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Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxons were originally a collection of differing Germanic tribes from Angeln—a peninsula in the southern part of Schleswig, protruding into the Baltic Sea, and what is now Lower Saxony, in the north-west coast of Germany—who achieved dominance in southern Britain from the mid-5th century. They eventually coalesced completely around the 9th century into a single people, the Anglo-Saxons, forming the basis for the modern day English country, people, language and culture.

Etymology

Origins of the word

The term "Anglo-Saxon" is from Latin writings going back to the time of King Alfred the Great, who seems to have frequently used the title rex Anglorum Saxonum or rex Angul-Saxonum. The origin of this title is not quite clear. It is generally believed to have arisen from the union of six of the seven kingdoms of the Heptarchy under Alfred in 886. Bede (Historia Ecclesiae i. 15) states that:
- the people of the more northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria) belonged to the Angles, who derive their name from the peninsula of Angeln in Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany
- those of Essex, Sussex and Wessex were sprung from the Saxons, who derive their name from Old Saxony (which was probably in the general area of Lower Saxony in Germany and should not be confused with Upper Saxony)
- while those of Kent and southern Hampshire from the Jutes Other early writers do not bear out consistent distinctions, though in custom the Kingdom of Kent presents the most remarkable contrasts with the other kingdoms. West Saxon writers regularly speak of their own nation as a part of the Angelcyn and of their language as Englisc, while the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of Bernicia in the north. On the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the distinction drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angles and the Saxons were different nations originally; but from the evidence it seems likely that they had practically coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before their invasion of Great Britain. At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come into use by Latin writers on the continent, nearly a century before Alfred's time, in the writings of Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards. There can be little doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish the Teutonic inhabitants of Great Britain from the Old Saxons of the continent.

Use of the term "Anglo Saxon" today

It is a matter of debate as to whether the term Anglo-Saxon can be used as a synonym for English. On one hand there is the argument that says that there were further influxes of people in to England such as the Danes and Normans, as well as the Celts who migrated to England from the other parts of the British Isles, so the term is no longer valid. The other side of this argument is to say these people were relatively small in number and, particularly in the case of Danes and the Normans, were of similar ethnic origins as the Anglo-Saxons themselves, and so became immersed into the Anglo-Saxon "tribe". In comparison, in Canada and the United States, the term "Anglo-Saxon" (often as White Anglo-Saxon Protestant or WASP) is used to describe people of English, Scottish and more recently, German, Scandinavian and other people of Northern European ethnicity; used predominantly to separate these populations from the Irish-Catholic cultural group, and French Canadians, and later Eastern and Southern European immigrants and their cultures. "Anglo-Saxon" can also mean the original West Germanic component of the English language, often called Old English, as opposed to the especially large addition of Old Danish (eastern England), Old Norwegian (from Vikings of the Viken who settled on the West Coast of England) and many loanwords the language has obtained, especially from Romance languages. For over a hundred years, "Anglo-Saxon" has been used as pertaining to the Anglophone cosmopolitan societies of predominantly Western character, (the United States, the British Isles, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa) describing their intellectual traditions and national characters, as opposed to "Gallic", "Lusitanic" or "Hispanic". Such usage is especially common in France. It is a wide ranging term, taking in the English-speaking world's language, culture, technology, wealth, influence, markets and economy.

The Anglo-Saxon Invasions

:Main article: Sub-Roman Britain In 410, the Emperor Honorius replied to a petition for help, reputedly from the inhabitants of Roman Britain—although there is now some dispute as to where the request originated—that they should "look to their own affairs"; from this brief mention, historians have assumed that effective Roman rule in Britain ended. Some scholars find signs of local authorities maintaining Roman patterns in the following years; this remains speculative. Nevertheless, with the withdrawal of the Roman army and the cessation of coinage, Roman administration of the British Isles was autonomous from the early fifth-century. This is highly demonstrable in the archaeology of "Sub-Roman Britain" in which the Roman way of life is overcome by an arguably more primitive and "barbarian" one. Until the mid-twentieth century scholars were still referring to this period as the "Dark Ages", not least due to the lack of written records, but also due to the nature of the archaeological record: roads ceased to be maintained and some urban centres were abandoned; the circulation of coinage ceased abruptly, though not, it now appears, did trade with the Continent; manufactured goods became cruder with the reversion from wheel- to hand-thrown methods of pottery; and even the means of disposing of the dead changed also, with the practise of extramural burial—burial outside the city walls—being neglected. Most recent archaeology tends to find more Roman continuity in some sites than previously thought. Into this apparent power vacuum, the Anglo-Saxons came and settled in the island, primarily on the east and south coasts. The exact details of their arrival are unclear, although their migration was part of the widespread movement of Germanic tribes on the mainland of Europe at this time, called the "Migrations period". Where reliable history fails, legend offers us a narrative, and many have argued that there is some kernel of truth in the legend. At least as early as Bede, the tradition relates how at a council of war, Vortigern, leader of the effectively self-governing Britons, granted Thanet in Kent to the Jutish warrior leader Hengist (or Hengest) as a permanent possession, in return for his followers' help in defending the region against invading Picts and any other enemies. Vortigern's refusal to pay these mercenaries led to Hengest's successful rebellion, extensive immigration and the conquest of what is now England over the next two hundred years. Archaeological explorations have indicated that Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in Kent, Sussex, Middlesex, and Essex in the latter part of the 5th century, as well as East Anglia, Lindsey (now Lincolnshire), Deira (now East Yorkshire) and the Isle of Wight. Organised British resistance, first led by Ambrosius Aurelianus (according to Gildas), and then possibly by King Arthur, culminated in the Battle of Mons Badonicus. This succeeded in halting the expansion of the English kingdoms. The leaders who fought with Arthur at this and other battles may have given rise to the tale of the "Knights of the Round Table." The contest for Britain was still in the balance as late as 590, with King Urien of Rheged besieging Lindisfarne, the stronghold of Bernicia, and other Celts victorious in 584 at the Battle of Fethanleag (Stoke Lyne, 5km north of Bicester in Oxfordshire). In the previous 120 years, the Anglo-Saxons had added only Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire to the area under their firm control. But Urien was murdered by a rival among his compatriots, and Anglo-Saxon control of most of what is now England was cemented over the next 70 years. Perhaps in memory of this eventual defeat by the Anglo-Saxons, the modern Welsh word for England, "Lloegyr", means "the lost lands". "Welsh" in the English language originally meant "foreigner". Besides Angles, Saxons and Jutes, Frisians and perhaps the Franks, are known to have taken part in the "invasions". The various tribes established a large number of kingdoms in what today is known as England, which were popularly described to have later consolidated into seven states known as the Heptarchy. According to tradition, Kent was established first by the Jutes under Hengist. Another Jutish king, Horsa, may have taken part; he may have been Hengist's brother. East Anglia's beginnings are unknown and very little record survives of its foundation or the fate of the native Britons, the once mighty Iceni tribe, who had dwelt there before. The name Mercia may mean "marches" and be related to the name of the River Mersey: a frontier area facing the Celtic Romano-British or Welsh. Deira and Bernicia appear to be Anglic corruptions of older British geographical names; the two states subsequently merged to form the kingdom of Northumbria.

The "Anglo-Saxon conquest" controversy

The nature of the Anglo-Saxon invasion is controversial. Traditionally, historians support an Anglo-Saxon conquest and near genocide or expulsion of the native Celtic population. This view has been held because of historical traditions, the remarkable absence of Celtic words in the Old English language, and the establishment of new Celtic kingdoms in Brittany (now in France) by refugees. However recent research by historians, archaeologists and geneticists offer some new perspectives.

Historians

Historians who challenge the traditional narrative of a "Saxon conquest" point out a marked lack of archaeological evidence for a major invasion. They believe instead there was a gradual change in favour of the Anglo-Saxons, comprising mainly benign migration and resulting in a mixture with an existing population who absorbed the culture and language of the migrants. Studies that show the ethnic origins of the people have varied in their conclusions (for example the conflicting results of the genetic studies below) and there are some linguistic patterns in the development of Old English that compromise with Celtic traditions in a way that suggests gradual adoption. One posited theory is that most sources for a "Saxon conquest" originated with historians with a partisan agenda in presenting an English identity . The historian Norman Davies, in The Isles suggests that the Celts were overlooked in the historical record in part because no documentation of their orally-transmitted histories remain, the Celts having regarded writing as a threat to their oral traditions. Generations of history based on literary sources alone saw British history as beginning with Roman invasions of the first century AD: "So long as classical education and classical prejudices prevailed, educated Englishmen inevitably saw ancient Britain as an alien land."

Y chromosome analysis

There has been much speculation regarding the nature of the various periods of rapid cultural change seen on the island of Great Britain. These rapid cultural changes could be due to mass immigration of a culturally distinct people that might displace the indigenous population. Alternatively these changes could be accounted for by the cultural diffusion of ideas through trade or from a small invading military elite . Studies based on genetic testing of modern Britons may provide a new insight into these events. Studies of the Y chromosomes of men currently living in Britain, the Western Isles, Orkney, Shetland, Friesland, Denmark, North Germany, Ireland, Norway and the Basque Country have been carried out . It should be noted that Y chromosome analysis only applies to paternal history, and cannot determine the extent of Anglo-Saxon male intermarriage with indigenous women. Genetic evidence for mass Anglo-Saxon migration was first published in 2002 . This evidence was based on an analysis of the Y chromosomes of men from a cross-section of Great Britain from East Anglia (North Walsham) in the East to Anglesey (Llangefni) in the West. The DNA was derived from men living in long established market towns mentioned in the Doomsday Book and from men born within 30 kilometers of those towns whose paternal grandfathers were also born within the same radius. DNA was also obtained from men living in Friesland as it is considered to be one of the a source locations for the Anglo-Saxons and because the Frisian language is considered to be the closest surviving language to Old English. The data were then mathematically analysed to infer migration from Friesland to Central England of Anglo-Saxons. Using a background migration of 0.1% (ie one in a thousand people migrating either way), the analysis concluded that a mass migration event from Frisland to Central England occured which affected 50%-100% (95% confidence interval) of the Central English male gene pool:
If we use a rate of 0.1%, as observed over the past 25 years, to represent an extremely high value for continuous background migration between Central England and continental Europe, then we estimate that an Anglo-Saxon immigration event affecting 50%-100% of the Central English male gene pool at that time is required. We note, however, that our data do not allow us to distinguish an event that simply added to the indigenous Central English gene pool from one where indigenous males were displaced elsewhere or one where indigenous males were reduced in number
The study concludes:
This study shows that the Welsh border was more of a genetic barrier to Anglo-Saxon Y chromosome gene flow than the North Sea. Remarkably, we find that the resultant genetic differentiation is still discernable in the present day. These results indicate that a political boundary can be more important than a geophysical one in population genetic structuring and that informative paterns of genetic differentiation can be produced by migration events occuring within historical times.
The data presented in this work have been used to support an Anglo-Saxon conquest and genocide of the indigenous Romano-British population, despite the fact that the research paper makes no such claims:
..suggests that between 50% and 100% of the indigenous population of what was to become England was wiped out, with Offa's Dyke acting as a "genetic barrier" protecting those on the Welsh side.
and
This shows that in the Dark Ages, when the Anglo-Saxons turned up, there was the most horrible massacre on the English side. They killed everybody and replaced them
These statements do not seem to be supported by the findings of the study. A further and more complete study was conducted in 2003 . This study takes samples from 25 sites in the British Isles (including the Channel Islands). For comparison it also took samples from Norway, Denmark and Northern Germany, includes the samples from Friesland from the 2002 study and samples from the Basque Country (considered to be a putative paleolithic sample) . This study does not attempt to describe migratory events, but does compare Y chromosomes from the various sources. Men from central Ireland and Wales seem to posess Y chromosomes that are closely related to those of men from the Basque country, for the purposes of this study, these are considered indigenous samples. The study could find no way to distinguish between Northern German and Danish samples, neither could it find a significant difference between these samples and the samples from Friesland used in the 2002 study . In a principal components plot samples from Germany/Denmark, Norway and the Basque country are all spread far appart from each other. Samples from central Ireland (Castlerea) and Wales (Haverfordwest and Llangefni) all cluster near those from the Basque country, indicating that they are similar in nature. Samples from Cornwall and mainland Scotland are closest to the indigenous samples, but are slightly skewed towards the North German/Danish samples. Samples from York and Norfolk are closest to the North German/Danish samples, and represent about a 60% North German/Danish (Danish-Viking/Anglo-Saxon) influence . It should be noted that the 60% figure represents paternally inherited genetic information only. If Germanic men alone settled in places like York and intermarried exclusivelly with indigenous women, then the contribution of Germanic peoples to the gene pool in York would be 30% of the whole. Converselly if female Germanic migration was at the same level as that of male migration then the contribution overall would be 60%.
The sites with the highest degree of German/Danish input are York and Norfolk, followed by Southwell and Llanidloes. All of these except Llanidloes are historically in regions where the Danes are known to have had a significant presence. The remaining samples are closer to the indigenous group; for these populations, this finding suggests a lower demographic impact by North European populations. This can be seen by the frequency of AMH+1, which is always above 33% in British populations but remains below 26% in the continental source populations; these data are consistent with the presence of some indigenous component in all British regions
We therefore compared Frisians to our North German/Danish sample and found that the two sets are not significantly different (p=0.3, data not shown). When included in the PC analysis, the Frisians were more "continental" than any of the British samples, although they were somewhat closer to the British ones than the North German/Denmark sample. For example, the part of mainland Britain that has the most continental input is Central England, but even here the AMH+1 frequency, not below 44% (Southwell), is higher than the 35% observed in the Frisians. These results demonstrate that even with the choice of Frisians as a source for the Anglo-Saxons, there is a clear indication of a continuing indigenous component in the English paternal genetic makeup.
Given that the 2003 study cannot distinguish between Danish, Northern German and Frisian Y chromosomes it is apparent that the 2002 study was also unsuccesfully in distinguishing between Danish-Viking and Anglo-Saxon Y chromosomes. The 2002 study also chose a sampling area in England which shows one of the the strongest biases towards Germanic Y chromosomes in England . This additiomal research appears to have again cast some doubt on the scale of Anglo-Saxon immigration to England.

Anglo-Saxon culture

Anglo-Saxon architecture

:Main article: Anglo-Saxon architecture Anglo-Saxon architecture describes a period in the history of architecture in England, and parts of Wales, from the mid-5th century until the Norman Conquest of 1066. There are few remains of Anglo-Saxon architecture, with no secular work remaining above ground. At least fifty churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, with many more claiming to be, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered, or confined to foundations and crypts. Distinctive features of Anglo-Saxon architecture include rough brickwork, extremely thick walls and mostly arch windows, with a few square- or triangular-headed windows. Particularly in earlier examples, reused Roman work is common. The vast majority of buildings were wooden, but only a single wooden example survives.

Anglo-Saxon art

:Main article: Anglo-Saxon art Anglo-Saxon art covers the period from the time of King Alfred (871-899), with the revival of English culture after the end of the Viking raids, to the early 12th century, when Romanesque art became the new movement. Prior to King Alfred there had been the Hiberno-Saxon culture (the fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and motifs) which had ceased with the Vikings. Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts. It includes the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold manuscript, which drew on Hiberno-Saxon art, Carolingian art and Byzantine art for style and iconography. A "Winchester style" developed that combined both northern ornamental traditions with Mediterranean figural traditions, and can be seen in the Leofric Missal (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodl, 579). The Harley Psalter was a knockoff of the Carolingian Utrecht Psalter—all of which underscore the larger trend of an Anglo-Saxon culture coming into increasing contact with, and under the influence of, a wider Latin Mediaeval Europe. Manuscripts were not the only Anglo-Saxon art form, although they are the most numerous to have survived. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, ivory, stone carving, metalwork (see Fuller brooch for example) and enamel, but few of these pieces have survived.

Anglo-Saxon language

:Main article: Old English language Anglo-Saxon, also called Old English, was the language spoken under Alfred the Great and continued to be the common language of England (non-Danelaw) until after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when, under the influence of the Anglo-Norman language spoken by the Norman ruling class, it changed into Middle English roughly between 1150-1500. Anglo-Saxon is far closer to early Germanic than Middle English, i.e., it is less latinized, and retains many morphological features (nominal and verbal inflection) that were lost during the 12th to 14th centuries. The languge today which is closest to Old English is Frisian, which is spoken by a few hundred thousand people in the northern part of the Netherlands and Germany. Before literacy in the vernacular "Old English" or Latin became widespread, the Runic alphabet, called the futhorc (also known as futhark), was used for inscriptions. When literacy became more prevelant a form of Latin script was used with a few letters derived from the futhork; 'eth', 'wynn', and 'thorn'. The letters regularly used in printed and edited texts of OE are the following:
- a æ b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y with only rare occurrences of k, z.

Anglo-Saxon literature

:Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses literature written in Old English during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of Britain, from the mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The most famous works from this period include the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of important early English history. The poem Hymn from the 7th century is the oldest surviving written text in English.

Anglo-Saxon religion

:Main article: Anglo-Saxon mythology The Anglo-Saxon mythos was a Germanic mythology and closely related to Norse mythology. Christianity (both Celtic and Roman forms) replaced the old gods in England around the 8th and 9th centuries AD. The Synod of Whitby settled the choice for the Roman form. As the new clerics became the chroniclers, the old religion was lost before it was recorded and today our knowledge of it is sketchy. One of the few recorded references is that a Kentish King would only meet the missionary St Augustine in the open air, where he would be under the protection of the sky god, Woden. Written Christian prohibitions on acts of pagan worship are one of our main sources of information on pre-Christian beliefs. Remnants of the Anglo-Saxon gods remain in the English language names for days of the week:
- Tiw, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Tyr, the god of war: Tuesday
- Woden, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Odin, the one-eyed wise god of storms and the dead: Wednesday
- Þunor, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Thor, the thunder god: Thursday
- Frige, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Freya, the love-goddess: Friday

Timeline from 597 to 1066

:See also Anglo-Saxon England. A timeline of major events during the Anglo-Saxon period. 597 - Roman Christianity is brought to Britain for the first time by St. Augustine, sent from Pope Gregory to convert the Saxons. Augustine lands in Kent and is welcomed by King Aethelbert whose Frankish Queen is already a Christian practicing at her church of St. Martin's, Canterbury. Augustine converts Aethelbert and his court to Christianity and founds a monastery at Canterbury. Commencement of the erection of a monastery at St. Augustine's, Canterbury, built from the Roman ruins of the old city. Death of King Ceol of Wessex. He is succeeded by his brother, Ceolwulf. 598 - Kings Mynyddog Mwynfawr of Din-Eidyn & Cynan of Gododdin ride south to fight King Aethelfrith's Bernician army against enormous odds at the Battle of Catterick. The British are victorious. Probable expansion of North Rheged to fill the vacuum left in North Yorkshire. 602 - St. Augustine of Canterbury meets with the Welsh Bishops at Aust near Chepstow. He accuses them of acting contrary to Church teachings, failing to keep Easter at the prescribed Roman time and not administering baptism according to the Roman rite. He also insists that they help in the conversion of their enemy, the Saxons, and look to Canterbury as their spiritual centre. The Welsh tactfully decline. Augustine is proclaimed Archbishop of Canterbury. 604 - The Welsh Bishops meet for a second time with St. Augustine of Canterbury. He neglects to rise to greet them, lectures them again and insists they submit to him. The Welsh refuse to recognise the authority of a church within their enemies' territory under such a disrespectful bishop. The See of Rochester is established and Justus appointed its first bishop. Death of King Sledda of Essex. He is succeeded by his son, Saebert. King Saebert is persuaded to convert to Christianity through the intervention of his uncle, King Aethelbert of Kent. The See of Essex is founded. King Aethelbert of Kent founds the cathedral church of St. Paul in London. St. Mellitus is appointed the first Saxon Bishop of London (& Essex). King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Deira and kills its king, Aethelric. Prince Edwin, son of the late King Aelle of Deira (and possibly nephew of King Aethelric) flees to the Court of King Iago of Gwynedd. Aethelfrith marries King Aelle's daughter, Acha, and takes the kingdom. 605 - Birth of Prince (later King) Oswald of Bernicia. Death of Bishop Augustine of Canterbury. He is buried in St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury and later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by St. Laurence of Canterbury. 606 - Death of King Pybba of Mercia. He is succeeded by his kinsman, Ceorl. 611 - Death of King Ceolwulf of Wessex. He is succeeded by his nephew, Cynegils. King Cynegils shares power with his eldest son, Cwichelm, who may have been given Upper Wessex. 613 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Gwynedd in order to rout out his old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. A united British force (Gwynedd, Powys, Pengwern and Dumnonian warriors) clashes with his army at the Battle of Chester. King Iago of Gwynedd and King Selyf Sarffgadau of Powys are both killed but the victor is unclear. The Battle of Bangor-is-Coed follows in quick succession. King Bledric of Dumnonia is killed in the fighting and 1000 monks are massacred by the Northumbrians. King Edwin of Deira flees to the Court of King Raedwald of East Anglia. Birth of Prince (later King) Oswiu of Bernicia. The stone Abbey Church at St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury is completed and dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul. 614 - King Cynegils & his son, Prince Cwichelm, of Wessex invade Dumnonia and defeat the local army (possibly under a King Clemen) at the Battle of Bindon. Birth of Princess (later Abbess & Saint) Hilda of Deira. c.615 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia visits King Raedwald of East Anglia at Rendlesham and persuades him to hand over the former's old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. In return, Raedwald is promised rich rewards, yet war is threatened if he fails to comply. Raedwald's wife however, reminds him of his obligations as Edwin's protector and the King declines the offer. King Edwin of Deira marries Princess Cwenburga, daughter of King Ceorl of Mercia. 616 - King Edwin of Deira, with the help of King Raedwald of East Anglia, conquers Northumbria at the Battle of the River Idle. King Aethelfrith of Bernicia & Deira is killed in the fighting and his children are forced to flee north. His heir, Prince Eanfrith, seeks refuge with his mother's family, probably in Gododdin, and then moves further north into Pictland; Princes Oswald, Oswiu and others escape to King Eochaid Buide of Dalriada where they are converted to Christianity by the monks of Iona. Death of Kings Aethelbert of Kent and Saebert of Essex. The former is succeeded by his pagan son, Eadbald, who promptly marries his step-mother, in accordance with pre-Christian custom. King Eadbald loses overlordship of Essex, where the new kings, Saebert's sons, Sexred, Saeward and Sexbald, throw out the Christian missionaries. Bishop (& Saint) Mellitus of London (& Essex) flees with Bishop Justus of Rochester to France. King Eadbald of Kent is persuaded to convert to Christianity by St. Laurence, Archbishop of Canterbury. 617 - King Edwin of Deira invades and conquers Elmet. King Ceretic of Elmet is killed in the fighting. Death of King Raedwald of East Anglia. He was probably buried in the Great Ship in the Royal East Anglian Cemetery at Sutton Hoo. Shortlived succession of his brother, Eni. 618 - Raedwald's son. Eorpwald, takes the East Anglian throne from his uncle, King Eni. 619 - Death of Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury. He is buried in Canterbury and is later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by St. Mellitus. 620 - The church of St. Mary is built at the Royal Abbey complex of St. Augustine's, Canterbury. c.620 - Angles probably under King Edwin of Deira invade South Rheged, and expel King Llywarch Hen who flees to Powys. Edwin's armies also move north into Southern Strathclyde and Gododdin. Prince Eanfrith, heir of Bernicia, marries a Pictish Royal Princess and fathers Prince (later King) Talorcan (I) of the Picts. c.623 - King Edwin of Deira is baptised by Prince Rhun of North Rheged, according to the Historia Brittonum. This was probably at the Royal Court of Gwynedd. He soon relapses back to paganism. 624 - Death of Archbishop Mellitus of Canterbury, later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by Bishop (& Saint) Justus of Rochester. 625 - King Edwin of Deira marries Princess Ethleburga of Kent. As a Christian, she brings her personal chaplain, Paulinus, north with her. St. Paulinus has already been consecrated Bishop of York. With the help of Pope Boniface, the new Queen encourages her husband to convert to Christianity. 626 - Death of King Ceorl of Mercia. He is succeeded by Penda, son of his predecessor. Prince Cwichelm of Wessex sends an assassin to murder King Edwin of Deira. Edwin is saved from the assassin's dagger by the intervention of one of his thanes who is killed. Edwin's daughter, Eanflaed, is born the same night and he promises to give her for baptism to St. Paulinus, if he is victorious over the instigator of this crime. Edwin discovers Cwichelm's treachery and marches on Wessex. Prince Cwichelm and his father, King Cynegils of Wessex, march north to meet the Northumbrians at the Battle of Win Hill & Lose Hill, possibly with the aid of King Penda of Mercia. Despite their army's superior numbers, the Wessex duo are defeated and flee south. Edwin keeps his promise to St. Paulinus. c.626 - The rivalry between King Edwin of Deira and King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, which has grown since childhood, reaches a climax. Edwin invades the Isle of Man and then Anglesey. Cadwallon is defeated in battle and is besieged on Puffin Island. He eventually flees to Brittany. 627 - St. Paulinus converts King Edwin of Deira back to Christianity at the Royal Court of Yeavering. The King is baptised in Paulinus' proto-Cathedral in York and persuades his sub-monarch, King Eorpwald of East Anglia to follow suit. Death of Archbishop Justus of Canterbury. c.627 - Possible building of the Western section of the Wansdyke, by King Cynegils of Wessex, in an attempt to counter King Penda of Mercia. 628 - King Cynegils and his son, Prince Cwichelm, of Wessex clash with King Penda at the Battle of Cirencester. Cynegils' son, Cenwalh, may have married King Penda's sister as part of the subsequent peace treaty by which the Mercians take control of the area. King Penda probably establishes the sub-Kingdom of the Hwicce at this time. Anti-Christian uprising in East Anglia. King Eorpwald is killed by one Ricbert, and his half-brother, Sigebert, flees to France. Ricbert takes the throne. The exiled Prince Oswald of Northumbria accompanies King Connad Cerr of Dalriada to Ireland to fight against Maelcaich and the Irish Cruithne at the Battle of Fid Eoin. 629 - St. Paulinus meets Blecca, the Praefectus Civitatis of Lincoln, and converts him to Christianity. 630 - The West Saxons invade Gwent. King Meurig defeats them, with the help of his father, at the Battle of Pont-y-Saeson. c.630 - King Penda of Mercia besieges Exeter (possibly held by King Clemen of Dumnonia). King Cadwallon of Gwynedd lands nearby, from his Deiran imposed exile in Brittany. He negotiates an alliance with King Penda of Mercia and a united British and Saxon force moves north to re-take Gwynedd. The Deirans are defeated at the Battle of the Long Mountain and Cadwallon chases them back to Northumbria. The British ransack Northumbria. St. Felix arrives in Britain from Burgundy with the intention of evengelising the Angles. He stays a while at Canterbury. 631 - Death of King Ricbert of East Anglia. The half-brother of his predecessor, King Eorpwald, returns from exile in France and takes the throne as the Christian King Sigebert. With the new King's encouragement, St. Felix is sent by Archbishop Honorius of Canterbury to evangelise his people. St. Felix establishes his see at Dunwich. c.631 - King Edwin of Deira re-fortifies the City of York, probably including the building of the so-called Anglian Tower. 632 - The West Saxons cross into Wales and defeat King Idris of Meirionydd on the Severn. 633 - King Edwin of Deira and his Northumbrian army meet the British, under King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, in the Battle of Hatfield Chase. King Edwin is killed in the fighting and Cadwallon is victorious. Edwin's cousin, Osric, succeeds to the throne of Deira and Prince Eanfrith of Bernicia returns from Pictland to claim his rightful crown. Both are pagans. St. Paulinus, Bishop of York, flees south and is made Bishop of Rochester. Cadwallon is later besieged at York by King Osric. The former is again victorious. 634 - Despite suing for peace, King Cadwallon of Gwynedd slays both King Eanfrith of Bernicia and Osric of Deira. Eanfrith's half-brother, Oswald succeeds, as son of Aethelfrith of Bernicia and Acha of Deira, to a united Northumbria. He is given a force of men (including monks from Iona) by King Domnall Brecc of Dalriada and marches south to claim his inheritance. He clashes with King Cadwallon of Gwynedd at the Battle of Heavenfield. Despite having superior numbers, Cadwallon is killed, and King Oswald victorious. The former Queen Ethelburga of Deira packs up her infant sons and step-grandson and flees to France for fear that, as offspring of her husband, King Edwin, Oswald will have them murdered. The Deiran Royal Court at Yeavering is probably abandoned at this time. Oswald re-introduces Christianity to Northumbria, though James the Deacon is still ministering to the people of Swaledale. The chief among the monks who accompanied the King from Dalriada attempts to convert the Northumbrians, but meets with little success. Oswald calls on Iona to send an evangelical Bishop. King Sigebert of East Anglia retires to the monastery of Burgh Castle and entrusts the kingdom to his cousin, Egric, who had already been deputising in part of the country. St. Birinus arrives as a bishop from Genoa to convert the people of Mercia. He, however, decides to halt in Wessex instead. He preaches to King Cynegils of Wessex near Cholsey. Birth of St. Cuthbert and St. Wilfred. 635 - King Penda of Mercia aims to gain Anglia and attacks his rivals in East Anglia. Ex-King Sigebert is forced to leave his monastery in order to join King Egric in battle against the invaders. Sigebert and Egric are both killed in the fighting. Sigebert is later revered as a saint. Egric's brother, Anna, succeeds to the East Anglian throne. St. Aidan, Bishop of Scattery Island, arrives to evangelise Northumbria and founds the Bishopric and Priory of Lindisfarne. Under pressure from King Oswald of Northumbria, King Cynegils of Wessex, is persuaded to let St. Birinus convert him to Christianity. Cynegils' eldest son, Cwichelm, resists. Cynegils is baptised at Dorchester-on-Thames and gives Birinus the town for a cathedral. Birinus is made the first Bishop of Wessex. Oswald acts as godfather and agrees to enter into a strategic alliance with Wessex against Mercia. The agreement is cemented by the marriage of King Oswald to King Cynegils' daughter, Princess Cyniburg. c.635 - St. Finnian and St. Aebbe, half-sister of King Oswald of Northumbria, found the monastery of Coldsbury at St. Abbs. 636 - St. Birinus converts Prince Cwichelm of Wessex to Christianity. The latter dies soon after. He is supposedly buried at Scutchamer Knob in East Hendred. 637 - King Oswald of Northumbria probably sends troops to Ireland to assist King Domnall Brecc of Dalriada in his alliance with King Congal Caech of Ulster during the Irish dynastic wars. They are defeated at the Battle of Mag Rath. 638 - King Oswald and his Northumbrian army conquer Edinburgh. His half-brother, Prince Oswiu of Bernicia, marries Princess Rhiainfelt, heiress of North Rheged. Northumbria probably embraces North Rheged in a peaceful takeover. Oswiu may have been sub-King there for a time. c.640 - St. Maildulph settles in Malmesbury. 640 - Death of King Eadbald of Kent. He is succeeded by his sons, Earconbert as overking and Eormenred as King of West Kent. St. Aebbe moves her monastery from St. Abbs to Coldingham Priory. Foundation of Hartlepool Abbey by Princess Hieu (of Ireland) who becomes the first Abbess. 641 - Prince Oswiu of Bernicia conquers Gododdin as far north as Manau, on behalf of his half-brother, King Oswald. 642 - King Penda of Mercia commands a united British and Mercian force against King Oswald of Northumbria. The British army includes the men of Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd, Eluan of Powys and Cynddylan of Pengwern. Oswald is killed at the Battle of Oswestry, as is Prince Eowa of Mercia, probably sub-King of Wrocenset. Oswald is buried at Bardney Abbey and is later made a saint. He is succeeded by his half-brother, Oswiu, in Bernicia, but he is found to be unacceptable to the Deirans. The Mercians become dominant in Midland Britain. 643 - King Oswiu of Bernicia sends to Kent for Princess Eanflaed, daughter of King Edwin of Deira. She sails north to Bamburgh and the two are married. Despite this, Oswiu still fails to secure Deira. King Penda of Mercia seizes control of Lindsey and Elmet. Death of King Cynegils of Wessex. He is succeeded by his son, Cenwalh, who promptly repudiates his Royal Mercian wife. 644 - Despite armed objections from King Oswiu of Bernicia, Oswine, the son of Osric of Deira, establishs himself as King of Deira, possibly with Mercian support. Death of Bishop Paulinus of Rochester. 645 - King Cenwalh of Wessex is driven from his kingdom by his one time brother-in-law, King Penda of Mercia. He flees to the Court of King Anna of East Anglia. Penda overruns Wessex. 647 - Death of Bishop Felix of Dunwich. He is buried at Soham and is later made a saint. c.647 - Princess (& Saint) Hilda of Deira is persuaded by St. Aidan to enter monastic life at Hartlepool Abbey. 648 - St. Wilfred enters Lindisfarne Priory. King Cenwalh of Wessex returns to reclaim his kingdom. He gives 3,000 hides of land around Ashdown to his nephew, Cuthred, possibly sub-King of Berkshire. c.648 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invites St. Birinus to establish the Old Minster in Winchester. They create a small stone church. 649 - Death of Abbes Hieu of Hartlepool. She is succeeded by St. Hilda. 650 - Death of Bishop Birinus of Wessex. He is buried at Dorchester-on-Thames and later made a saint. King Cenwalh of Wessex invites the Frankish priest, St. Agilbert, to succeed him. c.650 - The Mercians, under King Penda, move on East Anglia, destroy the monastery at Burgh Castle and expel King Anna who probably flees to Magonset. It may have been at this time that Penda takes control of Magonset and installs his son, Merewalh as King there. King Oswiu of Bernicia founds Melrose Abbey. St. Aidan sends St. Eata to be the first Abbot with St. Boisil as his Prior. Oswiu seeks Irish support against the forces of King Penda of Mercia. While in Ireland he has a liaison with Fin, the (grand) daughter of Colman Rimid Ui Neill. Prince Aeldfrith is born soon afterward. Re-establishment of London as a Saxon trading community at Aldwich. 651 - King Oswiu of Bernicia has King Oswine of Deira murdered at Gilling, after the later backs down from conflict. Oswine is buried at Tynemouth Priory where he is later made a saint. He is succeeded by the late King Oswald of Northumbria's son and Oswiu's nephew, Aethelwald. King Aethelwald of Deira appears to initially accept his uncle's overlordship. Queen Eanflaed donates the estate of Gilling for the foundation of a monastery in recompense for her second cousin's murder. Death of St. Aidan, Bishop of Lindisfarne. He is succeeded by St. Finan. Death of St. Boisil, Prior of Melrose. He is succeeded by St. Cuthbert. 652 - King Penda's Mercian army invades Bernicia and besieges King Oswiu at Bamburgh. 653 - King Penda of Mercia establishes full control of Middle Anglia and makes his son, Peada, king there. In return for the daughter of King Oswiu of Bernicia, Princess Alchflaed, Peada accepts baptism, into the Christian church, by Saint Finan of Lindisfarne, at Wattbottle. The Middle Anglians have already been influenced by East Anglian Christianity and King Peada allows St. Cedd to envangelise his kingdom further. King Sigeberht II of Essex is then also persuaded by Oswiu, his overlord, to adopt Christianity as part of a general mobilization against King Penda of Mercia. Northumbrian missionaries under St. Cedd are despatched to Essex where he founds the monastery at Bradwell-on-Sea. Talorcan I, the nephew of King Oswiu of Bernicia is crowned Pict King through right of his mother. He probably accepts Northumbrian overlordship. St. Wilfred leaves Lindisfarne for Kent, then travels on to Lyons and Rome. c.653 - King Aethelwald of Deira rejects his uncle's overlordship and turns to King Penda of Mercia instead. Penda mounts another attack of Bernicia. 654 - King Penda of Mercia and his armies invade East Anglia and kill King Anna. The King is buried at Blythburgh and a monastery is founded at Iken to commemorate his life. Anna's brother, Aethelhere, succeeds as King of East Anglia and accepts Mercian rule. St. Cedd returns to Northumbria to be consecrated as Bishop of Essex, with his seat in St. Paul's, London. He is given land by King Aethelwald of Deira on which he founds Lastingham Priory. c.654 - Foundation of the first religious community at Waltham Abbey, with a wooden church. 655 - King Penda of Mercia and a united Mercian and British army march on the Bernicians. Oswiu of Bernicia, with an army only a third the size, retreats to Stirling, the most northerly city in his kingdom. It lay in the oppressed sub-Kingdom of Manau-Gododdin. From here, Oswiu sends envoys to offer Penda money in return for holding off his armies. Penda appears to have taken the cash and distributed it amongst his British allies. However, having been taken from the oppressed Northern British in the first place, this is viewed as a restitution of rightful property. Penda and his allies invade Bernicia anyway, and the two armies meet at the Battle of Winwaed. Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd and Aethelwald of Deira, however, withdraw before the battle begins. This contributes to Penda's defeat and he and his ally, Aethelhere of East Anglia, are both killed in the fighting. Aethelhere's brother, Aethelwold, succeeds to the East Anglian throne. King Oswiu's son, Ecgbert is released by the Mercians. The Bernicians overrun Mercia, but allow Penda's son, Peada, to continue to rule in Middle Anglia, probably due to his Christianity. King Peada helps the Mercian nobleman, Saxulf, to found Peterborough (Medshamstead) Abbey. The latter becomes the first Abbot. Bishop (& Saint) Finan of Lindisfarne sends St. Diuma to be the first Bishop of Mercia, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. Oswiu's daughter, Aelfflaed, is given as a novice to her second cousin, St. Hilda, Abbess of Hartlepool, in compliance with a promise King Oswiu had made. 656 - King of Oswiu of Bernicia invades Pengwern and kills King Cynddylan, and his brother, King Eluan of Powys, in battle. The Pengwernian Royal family flee to Glastening. Mercians take control of Pengwern and may have invaded Powys. Murder of King Peada of Middle Anglia through the treachery of his wife. Direct Northumbrian rule of all Mercia. c.656 - King Aethelwald of Deira is removed from office by his uncle, King Oswiu of Bernicia, and replaced by the latter's son, Ealhfrith, as sub-king in a united Northumbria. 657 - The foundation of Whitby Abbey. St. Hilda and her cousin, Princess Aelfflaed, move from Hartlepool to Whitby, where St. Hilda is made Abbess. King Edwin of Deira's body is transferred to Whitby, where he is made a saint. The foundation of Ripon Abbey by monks from Melrose. St. Eata, Abbot of Melrose becomes first Abbot of Ripon. 658 - The Ealdormen of Mercia rebel against Northumbrian domination and re-establish their independence under Penda's son, Wulfhere. Death of Bishop Diuma of Mercia, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. He is buried at Charlbury. King Cenwalh and the Wessex Saxons make a push against Dumnonia (possibly under a King Culmin). They are victorious at the Battle of Penselwood and the Dumnonia-Wessex border is set at the River Parrett. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria. c.658 - St. Etheldreda, daughter of the late King Anna of East Anglia, marries King Tondberht of South Gyrwe. The East Anglians gain rule of this area of Middle Anglia. 660 - King Sigeberht II of Essex is murdered by his brothers, Swithelm and Swithfrith, and other kinsmen for being "too ready to pardon his enemies" the Christians. St. Cedd flees north to the Court of King Aethelwald of East Anglia. Swithelm becomes King of Essex, possibly with Swithfrith as joint-monarch for a period. King Cenwalh of Wessex becomes unhappy with his local Bishop, St. Agilbert of Dorchester, as he does not speak West-Saxon, and splits the See of Wessex in two. Wine becomes the first Bishop of Winchester. Agilbert resigns and goes to Northumbria. The Mercians take control of Dorchester and appoint Aetla as Bishop. Death of King Talorcan I of the Picts, possible overthrow of Northumbrian overlordship in the kingdom. King Merewalh of Magonset is converted to Christianity. c.660 - King Ealhfrith of Deira begins to follow a religious policy independent of his father, King Oswiu of Northumbria, by rejecting the ways of the Ionian Church in favour of those of Rome. Foundation of the monastery of Repton, by monks from Peterborough. King Merewalh of Magonset founds Leominster Priory. 661 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invades Dumnonia. He is victorious at the Battle of Posbury. Saxon settlers found Somerset in Eastern Dumnonia. Death of the Wessex sub-King, Cenberht. He is probably succeeded by his son, Caedwalla. King Wulfhere of Mercia and his army sack the Berkshire Downs around Ashdown and move south to conquer the Meonware and the Isle of Wight. St. Wilfred is given Ripon Abbey by King Aldfrith of Northumbria. St. Eata is removed and Wilfred becomes Abbot. Death of Bishop Finan of Lindisfarne. He is later revered as a saint and succeeded by St. Colman. c.662 - King Swithelm of Essex is converted to Christianity and baptised by St. Cedd at the Court of King Aethelwald of East Anglia who acts as his sponsor. East Anglia may have held some sort of overlordship over Essex at this time. 663 - Bishop Wine of Winchester moves the Bishop's Seat north again to Dorchester and the Mercian Bishop Aetla is removed. c.663 - Probable invasion of Pictland by King Oswiu of Northumbria. He establishes overlordship of, at least, the Southern Pictish sub-kingdoms of Fortriu and Fib (and possibly Circinn). 664 - The Synod of Whitby is hosted by St. Hilda. It is called to discuss whether the Northern British should comply with the doctrines of Rome, rather than follow the Irish Celtic practices of Iona. Bishop (& Saint) Colman of Lindisfarne, Abbess (& Saint) Hilda of Whitby and Bishop (& Saint) Cedd of Essex speak for the established Celtic ways (with Cedd as interpreter). They are opposed by Abbot (& Saint) Wilfred of Ripon and the former Bishop (& Saint) Agilbert of Dorchester. The latter are triumphant and St. Colman resigns his See in protest. He is replaced by Tuda who dies of the Plague soon afterward. Tuda is then succeeded as Abbot, by St. Eata former Abbot of Ripon who brings his prior, St. Cuthbert, from Melrose Abbey to Lindisfarne. St. Wilfred is appointed Bishop of Northumbria and transfers the See from Lindisfarne to York. Bishop Cedd of Essex also dies of Plague, along with his brother, Cynebil, at his foundation of Lastingham Priory. Cedd is buried there and later revered as a saint. He is succeeded, as Abbot, by his brother, St. Chad, but the See of Essex at London remains vaccant. Death of King Earconbert of Kent. He is succeeded by his son, Ecgbert I, who promptly has his cousins, Aethelred and Aethelbert murdered in order to secure his position. They are subsequently revered as saints. A great plague sweeps the country. Death of King Aethelwold of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his nephew, Eadwulf. Death of King Tondberht of South Gyrwe. His widow, St. Etheldreda, marries Prince Ecgfrith of Northumbria. c.664 - King Oswiu of Northumbria removes his son, King Ealhfrith, from his throne in Deira. The Bernician throne controls all of Northumbria. 665 - Death of King Swithelm of Essex. He is succeeded by his cousins, Sighere and Sebbi. The followers

Germanic tribes

The term Germanic tribes (or Teutonic tribes) applies to the ancient Germanic peoples of Europe. The Germanic tribes spoke mutually intelligible dialects and shared a mythology (see Germanic mythology) and storytelling, as is indicated by Beowulf and the Volsunga saga. One example of their shared identity is their common Germanic name for non-Germanic peoples,
- walhaz (plural of
- walhoz), from which the local names Welsh, Wallis, Walloon, Wallachia and Cornwall were derived. A second example of a recognized ethnic unity is the fact that the Romans knew them as one and gave them a common name, Germani, the source of our German and Germanic (see Etymology below). In the absence of large-scale political unification, such as that imposed forcibly by the Romans upon the peoples of Italy, the various tribes remained free, led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders.

Etymology of "German"

As the Germanic tribes never called themselves so, but the Romans first knew them as allies of the Celts, Germani is thought to be the Celtic name for them. However, there is also a Latin adjective germanus (<- germen, seed or offshoot), which has the sense of "related" or "kindred" and whence derives the Portuguese irmão and the Spanish hermano, "brother". If the proper name Germani derives from this word, it may refer to the Roman experience of the Germanic tribes as allies of the Celts. Another possible derivation is the one proffered by The Oxford Etymological Dictionary (1966 Edition), which relates the name to Old Irish gair, "neighbor", which actually means "near". The Welsh is ger. Considering the earliest historical relationship between the Germans and the Celts, "neighbor" ought perhaps to be interpreted as "ally." McBain's An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language relates the word to Irish gearr, "cut, short" (a short distance) and states the Proto-Celtic root to be
- gerso-s, further related to ancient Greek chereion, "inferior" and English gash. Here the etymological trail seems to recede into a prehistoric morass, but there is a good reason for this disappearing trail. English gash leads by one path or another to the Greek word character, which is an engraving for an identity sign of some sort. There is no clear root for this word. It could be an Indo-european root,
- khar-,
- kher-,
- ghar-,
- gher-, "cut", from which also Hittite kar-, "cut". Or, it could be a pre-Indo-European root, related perhaps to Egyptian kha-, "cut", or the Indo-European root could come from the pre-Indo-European root. The self names for the Germanics reveal something of a unity as well. The best known are the Deutsch/Dutch/Dietsch /Dansk words, which come from Indo-European
- teuta-, "tribe" or "people". Not all the Germanics use that word, but there is another, used by all, which is so obvious that it escapes notice: man. We read of the man first in the Germania of Tacitus (Chapter 2, Oxford text): :"Celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos memoriae et annalium genus est, Tuistonem deum terra editum. ei filium Mannum originem gentis conditoresque Manno tres filios adsignant..." :"They celebrate, in ancient songs, which are the only kind of memory and annals among them, Tuisto, the god brought forth from the earth, and assign to him a son, Mannus, the author, and three sons to Mannus, the founders, of the people..."

History

Origin

Mannus]] Regarding the question of ethnic origins, evidence developed by both archaeologists and linguists suggests that a people or group of peoples sharing a common material culture dwelt in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia during the late European Bronze Age (1000 BC-500 BC). This culture group is called the Nordic Bronze Age and spread from southern Scandinavia into northern Germany. The long presence of Germanic tribes in southern Scandinavia (an Indo-European language had probably arrived by 2000 BC) is also evidenced by the fact that no pre-Germanic place names have been found in this area. Linguists, working backwards from historically-known Germanic languages, suggest that this group spoke proto-Germanic, a distinct branch of the Indo-European language family. Cultural features at that time included small, independent settlements, and an economy strongly based on the keeping of livestock. Indo-European, ca 500 BC-60 BC. The area south of Scandinavia is the Jastorf culture]] The southward movement was probably influenced by a deteriorating climate in Scandinavia ca 600 BC - ca 300 BC. The warm and dry climate of southern Scandinavia (2-3 degrees warmer than today) deteriorated considerably, which not only dramatically changed the flora, but forced people to change their way of living and to leave settlements. At around this time, this culture discovered how to extract bog iron from the ore in peat bogs. Their technology for gaining iron ore from local sources may have helped them expand into new territories. The Germanic culture grew to the southwest and southeast, without sudden breaks, and it can be distinguished from the culture of the Celts inhabiting the more southerly Danube and Alpine regions during the same period. The details of the expansion are known only generally, but it is clear that the forebears of the Goths were settled on the southern Baltic shore by 100 AD. According to some scholars, along the lower and middle Rhine, previous local inhabitants seem to have come under the leadership of Germanic figures from outside.

Collision with Rome

By the late 2nd century, B.C., Roman authors recount Gaul (modern France), Italy, and Iberia (modern Portugal and Spain) were invaded by migrating Germanic tribes, culminating in military conflict with the armies of the Roman Empire. Six decades later, Julius Caesar invoked the threat of such attacks as one justification for his annexation of Gaul to Rome. Julius Caesar, an ethnographic work on the diverse group of Germanic tribes outside of the Roman Empire.]] As Rome advanced her borders to the Rhine and Danube, incorporating many Celtic societies into the Empire, the tribal homelands to the north and east emerged collectively in the records as Germania, whose peoples were sometimes at war with the Empire, but who also engaged in complex and long-term trade relations, military alliances, and cultural exchanges with their neighbors to the south. The wars against the Cimbri and Teutoni whose military incursion into Roman Italy was thrust back in 101 BC were written up by Caesar and others as historical prototypes of a Northern danger for the Empire to be controlled. In the Augustean period there was - as a result of Roman activity as far as the Elbe River - a first definition of the "Germania magna": from Rhine and Danube in the West and South to the Vistula and the Baltic Sea in the East and North. Caesar's ethnographic excurses finally established the term Germania. The initial purpose of the Roman campaigns was to protect Gaul by controlling the area between the Rhine and the Elbe. In 9 AD a revolt of their subject Germanics headed by Arminius (decisive defeat of Quintilius Varus in the Teutoburg Forest) ended in the withdrawal of the Roman frontier to the Rhine. At the end of the 1st century two provinces west of the Rhine called Germania inferior and Germania superior were established. Important medieval cities like Aachen, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Worms and Speyer were part of these Roman structures.

Migration Period

:Main article: Migration Period During the 5th century, as the Roman Empire drew toward its end, numerous Germanic tribes, under pressure from invading Asian peoples and/or population growth and climate change, began migrating en masse in far and diverse directions, taking them to England and as far south through present day Continental Europe to the Mediterranean and northern Africa. Over time, this wandering meant intrusions into other tribal territories, and the ensuing wars for land escalated with the dwindling amount of unoccupied territory. Wandering tribes then began staking out permanent homes as a means of protection. Much of this resulted in fixed settlements from which many, under a powerful leader, expanded outwards. A defeat meant either scattering or merging with the dominant tribe, and this continued to be how nations were formed. In Denmark the Jutes merged with the Danes, in Sweden the Geats merged with the Swedes. In England, for example, we now most often refer to the Anglo-Saxons rather than the two separate tribes.

Role of the Germanics in the Fall of Rome

Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently blamed in popular conceptions for the fall of the Roman Empire in the late 5th century. Professional historians and archaeologists have since the 1950s shifted their interpretations in such a way that the Germanic peoples are no longer seen as invading a decaying empire but as being co-opted into helping defend territory the central government could no longer adequately administer. Individuals and small groups from Germanic tribes had long been recruited from the territories beyond the limes (i.e., the regions just outside the Roman Empire), and some of them had risen high in the command structure of the army. Then the Empire recruited entire tribal groups under their native leaders as officers. Assisting with defense eventually shifted into administration and then outright rule, as Roman traditions of government passed into the hands of Germanic leaders. Odoacer, who deposed Romulus Augustulus, is the ultimate example. The presence of successor states controlled by a nobility from one of the Germanic tribes is evident in the 6th century - even in Italy, the former heart of the Empire, where Odoacer was followed by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, who was regarded by Roman citizens and Gothic settlers alike as legitimate successor to the rule of Rome and Italy.

Culture

Italy.]] See: Germanic king, Germanic paganism The Germanic tribes were each politically independent, under a hereditary king. The kings appear to have claimed descendancy from mythical founders of the tribes, the name of some of which is preserved:
- Angul — Angles (the Kings of Mercia, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, other Anglo-Saxon dynasties are derived from other descendents of Woden)
- Aurvandil — Vandals (uncertain)
- Burgundus — Burgundians
- Cibidus — Cibidi
- Dan — Danes
- Gothus — Goths
- Ingve — Ynglings
- Irmin — Irminones
- Longobardus — Lombards
- Saxneat — Saxons
- Valagothus — Valagoths

Conversion to Christianity

The Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Vandals were Christianized while they were still outside the bounds of the Empire; however, they converted to Arianism rather than to orthodox Catholicism, and were soon regarded as heretics. The one great written remnant of the Gothic language is a translation of portions of the Bible made by Ulfilas, the missionary who converted them. The Lombards were not converted until after their entrance into the Empire, but received Christianity from Arian Germanic groups. The Franks were converted directly from paganism to Catholicism without an intervening time as Arians. Several centuries later, Anglo-Saxon and Frankish missionaries and warriors undertook the conversion of their Saxon neighbours. A key event was the felling of Thor's Oak near Fritzlar by Boniface, apostle of the Germans, in 723. Eventually, the conversion was forced by armed force, successfully completed by Charlemagne, in a series of campaigns (the Saxon Wars), that also brought Saxon lands into the Frankish empire.

Languages

- Germanic languages

List of Germanic tribes

- Adrabaecampi, Alamanni, Ambrones, Ampsivarii, Angles, Angrivarii, Avarpi, Aviones
- Baemi, Banochaemae, Batavii or Batavi, Batini, Bavarii, Brisgavi, Brondings, Bructeri, Burgundiones, Buri (Germanic tribe)
- Calucones, Canninefates, Caritni, Chaedini, Chaemae, Chali, Chamavi, Charudes, Chasuarii, Chattuarii, Chauci, Cherusci, Chatti, Cimbri, Cobandi, Condrusi, Corconti
- Dani, Dauciones, Diduni, Dulgubnii
- Eburones, Eudoses
- Favonae, Firaesi, Fosi (Germanic tribe), Franks, Frisians, Fundusi
- Gambrivii, Geats, Gepidae, Goths
- Harii, Hasdingi, Helisii, Helveconae, Heruli, Hermunduri, Hilleviones
- Ingriones, Ingvaeones (North Sea Germans), Intuergi, Irminones (Elbe Germans), Istvaeones (Rhine-Weser Germans)
- Jutes, Juthungi
- Lacringi, Landi, Lemovii, Levoni, Lombards or Langobardes, Lugii
- Manimi, Marcomanni, Marsi (Germanic), Marsigni, Mattiaci, Mugilones
- Naharvali, Nemetes, Nertereanes, Nervii, Njars, Nuitones
- Ostrogoths
- Parmaecampi, Pharodini
- Quadi
- Racatae, Racatriae, Reudigni, Rugii, Ruticli
- Sabalingi, Saxons, Scirii, Segni, Semnoni, Sibini, Sidini, Sigulones, Silingi, Sitones, Suarini, Suebi, Suiones, Sugambri
- Tencteri, Teuriochaemae, Teutons, Treviri, Triboci, Tubantes, Tungri, Turcilingi
- Ubii, Usipetes, Usipi
- Vandals, Vangiones, Varini, Varisci, Visburgi, Visigoths
- Zumi Precautionary Note: These ethnic names were culled from a variety of ancient and mediaeval sources dating from the middle of the 1st millennium BC to the early 2nd millennium AD. They do not necessarily represent contemporaneous, distinct or Germanic-speaking populations. The peoples referenced do not necessarily have common ancestral populations. Some identities closely fit the concept of a tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes. Some may not have spoken Germanic at all, but were bundled by the sources with the Germanic speakers. Some were undoubtedly of mixed culture. Some tribes may have assimilated to Germanic; others to other cultures from Germanic. Long-lasting ethnic identities changed population base and language over the centuries. As for genetic characteristics, they must be considered unrelated to these names. Apart from these limitations, it is probably safe to assume that, on the whole, most of these populations spoke some branch of Germanic and contributed to pools of descendants who currently live in the Germanic-speaking countries. Many of the names descend to modern place names. Some tribal maps of ancient Germany can be found at:
- [http://www.ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/tacitusc/germany/map.htm Germany of Tacitus]
- [http://www.reisenett.no/map_collection/historical/Ancient_Germania.jpg A speculative Findlay map of 1849] Note: these maps or any other maps represent an interpretation of the information available to the map-maker. Typically the ancients did not know or did not leave enough information for us to locate them exactly. The maps only give us a rough idea of the features and ethnic locations of ancient Germany. In addition, some of tribes, e.g. the Bastarnae are not identified as Germanic with any certainty and large areas in Central Europe the Germanic tribes probably only constituted a newly arrived minority among Slavs and remaining Celts. Wolfram (1990:91f), for instance, points out that the early Visigoths, called Tervingi also comprised many Taifalans (unknown origin) and Alans (Iranians). The Alans became so Gothicized that non-Germanic people considered them to be Goths.

Classification

The concept of "Germanic" as a distinct ethnic identity was hinted at by the early Greek geographer Strabo [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198;query=section%3D%2341;chunk=section;layout=;loc=7.1.1], who distinguished a barbarian group in northern Europe similar to, but not part of, the Celts. Posidonius, to our knowledge, is the first to have used the name. By the 1st century A.D., the writings of Caesar, Tacitus and other Roman era writers indicate a division of Germanic-speaking peoples into tribal groupings centred on:
- the rivers Oder and Vistula (Poland) (East Germanic tribes),
- the lower Rhine river (Istvaeones),
- the river Elbe (Irminones),
- Jutland and the Danish islands (Ingvaeones). The Istvaeones, Irminones, and Ingvaeones are collectively called West Germanic tribes. In addition to this those Germanic people who remained in Scandinavia are referred to as North Germanic. These groups all developed separate dialects, the basis for the differences among Germanic languages down to the present day. The divison of peoples into west-Germanic, east-Germanic, and north-Germanic was a 19th century hypothesis of linguists. Many Greek scholars only classified Celts and Scyths in the Northwest and Northeast of the Mediterranean and this classification was widely maintained in Greek literature until Late Antiquity. Latin-Greek ethnographers (Tacitus, Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, and Strabo) mentioned in the first two centuries AD the names of peoples they classified as Germanic along the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Danube, the Vistula and on the Baltic Sea. Tacitus mentioned 40, Ptolemy 69 peoples. Classical ethnography applied the name Suebi to many tribes in the first century. It appeared that this native name had all but replaced the foreign name Germanic. After the Marcomannic wars the Gothic name steadily gained importance. Some of the ethnic names mentioned by the ethnographers of the first two centuries AD on the shores of the Oder and the Vistula (Gutones, Vandali) reappear from the 3rd century on in the area of the lower Danube and north of the Carpathian Mountains. Modern scholarship has no explanation for the ethnic processes causing this continuity. For the end of the 5th century the Gothic name can be used - according to the historical sources - for such different peoples like the Goths in Gaul, Iberia and Italy, the Vandals in Africa, the Gepids along the Tisza and the Danube, the Rugians, Sciri and Burgundians, even the Iranian Alans. These peoples were classified as Scyths and often deducted from the ancient Getae (most important: Cassiodor/Jordanes, Getica approx. 550 AD).

The concept of Volk

In the last decade of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st there has been debate about exactly what "tribe" or "people" meant to these groups, whose fluidity and willingness to sometimes blend is seen while at the same time forced mergers as a result of war were taking place and the tribe as it had been known vanished. The late classical sources are especially clear in the matter of the blended nature of the Alamanni. The idea of a unified German people, or Volk, was expressed openly in print by 19th century Ethnic Nationalist writers and thinkers after the Napoleonic Wars. Such an identity, however, had existed more implicitly since the Middle Ages, helping to fuel the Protestant Reformation, when many Germanic lands pulled away religiously and politically from the Roman Catholic Church.

Angeln

Angeln (Danish: Angel) is a peninsula in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, protruding into the Baltic Sea. It is separated from the peninsula of Schwansen by the Schlei inlet, and from the Danish island of Als by the Flensburger Förde ("firth of Flensburg"). The region is believed by many to be the area the Angles left when migrating to Great Britain in the 5th-6th centuries. The word in itself means "hook", e.g. as in angling for fish. England and the English language takes its name from the Angles, and thus ultimately from the Angeln peninsula. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states: (after the Angles' migration to Great Britain) "Of the Angles - the country they left has since stood empty between the Jutes and the Saxons." Category:Schleswig-Holstein Category:England Category:English language

Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is located in Northern Europe, from 53 deg. to 66 deg. north latitude and from 20 deg. to 26 deg. east longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainlands of Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, Central Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Öresund, the Great Belt and the Little Belt. Kattegat then continues in the Skagerrak into the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Baltic Sea is linked to the White Sea by the White Sea Canal and directly to the North Sea by the Kiel Canal. Kiel Canal

Name

The first one to name it the Baltic Sea was Adam of Bremen and he seems to have based it on a large island, Baltia, mentioned by Xenophon and located in northern Europe.

Etymology

It is possibly connected to the Germanic belt, a name used for some of the Danish straits, while others claim it to be derived from Latin balteus (belt). From this use, Baltic has been applied to the Baltic countries. Another proposed derivation from the Indo-European root [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/piet&text_number=+129&root=config
- bhel] meaning white, shining seems speculative.

The name in other languages

The Baltic Sea is known by the equivalents of "East Sea", "West Sea", or "Baltic Sea" in different languages:
- In the Germanic languages except English East Sea is used: Danish (Østersøen), Dutch (Oostzee), German (Ostsee), Norwegian (Østersjøen), and Swedish (Östersjön); in addition, Finnish, a Balto-Finnic language has calqued the Swedish term as Itämeri, disregarding the geography; the sea is west of Finland.
- In another Balto-Finnic language, Estonian, it is called the West Sea (Läänemeri).
- Baltic Sea is used in English; in Latin (Mare Balticum) and the Romance languages French (Mer Baltique), Italian (Mar Baltico), Romanian (Marea Baltică) and Spanish (Mar Báltico); in the Slavic languages Polish (Morze Bałtyckie or Bałtyk), Kashubian (Bôłt), and Russian (Baltiyskoye Morye (Балтийское море)); and in the Baltic languages Latvian (Baltijas jūra) and Lithuanian (Baltijos jūra). ; Notes # [http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/nfbb/0435.html] (in ).

Geophysical data

The Baltic Sea is a brackish inland sea, the largest body of brackish water in the world. The fact that it does not come from the collision of plates, but is a glacially scoured river valley, accounts for its relative shallowness.

Dimensions

The Baltic sea is about 1610 km (1000 mi) long, an average of 193 km (120 mi) wide, and an average of 55 m (180 ft, 30 fathoms) deep. The maximum depth is 459 m (1506 ft, 251 fathoms), on the Swedish side of the center. The surface area is about 377,000 sq km (145,522 sq mi) and the volume is about 21,000 cubic km (3129 cubic mi). The periphery amounts to about 8000 km (4968 mi) of coastline. [http://www.envir.ee/baltics/geograph.htm] These figures are somewhat variable because a number of different estimates have been made.

Icing in winter

The Baltic sea is iced in winter, except for the deepest regions in the center. Ice begins in the Gulf of Bothnia in October or November. Fast ice, attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering the ports unusable without the services of icebreakers. Level ice, ice sludge, pancake ice or rafter ice form in the more open regions. The gleaming expanse of ice is similar to the arctic, with wind-driven pack ice and ridges up to 15 m, and was noted by the ancients. The degree of icing depends on whether the winter is mild, moderate or severe. Severe winters ice even the regions around Denmark and southern Sweden, leaving open only a relatively small extent south of Gotland. The ice reaches a maximum extent in February or March. By June it is gone.

Hydrography

The Baltic Sea is effluent through the Danish straits; however, the flow is complex. A surface layer of brackish water discharges 940 cubic km per year into the North Sea. Due to the difference in salinity, a sub-surface layer of more saline water moving in the opposite direction brings in 475 cubic km per year. It mixes very slowly with the upper waters, resulting in a salinity gradient from top to bottom, with most of the salt water remaining below 40 to 70 m of depth. The difference between the outflow and the inflow comes entirely from fresh water. More than 250 streams drain a basin of about 1.6 million square km, contributing a volume of 660 cubic km per year to the Baltic. They include the major rivers of north Europe, such as the Oder, the Vistula, the Neman and the Neva. Some of this water is polluted. Additional fresh water comes from the difference of precipitation less evaporation, which is positive. Despite the influx of salt water in the lower levels, the Baltic is still more of a lake or river than a sea. Tides are negligible. Wave height in calm weather varies between 2 and 3 m. Violent and sudden storms often sweep the surface, due to large transient temperature differences and a long reach of wind.

Salinity

Salinity is much lower than in the ocean, varying from 0.1 percent in the north to 0.6-0.8 percent in the center. Below 40-70 m, it can be as much as 1.5-2.0 percent. A lateral salinity gradient also exists from most saline in the northern Kattegat to least saline in the Northern Gulf of Bothnia. The most saline water remains on the bottom, creating a barrier to the exchange of Oxygen and nutrients, fostering totally different maritime environments.

Regional emergence

The land is still emerging from its subsident state, which was caused by the weight of the last glaciation. Consequently, the surface area and the depth of the sea are diminishing. The uplift is about eight millimetres per year on the Finnish coast of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia .

Geographic data

Subdivisions

The northern part of the Baltic Sea is known as the Gulf of Bothnia out of which the northernmost part is referred to as the Bay of Bothnia. Immediately to the south of it lies the Sea of Åland. The Gulf of Finland connects the Baltic Sea with St. Petersburg. The Northern Baltic Sea lies between the Stockholm area, southwestern Finland, and Estonia. The Western and Eastern Gotland Basins form the major parts of the Central Baltic Sea. The Gulf of Riga lies between Riga and Saaremaa. Bay of Gdańsk lies east of the Hel peninsula on the Polish coast and west of Sambia in Kaliningrad Oblast. Bay of Pomerania lies north of the islands of Usedom and Wolin, east of Rügen. Bornholm Basin is the area east of Bornholm and Arkona Basin extends from Bornholm to the Danish isles of Falster and Zealand. Between Falster and the German coast lie the Bay of Mecklenburg and Bay of Lübeck. The westernmost part of the Baltic Sea is the Bay of Kiel. The three Danish straits, the Great Belt, the Little Belt and The Sound (Öresund) connect the Baltic Sea with the Kattegat bay and Skagerrak strait in the North Sea. The confluence of these two seas at Skagen on the northern tip of Denmark is a visual spectacle visited by many tourists each year.

Land use

The Baltic sea drainage basin is roughly four times the surface area of the sea itself. About 48% of the region is forested, with Sweden and Finland containing the majority of the forest, especially around the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. About 20% of the land is used for agriculture and pasture, mainly in Poland and around the edge of the Baltic sea proper, in Germany, Denmark and Sweden. About 17% of the basin is unused open land with another 8% of wetlands. Most of the latter are in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The rest of the land is heavily populated.

Demographics

About 85 million people live in the Baltic drainage basin, 15 within 10 km of the coast and 29 within 50 km of the coast. Around 22 million live in cities, defined as centers of over 250,000. 90% of these are concentrated in the 10 km band around the coast. Of the nations containing all or part of the basin, Poland includes 45% of the 85 million, Russia 12%, Sweden 10% and the others (see below) less than 6% each.

Geologic history

The Baltic Sea somewhat resembles a riverbed, with two tributaries (the Gulf of Finland and Gulf of Bothnia). From geological surveys it has become apparent that there was a river in the area prior to the Pleistocene: the Eridanos. Multiple glaciations in the Pleistocene scooped out the river bed into the sea basin. By the time of the last, or Eemian interglacial (MIS 5e), the Eemian sea was in place. From that time the waters underwent a geologic history summarized under the names listed below. Many of the stages are named after certain marine animals (e. g., the Littorina mollusk) that are clear markers of changing water temperatures and salinity. The factors that determined the sea’s characteristics were the submergence or emergence of the region due to the weight of ice and subsequent isostatic readjustment, and the connecting channels it could find to the North Sea-Atlantic either through the straits of Denmark or at what are now the large lakes of Sweden, and the White Sea-Arctic Sea.
- Eemian sea, 130,000-115,000 BP
- Baltic ice lake, 12,600-10,300 BP
- Yoldian sea, 10,300-9500 BP
- Ancylus lake, 9500-8000 BP
- Mastogloia sea 8000 BP-7500 BP
- Littorina sea, 7500-4000 BP
- Post-littorina sea 4000 BP-current

Prehistory

History

At the time of the Roman Empire, the Baltic Sea was known as the Mare Suebicum or Mare Sarmaticum. Tacitus in his AD 98 Agricola and Germania described the Mare Suebicum, named for the Suebi tribe, during the spring months, as a brackish sea when the ice on the Baltic Sea broke apart and chunks floated about. The Sarmatian tribes inhabited Eastern Europe and southern Russia. Jordanes called it the Germanic Sea in his work the Getica. Since the Viking age, the Scandinavians have called it "the Eastern Lake" (Austmarr, "Eastern Sea", appears in the Heimskringla and Eystra salt appears in Sörla þáttr), but Saxo Grammaticus recorded in Gesta Danorum an older name Gandvik, "-vik" being Old Norse for "bay", which implies that the Vikings correctly regarded it as an inlet of the sea. (Another form of the name, "Grandvik", attested in at least one English translation of Gesta Danorum, is likely to be a misspelling.) In addition to fish the sea also provides amber, especially from its southern shores. The bordering countries have traditionally provided lumber, wood tar, flax, hemp, and furs. Sweden had from early medieval times also a flourishing mining industry, especially on iron ore and silver. Poland had and still has extensive salt mines. All this has provided for rich trading since the Roman times. In the early Middle Ages, Vikings of Scandinavia fought for power over the sea with Slavic Pomeranians. The Vikings used the rivers of Russia for trade routes, finding their way eventually all the way to Black Sea and southern Russia. Lands next to the sea's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted into Christianity in the Northern Crusades: Finland in the 12th century by the Swedes, and what are now

Anglo-Saxons

Etymology

Origins of the word

Use of the term "Anglo Saxon" today

The Anglo-Saxon Invasions

The "Anglo-Saxon conquest" controversy

Historians

Y chromosome analysis

Anglo-Saxon culture

Anglo-Saxon architecture

Anglo-Saxon art

Anglo-Saxon language

Anglo-Saxon literature

Anglo-Saxon religion

Timeline from 597 to 1066

Germanic tribes

Etymology of "German"

History

Origin

Collision with Rome

Migration Period

Role of the Germanics in the Fall of Rome

Culture

Conversion to Christianity

Languages

List of Germanic tribes

Classification

The concept of Volk

See also

Further reading

Angeln

Baltic Sea

Name

Etymology

The name in other languages

Geophysical data

Dimensions

Icing in winter

Hydrography

Salinity

Regional emergence

Geographic data

Subdivisions

Land use

Demographics

Geologic history

Prehistory

History