its epicenter in Shaanxi province, China. 830,000 people may have been killed.
- February - Truce of Vaucelles - Temporary end to the fighting between France and Spain.
- February 14 - Thomas Cranmer is declared a heretic
- March 9 - Scottish nobles kill David Rizzio, the secretary to Mary I of Scotland in the queen's precense
- March 21 - In Oxford, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer is burned at the stake for treason.
- November - Collapse of the Truce of Vaucelles. War resumes between Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain
- November 5 - Second Battle of Panipat - Fifty miles north of Delhi, a Mogul Army defeats Hindu forces of General Hemu to ensure Akbar the throne of India.
- Lorenzo Priuli becomes Doge of Venice
- Bloody Mary establishes the Fort of Maryborough, in what is now Portlaoise, County Laois, Ireland
- The kings of Spain take control of the Flanders region, including what is now the French département of Nord
- The false Martin Guerre appears in the French village of Artigat.
- King John III of Sweden becomes ruler of Finland as Hertig Johan.
- Jellaladin Mahommed Akbar ascends to the throne of the Mughal Empire; he rules until his death in 1605
- Welser banking families of Augsburg lose colonial control of Venezuela
- Ivan the Terrible conquers Astrakhan, opening the Volga River to Russian traffic and trade

Births

- January 8 - Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1623)
- February 21 - Sethus Calvisius, German calendar reformer (d. 1615)
- March 7 - Guillaume du Vair, French statesman and philosopher (died 1621)
- June 6 - Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche (died 1625)
- November 15 - Jacques-Davy Duperron, French cardinal (died 1618)
- Henry Briggs, English mathematician (died 1630)
- Margaret Clitherow, English Catholic martyr (died 1586)
- Shibata Katsutoyo, Japanese militray commander (died 1583)
- Nakagawa Kiyohide, Japanese militray commander (died 1583)
- Ahmad Baba al Massufi, Sudanese writer and political leader
- James Melville, Scottish divine and reformer (died 1614)
- Maria of Nassau, second daughter of William the Silent (died 1616) See also :Category: 1556 births.

Deaths

- March 21 - Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (burned at the stake) (born 1489)
- April 18 - Luigi Alamanni, Italian poet and statesman (b. 1495)
- June 10 - Martin Agricola, German composer (born 1486)
- July 31 - Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Jesuit order
- November 14 - Giovanni della Casa, Italian poet (born 1503)
- December 23 - Nicholas Udall, English dramatist (born 1504)
- Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus (born 1490)
- Pietro Aretino, Italian author (born 1492)
- John Bell, Bishop of Worcester
- Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Earl of Bothwell, Scottish traitor (born 1512)
- Girolamo da Carpi, Italian painter (born 1501)
- Jacob Clemens non Papa, Flemish composer (born 1510)
- Saito Dosan, Japanese warlord (born 1494)
- Fuzuli, Turkish poet (born 1494)
- Lorenzo Lotto, Italian painter (born 1480)
- Brian mac Cathaoir O Conchobhair Failghe, last of the Kings of Ui Failghe See also :Category: 1556 deaths. Category:1556 ko:1556년

Oxford

: This article is about the city of Oxford in England. For other cities and other meanings, see Oxford (disambiguation). Oxford is a city and local government district in Oxfordshire, England, with a population of 134,248 (2001 census). It is home to the University of Oxford, the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires", a term coined by Matthew Arnold in reference to the harmonious architecture of the university buildings. The Oxford suburb of Cowley has a long history of carmaking, and still produces Minis. Oxford is twinned with Bonn in Germany, Grenoble in France, León in Nicaragua, Leiden in the Netherlands, and Perm in Russia. All of these are university towns.

History

Oxford was first occupied in Saxon times, and was initially known as "Oxenaforda". It began with the foundations of St Frideswide's nunnery in the 8th century, and was first mentioned in written records in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 912. In the 10th century Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes. St Frideswide is the patron saint of both the city and university. The University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Oxford's earliest colleges were University College (1249), Balliol (1263) and Merton (1264). Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford is unique as a college chapel and cathedral in one foundation. Originally the Priory Church of St Frideswide, the building was extended and incorporated into the structure of the Cardinal's College shortly before its refounding as Christ Church in 1546, since which time it has functioned as the cathedral of the Diocese of Oxford. The relationship between "town and gown" has often been uneasy—several university students were killed in the St Scholastica Day Riot of 1355. During the English Civil War, Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642, after the king was expelled from London, although there was strong support in the town for the Parliamentarian cause. The town yielded to Parliamentarian forces under General Fairfax in 1646. In 1790 the Oxford Canal connected the city with Coventry. The Duke's Cut was completed by the Duke of Marlborough in 1789 to link the new canal with the River Thames; and in 1796 the Oxford Canal company built their own link to the Thames, at Isis Lock. In the 1840s the Great Western Railway and London and North Western Railway linked Oxford with London. London and North Western Railway: Fortis est veritas
(Latin: "Truth is strong")]] Latin In the 19th century the controversy surrounding the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church drew attention to the city as a focus of theological thought. Oxford's Town Hall was built by Henry T. Hare, the foundation stone was laid on 6 July 1893 and opened by the future King Edward VII on 12 May 1897. The site has been the seat of local government since the Guild Hall of 1292 and though Oxford is a city and a Lord Mayoralty, it is still called by its traditional name of "Town Hall". Town Hall By the early 20th century Oxford was experiencing rapid industrial and population growth, with the printing and publishing industries becoming well established by the 1920s. Also during that decade the economy and society of Oxford underwent a huge transformation as William Morris established the Morris Motor Company to mass produce cars in Cowley, on the south-eastern edge of the city. By the early 1970s over 20,000 people worked in Cowley at the huge Morris Motors and Pressed Steel Fisher plants. By this time Oxford was a city of two halves: the university city to the west of Magdalen Bridge and the car town to the east. This led to the witticism that "Oxford is the left bank of Cowley". Cowley suffered major job losses in the 1980s and 1990s during the decline of British Leyland, but is now producing the successful New MINI for BMW. The influx of migrant labour to the car plants, recent immigration from south-east Asia, and a large student population, have given Oxford a notable cosmopolitan character, especially in the Headington, Jericho and Cowley Road areas with their many bars, cafes, restaurants, clubs, ethnic shops and fast food outlets. On 6 May 1954 Roger Bannister, as a 25 year old medical student, ran the first authenticated sub-four minute mile at the Iffley Road running track in Oxford. Oxford's "other" university, Oxford Brookes University, formerly Oxford Polytechnic, based at Headington, was given its charter in 1991.

Transport

Oxford is located some 50 miles (80 km) north west of London; the cities are linked by the M40 motorway, which also links northwards to Birmingham. Rail connections include services to London (Paddington), Bournemouth, Worcester (via the Cotswold Line), and Bicester. The city also has regular train services northwards to Birmingham, Coventry and the north. The railway service connecting Oxford and Cambridge, known as the Varsity Line, was discontinued in 1968. The Oxford Canal connects to the River Thames at Oxford. Oxford Airport at Kidlington offers business and general aviation services.

Tourist attractions

Oxford has numerous major tourist attractions, many belonging to the university and colleges. As well as several famous institutions, the town centre is home to Carfax Tower and a historical themed ride, The Oxford Story. In the summer, punting on the Thames (sometimes called the Isis as it flows through Oxford) and the Cherwell is popular. Cherwell Other notable attractions include:

Religious sites

- Christ Church Cathedral
- The Church of St Mary the Virgin (the University Church)
- Martyrs' Memorial

Churches in central Oxford

- Blackfriars (Roman Catholic) Dominican Priory, 64 St Giles
- Christ Church Cathedral (Anglican), St Aldates
- German Lutheran at St Mary the Virgin, High Street
- New Road Baptist Church, Bonn Square
- Orthodox Church of the Holy Trinity and the Annuciation, 1 Canterbury Road (off Banbury Road)
- Oxford Unitarians at Harris Manchester College Chapel, Mansfield Road
- Religious Society of Friends (Quaker)
- Roman Catholic chaplaincy, Rose Place, St Aldate's
- St Aldate's (Anglican)
- St Aloysius (Roman Catholic), Woodstock Road
- St Columba's United Reformed Church, Alfred Street
- St Cross (Anglican)
- St Ebbe's (Anglican), Pennyfarthing Place, off St Ebbe's
- St Giles' (Anglican), St Giles'
- St Mary Magdalen (Anglican) Magdalen Street
- St Mary the Virgin University Church
- St Michael-at-the-Northgate (Anglican)
- The Salvation Army, Oxford Citadel, Albion Place
- Wesley Memorial Methodist Church, New Inn Hall Street

Museums and galleries

University of Oxford:
- Ashmolean Museum, Britain's oldest museum
- Pitt Rivers Museum
- Museum of Natural History, home of (the remains of) the Oxford Dodo
- Museum of the History of Science, in Britain's oldest purpose-built museum building Others:
- Museum of Oxford
- Museum of Modern Art
- Science Oxford

University buildings

(Other than the colleges)
- The Bodleian Library
- The Clarendon Building (often used as a set for film and television)
- The Radcliffe Camera (one of several institutions named after John Radcliffe)
- The Sheldonian Theatre
- The Oxford University Press
- University Offices (administration), Wellington Square

Open spaces

Oxford University Press The floodplains for Oxford's two rivers reach right into the heart of the city, providing a wealth of green spaces.
- The University Parks
- The University Botanic Garden
- Christ Church Meadow
- Port Meadow
- Mesopotamia
- Angel & Greyhound Meadow
- Cutteslowe Park
- Florence Park

Commercial areas

- Cornmarket Street, Oxford
- Turl Street, Oxford
- Little Clarendon Street
- Oxford Covered Market

Theatres and cinemas

- Oxford Playhouse
- New Theatre, George Street
- Ultimate Picture Palace, Cowley Road
- Phoenix Picturehouse, Walton Street
- The Odeon Cinema, George Street
- The Odeon Cinema, Magdalen Street

Traditional and historic pubs

- The Eagle and Child
- The Turf Tavern
- The Lamb and Flag
- The Bear

Media and press

As well as the BBC national radio stations, Oxford and the surrounding area has several local stations, including BBC Radio Oxford, Fox FM, Passion 107.9 [http://www.passion1079.com/], and Oxide: Oxford Student Radio [http://www.oxfordstudentradio.com/] (which went on terrestrial radio at 87.7 MHz FM in late May 2005). A local TV station, Six TV: The Oxford Channel is also available. Popular local papers include the Oxford Mail, the Oxford Times, and the Oxford Star. Recently (2003) DIY grassroots non-corporate media has began to spread [http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/regions/oxford/]. Independent and community newspapers include the Jericho Echo [http://www.jerichoecho.org.uk] and Oxford Prospect [http://www.oxfordprospect.co.uk].

Literature in Oxford

Well-known Oxford-based authors include:
- Lewis Carroll (real name Charles Dodgson), Fellow of Christ Church.
- Colin Dexter who wrote and set his Inspector Morse mystery novels in Oxford.
- Michael Innes (J. I. M. Stewart), of Christ Church.
- C. S. Lewis, Fellow of Magdalen.
- Iris Murdoch, Fellow of St Anne's
- Philip Pullman who was an undergraduate at Exeter.
- J. R. R. Tolkien, Professor of English at Merton, and undergraduate at Exeter. Many English novels have been set partly or wholly in Oxford. They include:
- Jude the Obscure (1895) by Thomas Hardy (in which Oxford is thinly disguised as "Christminster").
- Zuleika Dobson (1911) by Max Beerbohm (Merton).
- Gaudy Night (1935) by Dorothy L. Sayers (Somerville).
- Brideshead Revisited (1945) by Evelyn Waugh (Hertford). See also the Literature section in the University of Oxford article.

Geography

Oxford's latitude and longitude are 51°45'07" N and 1°15'28" W (at Carfax Tower, which is usually considered the centre).

Wards, neighbourhoods, and suburbs

Carfax Tower]]
- Blackbird Leys
- Botley, Oxfordshire
- Cowley
- East Oxford
- Headington — home to the Oxford shark.
- Littlemore
- Jericho
- Marston
- North Oxford
- Osney
- Risinghurst
- Summertown
- Temple Cowley
- Wolvercote

Politics in Oxford

Wolvercote constituency]] Despite stereotypes of Oxford being a conservative city, there are no Conservatives on the city council. Since the local election in mid-2004, the council has been in minority administration by councillors from the Labour Party, with the Liberal Democrats being the official opposition. At 7 city councillors and 5 county councillors, Oxford is one of the UK cities with highest Green Party representation. The Independent Working Class Association also has councillors, mainly from wards with many housing estates in the southeast, such as Blackbird Leys. The two MPs are Andrew Smith from the Oxford East constituency, erstwhile employment minister in the Labour government; and Dr Evan Harris from the Oxford West and Abingdon constituency, sometime Liberal Democrat spokesperson on health. At the 2005 general election, Oxford East became a marginal seat with a Labour majority over the Liberal Democrats of just 963. Oxford West & Abingdon, on the other hand, is a safe Lib Dem seat with Dr Harris enjoying a majority of just under 8,000. There is also a large and vibrant alternative political culture mostly situated in East Oxford. Some examples are:
- Oxford BOP Samba
- Oxford Student Activist Network [http://osan.org.uk/|OSAN]
- Undercurrents
- OCSET
- Campaign to Close Campsfield [http://www.closecampsfield.org.uk/]
- Corporate Watch [http://www.corpwatch.org/]
- ETC Group
- Oxford Indymedia [http://oxford.indymedia.org.uk/]

Parishes

Unusually for a compact urban district, Oxford has four civil parishes with parish councils - these are Blackbird Leys, Littlemore, Old Marston and Risinghurst and Sandhills.

Images of Oxford

Image:TownHallOxford20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|The Oxford Town Hall Image:UniChurchOxford20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|University Church of St Mary the Virgin (Anglican) Image:StMichaelNorthgate20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|The Saxon Tower at the church of St Michael-at-the-Northgate. The tower is one of the oldest surviving structures in the city. Image:Oxfordmap.png|A map of central Oxford

External links

- [http://www.oxford.gov.uk/ Oxford City Council official website]
- [http://www.oxford.gov.uk/tourism/index.cfm Oxford City Council official tourism website]
- [http://www.oxfordcityguide.com/ Oxford City Guide — Comprehensive Guide]
- [http://www.oxford-guide.com/ Oxford web site]
- [http://www.seeoxford.com/ Virtual Tour of Oxford]
- [http://archive.museophile.org/ox/ Oxford Information]
- [http://archive.museophile.org/ox/guide/ The Aliens' Guide to Oxford]
- [http://www.mushroompublishing.com/maps/oxford.html Mushroom Guide to Oxford]
- [http://oxford.openguides.org/ The Oxford Guide: an Open Guide to Oxford]
- [http://www.oxox.co.uk OxOx:community-driven events and reviews site]
- [http://www.headington.org.uk/history/misc/shark.htm The Oxford shark]
- [http://www.bocc.co.uk/weather/ Oxford weather]
- [http://webcam.oii.ox.ac.uk Live Webcam in Oxford City ]
- [http://www.dailyinfo.co.uk/sheet/pdf/central_ox_map.pdf General Detailed Map of Central Oxford] Category:Cities in England
- Category:Local government in Oxfordshire Category:English county towns Category:University towns Category:Shire districts ja:オックスフォード simple:Oxford

Archbishop of Canterbury

The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior clergyman of the established Church of England and symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The present incumbent is Rowan Williams. Today the archbishop fills four main roles:
- he is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the east of the County of Kent and extreme north-east Surrey. Founded in 597, it is the oldest bishopric in the English church.
- he is the metropolitan of the Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England.
- as Primate of All England, he is the chief religious figure in the Church of England (the British sovereign is the "Supreme governor" of the church). Power in the church is not highly centralised, so the archbishop (along with his "junior" colleague the Archbishop of York) must usually lead through persuasion. He plays an important part in national ceremonies such as coronations; thanks to his high public profile his opinions are often in demand by the news media.
- as symbolic head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop is recognized as primus inter pares ("first among equals") of all Anglican primates. Since 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences. The Archbishop's main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, where his cathedra sits. As holder of one of the "five great sees" (along with the York, London, Durham and Winchester), the Archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of House of Lords. Since Henry VIII broke with Rome the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (latterly British) monarch. Today the choice is made in the name of the Sovereign by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the Crown Nominations Commission. As the current archbishop, the Right Honourable and Most Reverend Dr Rowan Douglas Williams, the 104th Lord Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of All England was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 27 February 2003; he signs himself Rowan Cantuar. He was previously Archbishop of Wales and Bishop of Monmouth.

Origins

Records suggest that the Roman Britons had three Archbishops, seated in London, York, and Caerleon, an ancient city of South Wales. However, in the fifth and sixth centuries the country was overrun by the pagan Anglo-Saxons. Of the kingdoms they set up there, Kent had the closest ties to European trade and culture. The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Saint Augustine who arrived in Kent in 597, sent by Pope Gregory the Great to mission to the English. He was accepted by King Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year 598. Since then the Archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St Augustine. Before the break with Papal authority in the 16th Century, the Church of England was an integral part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church. The present Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition as well as being the "mother church" of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

Province and Diocese

The Archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the Province of Canterbury, which encompasses thirty of the forty-four dioceses of the Church of England. (The remaining fourteen dioceses, in northern England, fall within the Province of York.) Formerly, the four dioceses of Wales were also under the Province of Canterbury; in 1920, however, the Welsh dioceses transferred from the established Church of England to the disestablished Church in Wales. The Archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial curia, or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of his province. The Bishop of London—the most senior cleric of the Church with the exception of the two Archbishops—serves as Canterbury's Provincial Dean, the Bishop of Winchester as Chancellor, the Bishop of Lincoln as Vice-Chancellor, the Bishop of Salisbury as Precentor, the Bishop of Worcestor as Chaplain and the Bishop of Rochester as Cross-Bearer. The question of whether the Archbishop of Canterbury or the Archbishop of York should take precedence was once a cause of a long struggle. The dispute was temporarily resolved in 1071 after Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas of Bayeaux, Archbishop of York, submitted the matter to the Pope. Pope Alexander II decided that Canterbury was to have precedence, and that future Archbishops of York would have to be consecrated by, and swear allegiance to, the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1119, however, the Archbishop-Elect of York, Thurstan, refused to acknowledge the pre-eminence of Canterbury. As a consequence, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Ralph d'Escures, refused to consecrate him. When Thurstan appealed to Rome, Pope Callixtus II not only personally consecrated him, but also issued a papal bull repudiating the supremacy of Canterbury. The matter was finally settled by Pope Innocent VI during the fourteenth century. Under Pope Innocent's arrangement, which lasts to this day, the Archbishop of Canterbury would be recognised as superior to the Archbishop of York. The former would be acknowledged as "Primate of All England", and the latter as "Primate of England". The pre-eminence of the Archbishop of Canterbury is acknowledged by an Act of Parliament passed during the reign of Henry VIII. The Archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as primus inter pares, or first amongst equals. The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England. The Archbishop at the present time has four suffragan bishops. One of these, the Suffragan Bishop of Dover, is given the additional title of "Bishop in Canterbury" and empowered to act almost as if he were the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, since the Archbishop is so frequently away fulfillfilling national and international duties. The Suffragan Bishop of Maidstone is a second assistant working in the diocese. The suffragan bishops of Ebbsfleet and Richborough, on the other hand, are provincial episcopal visitors for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the Archbishop as "flying bishops" to visit parishes throughout the province who are uncomfortable with the ministrations of their local bishop who has participated in the ordination of women.

Style and privileges

Both the Archbishops of Canterbury and York are styled "The Most Reverend"; retired Archbishops as "The Right Reverend". Archbishops are, by convention, appointed to the Privy Council, and may therefore also use "The Right Honourable" for life. In formal documents, the Archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as "The Most Reverend Father in God, Forenames, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan". In debates in the House of Lords, the Archbishop is referred to as "The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury". "The Right Honourable" is not used in either instance. He may also be formally addressed as "Your Grace" - or, more often these days, simply as "Archbishop", "Father" or "Dr Williams" (in the current instance). The surname of the Archbishop of Canterbury is not used in formal documents; only the forenames and see are mentioned. The Archbishop is legally permitted to sign his name as "Cantuar" (from the Latin for Canterbury). He shares the right to use only a title in the signature with the Archbishop of York, other bishops and Peers of the Realm. In the order of precedence, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the Sovereign and members of the Royal Family. Immediately below him is the Lord Chancellor, and then the Archbishop of York. The Archbishop of Canterbury's official residence in London is Lambeth Palace. Until the 19th century, the Archbishops also had major residences at Croydon Palace and then Addington Palace. The following Archbishops have died at Lambeth: Wittlesey, in 1375; Kemp, 1453; Dean, 1504; all buried in Canterbury Cathedral: Cardinal Pole, the last Catholic archbishop, 1558, after lying in state here 40 days was buried at Canterbury; Parker, 1575, buried in Lambeth Chapel; Whitgift, 1604, buried at Croydon; Bancroft, 1610, buried at Lambeth; Juxon, 1663, buried in the chapel of St. John's College, Oxford; Sheldon, 1667, buried at Croydon; Tillotson, 1694, buried in the church of St. Laurence Jewry, London; Tennison, 1715; and Potter, 1747, both buried at Croydon; Seeker, 1768; Cornwallis, 1783, and Moore, 1805, all buried at Lambeth. Of the medieval archbishops, in 1381 Simon of Sudbury fell a victim to Wat Tyler and his followers when they attacked Lambeth Palace.

External links

- [http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/ Official web site] Category:Church of England Category:Anglicanism Canterbury Category:Christian leaders Category:Religion in Kent Category:Religion in the United Kingdom Category:Canterbury ja:カンタベリー大主教

Thomas Cranmer

Thomas Cranmer (July 2,1489 – March 21, 1556) was the Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of the English kings Henry VIII and Edward VI. Born in 1489 at Nottingham, Cranmer was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge and became a priest following the death of his first wife. By the time of the controversy over the divorce of King Henry from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, Cranmer had risen to an influential position, and his willingness to pursue the matter on the King's behalf won him further advancement, despite the fact that he had secretly married the niece of Andreas Osiander, a Lutheran theologian, in Nuremberg. On March 30, 1533, he became Archbishop of Canterbury, and was able to push through the reforms that led gradually to the reform of the Church of England. In 1538 he condemned the views of John Lambert when he denied the real presence of Jesus Christ in the bread and wine of the eucharist. Lambert was burnt at the stake, but Cranmer later came to adopt his views. Cranmer also opposed Henry VIII's 6 Articles, which reaffirmed clerical celibacy. At the time of the dissolution Cranmer was given various former church properties, such as the former Cluniac Nunnery at Arthington. On Henry's death in 1547, Cranmer became an indispensable advisor to his son and successor, Edward, who, though still a child, had been brought up with Protestant views. During Edward's reign, Cranmer introduced the first versions of the Book of Common Prayer, a modernized version of which is still used today, and in general, he led the Church of England in a more Protestant direction. Church of England Edward died in 1553, to be succeeded by his half-sister, Queen Mary I, who had been brought up a Catholic and wished to return the country to its former faith. Added to that she had personal reasons to dislike Cranmer as, by annulling her parents' marriage, he caused her to be declared illegitimate. Politically, he had, under pressure, signed in favour of proclaiming Lady Jane Grey as queen in place of Mary. Mary had him removed from office, imprisoned and charged with both treason and heresy on February 14, 1556. In an effort to save himself, he recanted his anti-Catholic position, but was nevertheless condemned to be burned at the stake for heresy. He was executed in Oxford at the same place where two other bishops, Ridley and Latimer, had been burned in 1555. When he discovered that he would not be spared, on the day of his death he withdrew his recantation from the pulpit of the church when he was expected by the authorities to re-affirm it. As the flames rose, he was reported to have thrust his right hand into the hottest part of the fire, declaring that the hand which had signed the false recantation should be burned first. The burning of Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley is commemorated by the so-called Martyrs' Memorial, a Victorian construction not far from the original site which is marked by a cross on the road.

Preceded by:
William Warham

Archbishop of Canterbury

Followed by:
Reginald Pole

External links

- [http://www.stpeter.org/cranmer.html Article on Cranmer
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cranmer_thomas.shtml BBC article]
- [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDcranmer.htm Spartacus schoolnet] Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cranmer, Thomas ja:トマス・クランマー

1788

1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - First edition of The Times, previously The Daily Universal Register, was published.
- January 2 - Georgia ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 4th U.S. state.
- January 9 - Connecticut ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 5th U.S. state.
- January 18 - Captain Arthur Phillip's ship arrives at Botany Bay
- January 26 - Captain Arthur Phillip decides to make the permanent settlement at Sydney Cove
- January 22 - Cyrus Griffin becomes the tenth and last President of the United States in Congress Assembled.
- January 26 - Australia Day: 11 ships of First Fleet from Botany Bay led by Arthur Phillip land in what would become Sydney, Australia.Great Britain establishes the prison colony of New South Wales, the first permanent European settlement on the continent.
- January 31 - Henry Benedict Stuart becomes the new Stuart claimant to the throne of Great Britain as King Charles IX and the figurehead of Jacobitism.
- February 1 - Isaac Briggs and William Longstreet patent the steamboat.
- February 6 - Massachusetts ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 6th U.S. state.
- February 9 - Austria enters the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 and attacks Moldavia.
- March 14 - The Edinburgh Evening Courant carries a notice of £200 reward for capture of William Brodie, town councilor doubling as a burglar
- March

21 March

Events

Births

March 21

Events

Births

80 (number)

In astronomy

In other fields

External links

Leap year

Gregorian calendar

Which day is the leap day?

Julian calendar

Revised Julian Calendar

Chinese calendar

Hebrew calendar

Hindu Calendar

Iranian calendar

Long term leap year rules

Marriage proposal

Saint Patrick and the leap year

Birthdays

1556

Events

Births

Deaths

Oxford

History

Transport

Tourist attractions

Religious sites

Churches in central Oxford

Museums and galleries

University buildings

Open spaces

Commercial areas

Theatres and cinemas

Traditional and historic pubs

Media and press

Literature in Oxford

Geography

Wards, neighbourhoods, and suburbs

Politics in Oxford

Parishes

Images of Oxford

See also

External links

Archbishop of Canterbury

Origins

Province and Diocese

Style and privileges

See also

External links

Thomas Cranmer

Further reading

External links

1788

Events