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B-52 Stratofortress

B-52 Stratofortress

The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is a long-range strategic bomber flown by the United States Air Force since 1954, replacing the Convair B-36 and the Boeing B-47. Although built for the role of Cold War-era nuclear deterrent, its conventional capabilities are these days the more important role in USAF operations, where its long range, heavy weapons load and fearsome reputation have proven valuable.

Mission

Air Combat Command's B-52 is a long-range heavy bomber that can perform a variety of missions. The bomber is capable of flying at high subsonic speeds at altitudes up to 50,000 feet (15 km). It can carry nuclear or precision guided conventional ordnance and has the capability to navigate the world precisely.

Background

For more than 50 years, the B-52 Stratofortress has been the backbone of the manned strategic bomber force for the United States. The B-52 is capable of dropping or launching a wide array of weapons in the U.S. inventory, including gravity bombs, cluster bombs, precision guided missiles and Joint Direct Attack Munitions. When updated with the latest technology, the B-52 will be capable of delivering the full complement of joint developed weapons; allowing it to continue into the 21st century as an important element of U.S. military capabilities. Current engineering analyses show the B-52's life span to extend beyond the year 2045. 2045Two B-52 prototypes were built, and were designated XB-52 and YB-52. In actuality, both aircraft were almost identical, but the YB-52 incorporated enough changes to warrant a different designation. The most notable difference between the prototypes and the B-52A was that the X and Y aircraft used a tandem cockpit for the pilot and co-pilot, very similar to that on the B-47. The cockpit for the B-52A was completely redesigned due to the insistence of General Curtis LeMay, Commander of the Strategic Air Command, who was opposed to the tandem seating arrangement. Although the XB-52 was the first prototype to be completed and rolled out, the YB-52 was the first to fly - on April 15, 1952 - due to damage on the XB-52's wing trailing edges caused by a hydraulic system failure. The XB-52 eventually flew for the first time on October 2, 1952. Unfortunately, both aircraft were scrapped in the mid-1960s, though the YB-52 was available for viewing in the USAF Museum from the late '50s until the time when it was decided to scrap it. The B-52A first flew in August 1954 and the B model entered service in 1955. A total of 744 B-52s were built with the last, a B-52H, delivered in October 1962. Only the H model is still in the Air Force inventory and is assigned to Air Combat Command and the Air Force Reserves. The oldest B-52 still flying was a B-52B that was built in 1955, though it also has the fewest flight hours of any surviving B-52. It was operated by NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center and was used for drop tests of various research aircraft until its retirement on December 17, 2004. On July 30, 2001, Dryden received a B-52H that is expected to fully replace the older B-model aircraft by the end of 2004. The first of 102 B-52H's was delivered to Strategic Air Command in May 1961. The H model can carry up to 20 air launched cruise missiles. In addition, it can carry the conventional cruise missile that was launched in several contingencies during the 1990s, starting with Operation Desert Storm and culminating with Operation Allied Force. The B-52 contributed to the U.S. success in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, providing the ability to loiter high over the battlefield and provide Close Air Support (CAS) through the use of precision guided munitions. The long range and endurance of the B-52 provided a U.S. presence unmatched by any other combat aircraft. B-52's also played a key role in the second Gulf War in 2002-2003 (Operation Iraqi Freedom), where they provided close air support and bombing. The Air Force intends to keep the B-52 in service until around 2050, an unprecedented length of service for an aircraft model. This is especially amazing considering that the last plane was built in 1962; the Air Force fully expects to be flying 90-year-old airframes. Boeing has suggested re-engining of the B-52H fleet with the Rolls-Royce RB211 534E-4. This would involve replacing the eight Pratt & Whitney TF33s (total thrust 17,000 lb or 605 kN) with four RB211s (total thrust 37,400 lb.). The RR engines will increase the range/payload of the fleet and reduce fuel consumption. However the cost of the project would be significant. Procurement would cost approximately $2.56 billion ($36 million × 71 aircraft). A General Accounting Office study of the proposal concluded that Boeing's estimated savings of $4.7 billion would not be realized. They found that it would cost the Air Force $1.3 billion over keeping the existing engines. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-52-upgrade.htm] Another recently approved upgrade for the B-52 is the B-52 SOJ (Stand Off Jammer) program which will allow it to assume an airborne communications/jamming role. Approximately a quarter of the fleet will be converted to take on this mission, with the Air Force seeking funding to convert the entire fleet. The B-52 SOJ will retain all of its bomber functions and capabilities, however now after having expended its weapons load it will continue to loiter over the combat area providing electronic warfare cover for follow on strikes. The additional equipment will be carried in 30 ft external pods under the wings. [http://www.isrjournal.com/story.php?F=1166029]

Features

In a conventional conflict, the B-52 can perform strategic attack, air interdiction, offensive counter-air and maritime operations. During Operation Desert Storm, B-52s delivered 40 percent of all the weapons dropped by coalition forces. All B-52s are equipped with an electro-optical viewing system that uses platinum silicide forward-looking infrared and high resolution low-light-level television sensors to augment targeting, battle assessment, and flight safety, thus further improving its combat ability and low-level flight capability. Pilots wear night vision goggles (NVGs) to enhance their vision during night operations. Night vision goggles provide greater safety during night operations by increasing the pilot's ability to visually clear terrain, avoid enemy radar and see other aircraft in a covert/lights-out environment. Starting in 1989, on-going modifications incorporates the Global Positioning System, heavy stores adapter beams for carrying 2,000 pound (900 kg) munitions, and a full array of advanced weapons currently under development. The use of aerial refueling gives the B-52 a range limited only by crew endurance, or in the extreme, required maintenance. It has an unrefueled combat range in excess of 8,800 statute miles (14,000 km). It is highly effective when used for ocean surveillance, and can assist the U.S. Navy in anti-ship and mine-laying operations. Two B-52s, in two hours, can monitor 140,000 square miles (364,000 km²) of ocean surface. If on land, this area is about as large as a circle centered at New York City and covered as far as Washington, DC, Syracuse and Boston (radius = 212 statute miles or 340 km). However, the actual shape of coverage would vary. The aircraft's flexibility was evident in Operation Desert Storm and again during Operation Allied Force. B-52s struck wide-area troop concentrations, fixed installations and bunkers, and ruined the morale of Iraq's Republican Guard. The Persian Gulf War involved the longest strike mission in the history of aerial warfare when B-52s took off from Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, launched conventional air launched cruise missiles and returned to Barksdale—a 35 hour, non-stop combat mission. During Operation Allied Force, B-52s opened the conflict with conventional cruise missile attacks and then transitioned to delivering general purpose bombs and cluster bomb units on Serbian army positions and staging areas.

General characteristics

staging area
- Contractor: Boeing Military Airplane Co.
- Speed: 650 mph, 1000 km/h (Mach 0.86)
- Range: Unrefueled 8,800 statute miles (14,200 km)
- Armament: Approximately 70,000 lb (31,500 kg) mixed ordnance—bombs, land mines and missiles. (Modified to carry air-launched cruise missiles, AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship and AGM-142 Have Nap missiles.)
  - The nuclear weapons capacity has previously included B28, B43, B53, B61, and B83 free-fall nuclear bombs, or various combinations of twelve AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missiles (ACMS), 20 AGM-86A Air Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCM) and eight bombs.
  - The B-52A through F carried a tail-mounted armament of four .50 cal (12.7 mm) machine guns with the gunner sitting in the tail, The B-52G retained the quad .50 cals but the gunner moved up front with the rest of the crew and controlled the guns via remote. The B-52H replaced the quad .50's with a single 20 mm M61A1 Vulcan which offered much greater defensive fire power. In the mid-1990s, the tail gun was removed from all of the B-52H aircraft to reduce weight.
  - The G and H models are distinguishable from previous models due to their shorter (by 8 feet) vertical tailplane. This configuration had previously been tested on a B-52A.
  - The H model is distinguishable from all previous variants by having visually different engine pods. The B-52H uses TF33-3 turbofan engines, which provided 20% greater range, 70% more thrust and are considerably quieter than the J57 engine which had been used on all previous variants
  - The B-52 is the only known bomber to have shot down jet-powered fighter aircraft; one unit of the type shot down two MiG-17 fighter planes during the Vietnam War.
- Accommodations: Five (Pilot, Co-Pilot, Navigator, Radar Navigator (AKA Bombardier) & Electronic Warfare Officer with all sitting in ejection seats
- Unit Cost: $74 million
- Date Deployed: February 1955 · Inventory: Active force, 85; ANG, 0; Reserve, 9

Production


- XB-52 - The first B-52 prototype. 1 built
- YB-52 - The second protoype. 1 built
- B-52A - The first production model. 3 built
- B-52B - 50
- RB-52B - 27 B-52Bs converted into reconnaissance aircraft. 2X 20mm Cannon Replaced 4X .50 cal in tail
- B-52C - 35
- B-52D - 170
- B-52E - 100
- B-52F - 89
- B-52G - 193
- B-52H - 102
  - Total produced - 744

Specifications (B-52H)

right

Trivia


- Among its crew, the B-52 is affectionately known as the "BUFF", an acronym for "big ugly fat fucker" (or "big ugly fat fellow" in more polite company).
- The B-52's wheels are all steerable, because the enormous wingspan of the plane means it cannot always orient itself properly with the runway when landing in a strong cross-wind. The wheels are made to point down the runway even if the nose of the plane does not.
- A hairstyle known as the "B-52", because of its resemblance to the nose cone of this aircraft, was popular in the 1950s, 60s and 70s.
- The musical band The B-52's were not directly named after this aircraft, but after the B-52 hairstyle members of the band wear.
- There is also a cocktail named for the B-52, the B-52 shooter.
- The B-52 bomber gained notoriety after Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb Cold War movie satire. The cockpit of the plane is one of only four movie settings. The Air Force refused to allow Stanley Kubrick permission to photograph the cockpit interior; he developed his B-52 cockpit by extrapolating from photos of the interior of a B-50 Superfortress. His guess was so accurate that his production company was later investigated by the Department of Defense.
- In The Living Daylights,a B-52 was parked at a British base in Gibraltar.
- The NASA B-52B Mothership, NASA tail number 008, was retired from active service with NASA on 17 December, 2004, after almost 50 years flying service. This was the B-52 famous for dropping such aerospace research vehicles as the X-15, X-24, HiMAT, Lifting Body vehicles, X-43, and others. It was the oldest active B-52 at the time, having first flown on June 11, 1955, and entering service with NASA in 1959. It was the last B-52B in service.
- The B-52's longevity is marked by the fact that in at least one family of airmen, the grandfather, father, and son have all served as B-52 crew.
- Two of the six ejection seats eject downwards from the bottom of the plane.
- In the early 1980s Boeing submitted an unsolicited proposal for a "Super" B-52. It would have offered upgraded engines, improved electronics and avionics and vastly improved ergonomics for the crew. The plan was considered but dropped in favor of the B-1B that was then being considered to replace the then-20+ year old B-52G/H fleet.
- On the night of December 27, 1972, North Vietnamese pilot and future cosmonaut Pham Tuan became the first person ever to shoot down a US B-52 bomber, during the Vietnam War. The bomber had been circling the Hanoi sky during the US campaign Operation Rolling Thunder.
- As part of the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty between the United States and Russia, 365 B-52s were flown to the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Arizona. The bombers were stripped of all usable parts, then unceremoniously chopped into five pieces by a 13,000-pound steel blade dropped from a crane. The modern-day guillotine crashed down four times on each plane, severing the mammoth wings and leaving the fuselage in three pieces. The ruined B-52s remained in place for three months in order for orbiting Russian satellites to confirm the bombers had been destroyed, after which they were sold for scrap at 12 cents a pound.

Related content

Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1950-1959 Category:Vietnam War aircraft

External links


- http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-52_hist.htm -- detailed historical overview
- http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=83 -- B-52 Stratofortress Fact Sheet
- [http://fmc.dotnet-services.nl/operation_iraqi_freedom.htm USAF B-52 mission flights from Fairford to Iraq (2003) monitored by the Frequency Monitor Centre]
- [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-005-DFRC.html NASA Dryden B-52 fact sheet] ja:B-52 (爆撃機)

Strategic bombing

Strategic bombing is a military strategem used in a total war style campaign that attempts to destroy the economic ability of a nation-state to wage war. It is a systematically organized and executed attack from the air. It is different from the tactical event of strategic bombing, which involves strategic bomber aircraft, cruise missiles, or fighter-bomber aircraft attacking targets determined during the organization of the strategic bombing campaign. The distinction between tactical and strategic bombing can be easily blurred. Strategic bombing missions usually attack targets such as factories, railroads, oil refineries and cities, while tactical bombing missions attack targets such as troop concentrations, command and control facilities, airfields, and ammunition dumps. The act of traveling to the target and dropping bombs, even if part of a strategic bombing campaign, is a tactical event. Strategic bombers tend to be large, long-range aircraft; tactical bombers are mostly relatively small. However, the distinction does not lie in the aircraft type used or the assigned target, it lies in the purpose of the attack. Tactical bombing aims to defeat individual enemy military forces. Strategic bombing aims to undermine a nation-state's ability to wage war, historically as a part of a total war strategy. total war]]

Methods used to deliver ordnance

There are three basic methods used to deliver ordnance onto targets in a strategic bombing campaign. The first is carpet bombing using strategic bombers. The second is the use of more precise ordnance, precision-guided munitions such as so called smart bombs, delivered from cruise missiles or aircraft. The third method involves the use of large nuclear weapons, used in a method similar to carpet bombing. Although the use of nuclear weapons falls into the category of strategic bombing, perhaps as the ultimate form thereof, the term is usually used in reference to conventional bombing from aircraft or cruise missiles. Carpet bombing by multiple modern strategic bombers like the B-52 can be likened to an hour during the Somme bottled into a thirty second time period. Even with smaller bombers in World War II, this form of attack is terrible to behold. In general, this delivery method has not proved very effective, due to the imprecise nature of the attack, and the attention garnered to the almost inevitable civilian casualities. The use of smart weapons is generally preferred for two reasons. First, it is more humane. Due to the greater accuracy (the smaller CEP) of precision weapons, there is less risk of civilian casualities. The second reason is the increased damage associated with the precision weapons. Carpet bombing can destroy an entire block, but miss the vital components of a factory. Precision weapons can attack the precise components of designated targets, increasing the likelihood of a successful attack.

History and origins

Balkan Wars

The first ever aerial bombardment was on October 16, 1912 by a Bulgarian military airplane during the Balkan Wars, 1912-13. The pilot Radul Milkov and an observer named Prodan Tarakchiev flew on a reconnaissance mission over the Turkish army’s positions in Edirne. During the flight, the pilot and observer dropped bombs placed in specially designed compartments outside the airplane. The bombs were dropped over a Turkish military base.

World War One

Strategic bombing was first used in World War I, though it was not understood in its present form. From quite early in World War I, aircraft were used to drop improvised explosive packages on the enemy. Within a year or so, specialized aircraft and dedicated bomber squadrons were in service on both sides. This was tactical bombing: it had the aim of directly harming enemy troops, strongpoints, or equipment, usually within a relatively small distance of the front line. Eventually, during World War I, attention turned to the possibility of causing indirect harm to the enemy by systematically attacking vital rear-area resources. The first ever aerial bombardment of civilians was on January 19, 1915, in which two German Zeppelins dropped 24 fifty-kilogram high-explosive bombs and ineffective three-kilogram incendiaries on the Eastern England towns of Great Yarmouth, Sheringham, Kings Lynn, and the surrounding villages. In all, four people were killed, sixteen injured, and monetary damage was estimated at £7,740, although the public and media reaction were out of proportion to the death toll. There were a further nineteen raids in 1915, in which 37 tons of bombs were dropped, killing 181 people and injuring 455. Raids continued in 1916. London was accidentally bombed in May, and, in July, the Kaiser allowed directed raids against urban centres. There were 23 airship raids in 1916 in which 125 tons of ordnance were dropped, killing 293 people and injuring 691. Gradually British air defences improved. In 1917 and 1918 there were only eleven Zeppelin raids against England, and the final raid occurred on August 5, 1918, which resulted in the death of KK Peter Strasser, commander of the German Naval Airship Department. By the end of the war, 51 raids had been undertaken, in which 5,806 bombs were dropped, killing 557 people and injuring 1,358. The Zeppelin raids were complemented by the Gotha bomber, which was the first heavier than air bomber to be used for strategic bombing. It has been argued that the raids were effective far beyond material damage in diverting and hampering wartime production, and diverting twelve squadrons and over 10,000 men to air defences. The French army on 15th of June 1915 attacked the German town of Karlsruhe killing 29 civilians and wounding 58. Further raids followed until 1918. In contrast, the British launched their own form of strategic bombing: there were attacks by bombers of the RNAS against the Zeppelin production area and its hangars. Following the war, the concept of strategic bombing developed. The calculations which were performed on the number of dead to the weight of bombs dropped would have a profound effect on the attitudes of the British authorities and population in the interwar years, because as bombers became larger it was fully expected that deaths from aerial bombardment would approach those anticipated in the Cold War from the use of nuclear weapons. The fear of aerial attack on such a scale was one of the fundamental driving forces of British appeasement in the 1930s.

Period Between World Wars

In the period between the two world wars, military thinkers from several nations advocated strategic bombing as the logical and obvious way to employ aircraft. Domestic political considerations saw to it that the British worked harder on the concept than most. The British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service of the Great War had been merged in 1917 to create a separate air force, which spent much of the following two decades fighting for survival in an environment of severe government spending constraints. Royal Air Force leaders, in particular Air Chief Marshal Hugh Trenchard, believed that the key to retaining their independence from the senior services was to lay stress on what they saw as the unique ability of a modern air force to win wars by unaided strategic bombing. As the speed and altitude of bombers increased in proportion to fighter aircraft, the prevailing strategic understanding became "the bomber will always get through." Although anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft had proved effective in the Great War, it was accepted that there was little warring nations could do to prevent massive civilian casualties from strategic bombing. High civilian morale and retaliation in kind were seen as the only answers. In Europe, the air power prophet General Giulio Douhet asserted that the basic principle of strategic bombing was the offensive and that there was no defense against carpet bombing and poison gas attacks. Douhet's apocalyptic predictions found fertile soil in France, Germany and the United States, where excerpts from his book The Command of the Air (1921) were published. These visions of cities laid waste by bombing also gripped the popular imagination and found expression in novels such as Douhet's The War of 19-- (1930) and H.G. Wells's The Shape of Things to Come (1933) (filmed by Alex Korda as Things to Come (1936)). Pre-war planners, on the whole, vastly over-estimated the damage that a handful of bombers could do, and underestimated the resilience of civilian populations. The speed and altitude of modern bombers, and the difficulty of hitting a target while under attack from improved ground fire and fighters was not understood. Jingoistic national pride played a major role: for example, at a time when Germany was still disarmed and France was England's only European rival, RAF chief Trenchard boasted that "the French in a bombing duel would probably squeal before we did." Partly because a repeat of the bloody stalemate of trench warfare was rendered impossible with the advent of modern armor, the expectation was that any new war would be brief and very savage. A British Cabinet planning document in 1938 predicted that, if war with Germany broke out, 35% of British homes would be hit by bombs in the first three weeks. (This type of expectation should be kept in mind when considering the conduct of the European leaders who appeased Hitler in the late 1930s)

World War II

Hitler raid on ball bearing works at Schweinfurt, Germany]] Strategic bombing during World War II was unlike anything the world has seen before or since. The campaigns conducted in Europe, and at the end of the war over Japan, could involve thousands of aircraft dropping tens of thousands of tonnes of munitions over a single city. The campaigns were conducted in Europe, China and Japan. The Germans and Japanese made use of twin-engined bombers with a payload of approximately one tonne and never developed larger craft to any extent. By comparison the British and Americans who started with similarly sized bombers and a few larger designs in 1939 developed their force into one based upon much larger four-engine bombers for their strategic campaigns. The payload carried by these planes ranged from 2.7 tonnes for the B-17 Flying Fortress through to 9 tonnes for the B-29 Superfortress and up to the 'Special B' Avro Lancaster carrying a 22,000 lb (9,979 kg) Grand Slam bomb. During the first year of the war in Europe, strategic bombing was developed through trial and error. The Luftwaffe had been indiscriminately attacking both civilian and military targets from the very first day of the war when Germany invaded Poland on 1st September 1939. 1150 German aircraft bombed Warsaw on September 24. The Luftwaffe campaign reached its height in 1940, when the Germans bombed Rotterdam, and then England, initially in daylight, then moving towards night bombing when losses became unsustainable. The British Royal Air Force also bombed Germany at night for the same reasons. The United States Army Air Force adopted a policy of daylight bombing for greater accuracy, as for example, during the Schweinfurt raids. That however entailed much higher American losses until fighter escorts became available. The two most well known examples of strategic bombing in the European war theatre were the bombing of Coventry by the Germans on 14 November 1940 and the Allied bombing of Dresden on 13 February of 1945. Strategic bombing was a way of demonstrating a war within Europe even while the Allied ground forces were no closer to fighting Germans on occupied soil than North Africa. Between them the Allied air forces were able to bomb around the clock. The USAAF with well defended aircraft by day in precision raids against specific targets such as industrial sites and the British with their less protected bombers crossing under cover of night into Germany and massing by the hundreds over the cities. The British led the way in targeting specific strategic targets forming key parts of the German industrial infrastructure. The application of technology to enable a few aircraft to bomb with absolute precision otherwise unassailable targets in attacks on the German Ruhr dams, viaducts and Hitlers special weapons projects. Strategic bombing in Europe never reached the decisive completeness that the American bombing campaign in Japan achieved, helped in part by the fragility of Japanese housing which was particularly vulnerable to the use of incendiary bombs. The destruction of German infrastructure became apparent, but the Allied campaign against Germany only really succeeded when the Allies began targeting oil refineries towards the end of the war. At the same time strategic bombing of Germany was a morale boosting action in the period before land war resumed on the Western front. In the Pacific theatre, organized strategic bombing of China on a large scale by the Japanese seldom occurred, perhaps with exception of Chongqing. The Japanese army in most places advanced quickly enough to the extent that a strategic bombing campaign was unnecessary. In those places where it was required, the smaller Japanese bombers (in comparison to the ones the British and Americans were using) did not carry a bomb load sufficient to inflict the sort of damage that was occurring daily at that point in the war in Europe, or later in Japan. The development of the B-29 by the Americans gave the United States a bomber with sufficient range to reach the Japanese main islands. The capture of the Japanese island of Okinawa further enhanced the capabilities the Americans possessed in their strategic bombing campaign. Conventional bombs and incendiary bombs were used against Japan. Ultimately however, it was the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki which were to determine the end of the war.

Cold War

Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Thi, center, running down a road near Trang Bang after a napalm attack. Photographer: Huynh Cong Ut. (©Nick Ut/Associated Press)]] Nuclear weapons defined the tactics of strategic bombing during the Cold War. The age of the massive strategic bombing campaign had come to an end. It was replaced with more precise attacks using improved sighting and weapon arming technology. Strategic bombing by the great powers also became politically unfeasible. The political fallout resulting from the destruction broadcast on the evening news ended more than one strategic bombing campaign. In the Vietnam war, strategic bombing in Operation Rolling Thunder was supposed to be non-stop, but the lack of political will by the Johnson Administration meant that the campaign was never as effective as it could have been. The Nixon Administration continued its lack of long-term bombing during the two Operation Linebacker campaigns. Images such as Kim Phuc Phan Thi disturbed the American public enough to demand a stop to the bombardments. Due to this, and the ineffectiveness of carpet bombing, partly because of a lack of identifiable targets, new precision weapons were developed. The new weapons allowed for more effective and more efficient bombing with reduced civilian casualities. High civilian casualities had always been the hallmark of strategic bombing, but later in the Cold War, this began to change. The Israeli Air Force used strategic bombing during its brief but intense wars with its neighbors during the Six Day and Yom Kippur wars. Strategic bombing was entering a new phase of high intensity, specifically targeting factories which took years and millions of dollars to build. Eventually, a single mission could be considered to constitute a strategic bombing. The Israeli bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Osirak was one such event. The single mission put an end to Iraqi ability to produce nuclear weapons for at least seven years. The fusing of the tactical, strategic, and grand strategic in strategic bombing was becoming complete.

Post Cold War

Strategic bombing in the post Cold War era was defined by American advances in and use of smart munitions. Beginning in the First Gulf War, and then more markedly in the Kosovo War and the initial phases of the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, strategic bombing campaigns were marked by the heavy use of precision weaponry. This led to fewer civilian casualties associated with previous conflicts, though not a complete end to civilian death or injury. Strategic bombing took on a more personal role, as strikes against individual leaders were considered, and approved, in the case of Saddam Hussein, or disapproved, in the case of Slobodan Milošević. The idea of destroying, or not destroying a high-value personal target was not new. In World War II, the United States chose to use nuclear bombs against cities where the Japanese emperor did not reside. There were even rumors during the Kosovo War that strikes against one of Milošević's residences were held back due to a historical impressionist painting that was at the location. Cruise missiles and Ballistic missiles (such as the Scud) have replaced strategic bombers to an extent.

Technological Advances

With the advent of precision-guided munitions, many feel that strategic bombing has become a viable military strategy. Exactly how precise so called precision munitions are, is also open to question. However, others predict that 21st century warfare will be often asymmetrical, and therefore valid strategic targets will not exist.

Strategic Bombing Events

Among the most controversial instances of strategic bombing are:
- Strategic bombing of "uncivilized tribes" during the British mandate of Iraq
- Spanish Civil War
  - The Bombing of Guernica: the first aerial bombardment in history in which a civilian population was attacked with the apparent intent of producing total destruction.
- World War II
  - German attacks in The Blitz
  - Allied attacks on Berlin, Dresden and Hamburg, the last two later called Hiroshima of Germany by British military.
  - Bombing of Tokyo
  - US atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- Vietnam war
  - Bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, B-52s against bicycles and trucks
  - US bombing of Hanoi
  - US bombing of Cambodia
- Allied bombing of Iraq during the first Gulf War
  - Strategic bombing of civilian targets in Iraq
- Kosovo War
  - NATO bombing of industry and other civilian infrastructure in Serbia. Despite intensive work in selecting targets, many errors (of fact and of judgment) were made, including the accidental bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade and the deliberate bombing of the main TV centre in Belgrade. The bombing appears to have achieved the desired results -- the capitulation of the Serbian forces without having to commit large numbers of NATO ground troops.
- The 2003 invasion of Iraq
  - Precision laser and GPS guided bombs were used extensively, not only to damage and destroy Saddam Hussein's army but also to damage infrastructure such as communications, power and various government buildings. The campaign moved into the asymmetric warfare once strategic targets no longer existed or were not viable for targeting. Eventually, it became clear that the way to bomb effectively was to overwhelm the defences, and this was proved by the Thousand Bomber Raids, but Bomber Command did not have the front line order of battle to sustain this size raid for very long.

Pioneers of strategic bombing


- Henry H. "Hap" Arnold, USAF
- Giulio Douhet, Regia Aeronautica (Italy)
- Arthur "Bomber" Harris, RAF
- Curtis Le May, USAF
- Billy Mitchell, USAAC
- Carl Spaatz, USAF
- Hugh Trenchard, RAF Category:Aerial warfare Category:Military tactics Category:Military strategy

See also


- Air raid shelter
- Air raid precautions
- John Kenneth Galbraith, an US government economist who concluded that the bombing of Germany during World War II did not shorten the war
- Terror bombing ja:戦略爆撃

Bomber

A bomber is a military aircraft designed to attack ground targets, primarily by dropping bombs.
- Strategic bombers are primarily designed for long-range strike missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, and shipyards. Examples: B-17 Flying Fortress, Avro Lancaster, B-52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-16, Tupolev Tu-160, Gotha G.
- Tactical bombers are smaller aircraft that operate at shorter range, typically along with troops on the ground. This role is filled by many designs, including those listed below. In modern terms, anything that is not a purpose-designed strategic bomber falls into this category.
- Ground-attack (or close air support) aircraft are designed to loiter over a battlefield and attack tactical targets, such as tanks, troop concentrations, etc. Examples: Stuka, Il-2 Shturmovik, A-10 Warthog, Sukhoi Su-25.
- Fighter-bombers are multi-role combat aircraft which can (at least theoretically) be equipped for either air-to-air combat or air-to-ground combat. Examples: Hawker Typhoon, F/A-18 Hornet, and the Panavia Tornado. Panavia Tornado bomber]] In the past, bombers were an obvious separate type, and often looked dramatically different from other types as well. This was due largely to the lack of power in aircraft engines, meaning that in order to carry any reasonable warload, the designs had to carry multiple engines. The result was a much larger aircraft, one with a reasonable useful load fraction for the role. Engine power was so scarce that designs had to be tailored to one particular niche; during World War II there were dive bombers, light, medium and heavy bombers, and specialized ground attack designs. Traditionally, bombers have carried only defensive armament, and are not designed to engage in combat with other aircraft. They are relatively large and unmaneuverable (although some have been as fast or faster than contemporary fighters). Attack aircraft are smaller, faster, and more agile, but less so than a fighter when armed for a ground attack mission. They may carry air-to-air armament, but typically only for self-defense. In modern air forces, the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurry. Many attack aircraft, even ones that look like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Indeed, the design qualities that make an effective low-level attack aircraft make for a distinctly inferior air superiority fighter, and vice versa. Conversely, many fighter aircraft, such as the F-16, are often used as 'bomb trucks,' despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling, which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations. The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the Cold War both because of spiraling costs and the advent of the intercontinental ballistic missile, which was felt to have equal deterrent value while being much more difficult to intercept. The USAF XB-70 Valkyrie program was cancelled for that reason in the early 1960s, and the later B-1 Lancer and B-2 Spirit aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s continued in use into the 21st century. Similarly, the Soviet Union fielded the intermediate-range Tupolev Tu-22M in the 1970s, but the Mach 3 bomber project came to naught. The Mach 2 Tupolev Tu-160 was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the earlier Tupolev Tu-16 and Tupolev Tu-95 heavy bombers of 1950s vintage to soldier on into the 21st century. Meanwhile, the British strategic bombing force largely came to an end with the phase-out of the V Bomber force (the last of which left service in 1983. The only other nation that fields a strategic bombing force at present is the People's Republic of China, which has a number of Chinese-built Tupolev Tu-16s. Plans in the US and Russia for successors to the current strategic bomber force remain only paper projects, and present political and funding pressures suggest that they are likely to for the foreseeable future. In the US, current plans call for the existing USAF bomber fleet to remain in service until the mid-to-late 2020s, with no replacement in sight.

See also:

bomb, V bomber, light bomber, dive-bombers, torpedo-bombers, strategic bombers, strategic bombing, stealth bombers, low-level bombing, carpet bombing, cruise missiles, Kamikaze, aerial bombing of cities, close air support, aerial interdiction, offensive counter air, terror bombing Category:Military aircraft ko:폭격기 ms:Pesawat pengebom ja:爆撃機

United States Air Force

The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aviation branch of the United States armed forces. The USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947. Previously, the Army was responsible for non-naval military aviation under the US Army Air Forces. The USAF is the largest modern air force in the world, with over 7,000 aircraft in service, and air bases around the world. Since World War I, the USAF and its predecessors have taken part in military conflicts throughout the world. The USAF is widely considered to be the most technologically advanced in the world. The stated mission of the USAF is "deliver sovereign options for the defense of the United States of America and its global interests -- to fly and fight in Air, Space, and Cyberspace".[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123013440]

History

The USAF was first formed on September 18, 1947, following the passing of the National Security Act. The Act created the Department of Defense, which was composed of three branches, the Army, Navy and a newly created Air Force. Prior to 1947, military aviation was the responsibility of the Army, while the Navy maintained a fleet air arm on its fleet of aircraft carriers. The Army branch was known as the US Army Air Corps and later the US Army Air Force.

Formation

The US military first began to experiment with military aviation in December 1906, when ‘’Army Specification #486’’ was authorized, which looked the creation of aircraft for military usage. In 1908, the Wright Brothers signed a contract with the Army to bolster the operations. The first air divisions were created following the establishment of an Aviation Section of the US Army Signal Corps.

World War I

In 1917, upon the United States' entry into World War I, the U.S. Army Air Service was formed as part of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Major General Mason Patrick commanded the AEF Air Forces; his deputy was Major General Billy Mitchell. The Air Service provided tactical support for the U.S. Army, especially during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne offensives. Among the aces of the Air Service were Captain Eddie Rickenbacker and Frank Luke. In 1926 the Air Service was reorganized as a branch of the Army and became the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC). During this period, the USAAC began experimenting with new techniques, including air-to-air refueling and the development of the B-9 and the Martin B-10, the first all-metal monoplane bomber, and new fighters. In 1937, the B-17 Flying Fortress made its first appearance. In a spectacular feat of navigation, three B-17s intercepted the Italian passenger liner Rex at sea.

World War II

Italian passenger liner Rex.]] World War II led to further changes. In 1941, the Army Air Corps became the U.S. Army Air Force and the GHQ Air Force was redesignated the Air Force Combat Command. In the major military reorganization effective March 9, 1942, the newly designated United States Army Air Forces gained equal voice with the Army and Navy. In Europe, the USAAF began daylight bombing operations, over objections of the Royal Air Force planners on the Combined Chiefs of Staff. The US strategy involved flying bombers together, relying on the defensive firepower of a close formation. The tactic was only successful in part. American fliers took tremendous casualties during raids on the oil refineries of Ploiesti, Romania and the ball-bearing factories at Schweinfurt and Regensburg, Germany. When the P-51 Mustang, with its increased range, was introduced to combat, American combat losses dropped, and operations during Big Week in late winter of 1944 caused the Luftwaffe to lose experienced pilots. In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the USAAF used the B-29 Superfortress to launch attacks on the Japanese mainland from China. One of the major logistical efforts of the war, "flying the Hump" over the Himalayas, took place. To carry both a bomb load and fuel and to bomb at high altitude through the jet stream affected the B-29's range. As soon as airbases on Saipan were captured in 1944, General Curtis LeMay changed strategy from high-level precision bombings to low-level incendiary bombings, aimed at destroying the distributed network of Japanese industrial manufacturing. Many Japanese cities suffered extensive damage. Tokyo suffered a firestorm in which over 100,000 persons died. The B-29 was also used to drop one primitive nuclear weapon on each of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in August 1945.

Post War

The United States Department of the Air Force was created when President Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947. It became effective September 18, 1947, when Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered the oath of office to the first secretary of the Air Force, Stuart Symington. The Korean War saw the Far Eastern Air Force losing its main airbase in Kimpo, South Korea, and forced to provide close air support to the defenders of the Pusan pocket from bases in Japan. However, General Douglas B. MacArthur's landing at Inchon in September 1950 enabled the FEAF to return to Kimpo and other bases, from which they supported MacArthur's drive to the Korean-Chinese border. When the Chinese People's Liberation Army intervened in December, 1950, the USAF provided tactical air support. The introduction of the Soviet-made MiG-15 caused problems for the B-29s used to bomb North Korea, but the USAF countered the MiGs with the F-86 Sabre.

Vietnam War

The USAF were heavily deployed during the Vietnam War. The first bombing raids against North Vietnam occurred in 1965 following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident in 1964. Codenamed, Operation Rolling Thunder, the purpose was to destroy the will of the North Vietnamese to fight, to destroy industrial bases and air defences, and to stop the flow of men and supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The USAF was to drop more bombs during this campaign than all the bombs dropped during World War II. The bombing campaign lasted until 1972. The bombing of villages using napalm, and the high civilian causalities in the North was controversial and led to massive anti-American protests throughout the world. Nevertheless, the operation was militarily effective, stopping a major North Vietnamese Army offensive in 1972.

Cold War

Following the end of World War II, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union began to sour, and the period in history known as the Cold War began. This period saw the United States enter a arms race with the Soviet Union, and competition to increase influence throughout the world. In response the United States expanded its military presence throughout the world. The USAF opened air bases throughout Europe, and later in Japan and South Korea. The United States also built air bases on the British overseas territories of British Indian Ocean Territory and Ascension Island in the South Atlantic. The first test for the USAF during the Cold War occurred in 1948 when Communist authorities in Eastern Germany cut off road and air transportation to West Berlin. The USAF, along with the Royal Air Force, supplied the city during the Berlin airlift, using C-121 Constellation and the C-54 Skymaster. The efforts of the USAF and RAF saved the city from starvation and forced the Soviets to back down in their blockade when they realised it wasn't working.

Bosnia and Kosovo

The USAF led NATO action in Bosnia in 1994 with air strikes against the Bosnian Serb. This was the first time that USAF aircraft took part in military action as part of a NATO mission. The USAF led the strike forces as the only NATO air force with the capability to launch significant air strikes over a long period of time. Later the USAF led NATO air strikes against Serbia during the Kosovo War. The forces were later criticised for attacking civilian targets in Belgrade, including a strike on the civilian television station, and a later attack which destroyed the Chinese Embassy.

Iraq and Afghanistan

Belgrade The USAF provided the bulk of the Allied air power during the first Gulf War in 1991. This was the first war that the F-117 Nighthawk was deployed. The Stealth fighter's capabilities were shown on the first night of the air war when they were able to bomb central Baghdad and avoid the Iraqi's sophisticated anti-aircraft defences. The USAF later patrolled the skies of Northern and Southern Iraq after the war to protect minorities persecuted by the Iraqi regime under Saddam Hussein. In 2001, the USAF was deployed against the Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Operating from Diego Garcia, B-52 Stratofortress attacked Taliban positions, and deploying daisy cutter bombs for the first time since the Vietnam War. During this conflict the USAF opened up bases in Central Asia for the first time. The USAF was more recently deployed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Following the defeat of Saddam Hussein’s regime, the USAF took over Baghdad International Airport as a base. USAF aircraft are used to provide support to Coalition and Iraqi forces in major operations to eliminate insurgent centers of activity and supply in north and west Iraq.

Organization

The Department of the Air Force consists of the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force (SECAF), the Air Staff, and field units.

SECAF

The Office of the SECAF includes the Secretary, Under Secretary, Assistant Secretaries, General Counsel, The Inspector General, Air Reserve Forces Policy Committee, and other offices and positions established by law or the SECAF. The Office of the SECAF has responsibility for acquisition and auditing, comptroller issues (including financial management), inspector general matters, legislative affairs, and public affairs. In 2004 the Secretary of the Air Force was Dr. James G. Roche who stepped down as SECAF on January 20th, 2005. In 2005 the Secretary of the Air Force is Michael Wynne.

Air Staff

Michael Wynne The Air Staff primarily consists of military advisors to the CSAF and the SECAF. This includes the Chief of Staff, Vice Chief of Staff, and Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force (CMSAF), four deputy chiefs of staff (DCS), the US Air Force Surgeon General, The Judge Advocate General, the Chief of the Air Force Reserve, and additional military and civilian personnel as the SECAF deems necessary. In 2005 the Chief of Staff of the Air Force was General (Gen) T. Michael Moseley. The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force is the senior enlisted person in the Air Force. In 2004 the position was held by Chief Master Sergeant (CMSgt) Gerald R. Murray.

Field Units

The Department of the Air Force field units are MAJCOMs, field operating agencies (FOA), and direct reporting units (DRU).

Major commands (MAJCOMs)

The USAF is organized on a functional basis in the United States and a geographical basis overseas. A major command (MAJCOM) represents a major Air Force subdivision having a specific portion of the Air Force mission. Each MAJCOM is directly subordinate to HQ USAF. MAJCOMs are interrelated and complementary, providing offensive, defensive, and support elements. An operational command consists (in whole or in part) of strategic, tactical, space, or defense forces; or of flying forces that directly support such forces. A support command may provide supplies, weapon systems, support systems, operational support equipment, combat material, maintenance, surface transportation, education and training, or special services and other supported organizations. The USAF is organized into nine MAJCOMS, 7 Functional and 2 Geographic, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force (HQ USAF):

Numbered Air Forces (NAF)

See main article: List of Numbered Air Forces The NAF is a level of command directly under a MAJCOM (Major Command). NAFs are tactical echelons that provide operational leadership and supervision. They are not management headquarters and do not have complete functional staffs. Many NAFs are responsible for MAJCOM operations in a specific geographic region or theater of operations. A NAF is assigned subordinate units, such as wings, groups, and squadrons.

Wings

See main article: List of Wings. The wing is a level of command below the NAF. A wing has approximately 1,000 to 5,000 personnel and a distinct mission with significant scope. It is responsible for maintaining the installation and may have several squadrons in more than one dependent group. A wing may be an operational wing, an air base wing, or a specialized mission wing.
Operational Wing
An operational wing is one that has an operations group and related operational mission activity assigned to it. When an operational wing performs the primary mission of the base, it usually maintains and operates the base. In addition, an operational wing is capable of self-support in functional areas like maintenance, supply, and munitions, as needed. When an operational wing is a tenant organization, the host command provides it with varying degrees of base and logistics support.
Air Base Wing
Some bases which do not have operational wings or are too large or diverse for one wing will have an Air Base Wing (ABW). The ABW performs a support function rather than an operational mission. It maintains and operates a base. An air base wing often provides functional support to a MAJCOM headquarters. Wings are composed of several groups with different functional responsibilities. Groups are composed of several squadrons, each of which has one major responsibility or flying one type of aircraft. Squadrons are composed of two or more flights.

Operational Organization

Air Base Wing The above organizational structure is responsible for the peacetime Organization, Equipping, and Training of aerospace units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the National Command Authority directs a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their peacetime alignment to a Combatant Commander (COCOM).

Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force (ASETF)

CHOPPED units are referred to as "forces". The top-level structure of these forces is the Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force (ASETF). The ASETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a COCOM for the employment of Air Power. Each COCOM is supported by a standing Warfighting Headquarters (WFHQ) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of COCOM requirements. Each WFHQ consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR), and AFFOR staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the WFHQ may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC.

Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR)

The COMAFFOR is the senior Air Force officer responsible for the employment of Air Power is support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.

Air Operations Center (AOC)

The AOC is the COMAFFOR's Command and Control (C²) center. This center is responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.

Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons

The ASETF generates air power to support COCOM objectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.

Aircraft

Main article: List of military aircraft of the United States The United States Air Force has roughly over 7,500 Aircraft commissioned as of 2004.[http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force#sources (1)] It currently employs a designation and naming system to identify all aircraft type with distinct names. Until 1962, both the Army and Air Force maintained one system, while the US Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense Aerospace Vehicle Designations.

Gallery of images

This is a gallery of the most well known USAF aircraft Image:Usaf.b52.750pix.jpg|B-52 Stratofortress Image:B1s.jpg|B-1 Lancer Image:Usaf.b2.spirit.750pix.jpg|B-2 Spirit ("Stealth Bomber") Image:Thunderbolt.a10.fairford.arp.jpg|A-10 Thunderbolt II ("Warthog") Image:F-16 CJ Fighting Falcon.jpg|F-16 Fighting Falcon Image:F-117 Nighthawk flight.jpg|F-117 Nighthawk ("Stealth Fighter") Image:F-15 takeoff.jpg|F-15 Eagle Image:Usaf.c130.750pix.jpg|C-130 Hercules

Uniform

The current U.S. Air Force uniform, adopted in 1993 and standardized in 1995, consists of a three-button, pocketless coat, similar to that of a men's "sport jacket" (with silver "U.S." pins on the lapels), matching trousers, and either a service cap or garrison cap, all in "Air Force Blue." This is worn with a light blue shirt and necktie in the same color as the coat and trousers. Enlisted members wear sleeve insignia on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the coat, and Air Force Blue slide-on loops on the shirt. Air Force personnel assigned to honor guard duties wear, for dress occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform, but with silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of medals, sword belt, and a silver shoulder cord. Between 1993 and 1995, officers had Navy/Coast Guard-style rank rings on the coat, but this was replaced with sewn-on epaulets with the rank insignia, with "welts" in the same color as the coat being worn on the sleeves, a distinctive item adopted from the U.S. Army. Prior to 1993, all Air Force personnel wore Air Force Blue uniforms nearly identical in appearance to that of the U.S. Army, which in fact, influence the current uniform regulations of the Army when it replaced its WWII/Korean-era olive drab uniforms with the modern-day "Army Green" uniforms of the Cold War era. For combat and work duty, ground crews wear standard battle dress uniform, which are currently being phased out in favor of an Air Force version of the Marine's MARPAT uniform, while pilots and air crews wear olive green or tan one-piece flight suits made of nomex for fire protection. Women's uniforms, which has changed little since its introduction in the late 1950's, generally is identical in appearance to that of the uniforms worn by women officers in the U.S. Army.

Common badges

:See also: Military badges of the United States
- Pilot Badge
- Navigator Badge
- Aircrew Badge
- Flight Surgeon Badge
- Occupational Badge
- Medical Badge
- Religious Pin
- Security Police badge

Rank Structure

Trivia

The US Air Force conducted the Project Blue Book investigation into UFOs and alien encounters.See UFO for data on the US Air Force Project Blue Book. Recently, given the USAF's attention to space exploration, rumors have stirred of a possible name change for the entire service, to United States Aerospace Force. However, this has yet to receive serious attention.

Sources

[http://www.britannica.com 2004 Encyclopædia Britannica]

See also


- Ranks and Insignia of NATO
- Comparative military ranks
- Civil Air Patrol
- Flight surgeon
- Evolutionary Air and Space Global Laser Engagement
- List of Air Forces
- List of U.S. Air Force bases
- Air Force Specialty Code
- Life support (aviation)
- Aircraft maintenance
- U.S. Air Force Band
- National Museum of the United States Air Force
- SERE
- AMMO
- UFO :Pertaining to the US Air Force's Bluebook Project
- Air Force Agency for Modeling and Simulation
- The U.S. Air Force, the official song of the USAF
- Chair force

External links


- [http://www.af.mil/ Official USAF website]
- [http://www.airforce.com Official USAF Recruiting site]
- [http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/ USAF History Support Office]
- [http://www.au.af.mil/au/afhra/ Air Force Historical Research Agency]
- [http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/ National Museum of the United States Air Force]
- [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/afb.htm US military air bases] by GlobalSecurity.org
- [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/usaf/ USAF organization and units] by GlobalSecurity.org
- [http://www.scramble.nl/usaf.htm USAF Order of Battle] at Scramble
- [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1411636384/qid=1123217876/sr=8-1/ref=pd_bbs_sbs_1/002-7742000-2043231?v=glance&s=books&n=507846 United States Air Force: History and Guide to Resources]
- Category:Air forces ja:アメリカ空軍

1954

1954 (MCMLIV) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events

January-February


- January 1 - Soviet Union no longer demands war reparations from East Germany
- January 12 - Large-scale avalanches in Austria - over 20 dead
- January 14 - The Hudson Motor Car Company merges with Nash-Kelvinator forming the American Motors Corporation
- January 14 - Marilyn Monroe weds Joe DiMaggio.
- January 15 - Mau Mau leader Waruhiu Itote is captured in Kenya
- January 17 - In Yugoslavia, Milovan Djilas, Tito's second-in-command, is relieved of his duties
- January 20 - The National Negro Network is established with 40 charter member radio stations
- January 21 - The first nuclear-powered submarine, the USS Nautilus, is launched in Groton, Connecticut, by First Lady of the United States Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower.
- January 25 - The foreign ministers of the United States, Britain, France and the Soviet Union meet at the Berlin Conference.
- January 26 - Milpitas, California was incorporated as a city.
- January 27 - Very freezing weather in Europe
- February 3 - Queen Elizabeth II is the first reigning monarch to visit Australia
- February 10 - President Dwight Eisenhower warns against United States intervention in Vietnam
- February 23 - The first mass vaccination of children against polio begins in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- February 25 - Lt. Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser is made premier of Egypt.

March-April


- March 1 - Nuclear testing: Officials announce that an American hydrogen bomb test had been conducted on Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.
- March 1 - Four Puerto Ricans open fire on United States House of Representatives and wound five. Security guards apprehend them.
- March 8 - PR Newswire founded in New York by Herb Muschel.
- March 9 - Edward Murrow and Fred W. Friendly produce a 30-minute See It Now special entitled "A Report on Senator Joseph McCarthy".
- March 12 - Finland and Germany officially end the state of war.
- March 13 - French troops begin battle against Vietminh in Dien Bien Phu.
- March 19 - Joey Giardello knocks out Willie Tory in round seven at Madison Square Garden in the first televised prize boxing fight shown in color.
- March 22 - The London bullion market reopens (it was closed in 1939).
- March 22 - London gold exchange opens for the first time since the war.
- March 23 - Viet Minh capture the main airstrip of Dien Bien Phu - French forces are partially isolated.
- March 25 - RCA manufactures first color TV set (12" screen; price: $1,000).
- March 25 - Soviet Union recognizes sovereignty of East Germany but Soviet troops remain in the country.
- March 29 - C-47 with Genevieve de Galard on board is incapacitated on Dien Bien Phu runway.
- March 30 - Canada's first subway opens in Toronto.
- April 1 - President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorizes the creation of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado.
- April 3 - Vladimir Petrov defects from the Soviet Union and asks to seek political asylum in Australia.
- April 7 - Dwight D. Eisenhower gives his "domino theory" speech during a news conference.
- April 12 - Original recording of "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley and the Comets.
- April 14 - – Aneurin Bevan resigns from the UK Labour shadow cabinet.
- April 22 - Senator Joseph McCarthy begins hearings investigating the United States Army for being "soft" on Communism.

May


- May 1 - Taku (city in Japan) founded
- May 6 - Roger Bannister runs the first four minute mile
- May 7 - Construction started on Michigan's Mackinac Bridge.
- May 7 - Vietnam War: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends in a French defeat (the battle began on March 13).
- May 14 - Boeing 707 released after about two years of development.
- May 17 - United States Supreme Court hands down its decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas 347 US 483 1954
- May 17 - Petrov Royal Commission in Australia begains it's inqury
- May 20 - Chiang Kai-shek is reelected president of the Republic of China by the National Assembly.
- May 20 - Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty launches Belarusian language programming (see also Piotra Sych).
- May 29 - Robert Menzies Government re-elected for 4th term in Australia.

June-July


- June 1 - Radio statio Sender Freies Berlin begins broadcasting
- June 9 - McCarthyism: Joseph Welch, special counsel for the United States Army, lashes out at Senator Joseph McCarthy during hearings on whether Communism has infiltrated the Army
- June 14 - On United States Flag Day, the words "under God" added to the Pledge of Allegiance
- June 15 - UEFA (the Union of European Football Associations) is formed in Basel, Switzerland
- June 17 - Military coup in Guatemala
- June 18 - Pierre Mendes-France becomes prime minister of France
- June 19 - The last regular-service streetcar operated by Twin City Rapid Transit runs in Minneapolis.
- June 27 - Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán steps down in a CIA-sponsored military coup–Operation PBSUCCESS–triggering a bloody civil war that would continue for more than 35 years.
- June 27 - The world's first atomic power station opened at Obnisnsk, near Moscow.
- July 3 - Food rationing ends in Britain
- July 4 - End of rationing of meat ends all the food rationing in Britain
- July 4 - West Germany beat Hungary 3-2 to win the
- July 5 - Andhra Pradesh High Court is established.
- July 7 - In Memphis, Tennessee, WHBQ becomes the first radio station to air an Elvis Presley record
- July 15 - Maiden flight of Boeing 707
- July 21 - First Indochina War: The Geneva Conference partitions Vietnam into North Vietnam and South Vietnam
- July 28 - Foundation of the Situationist International.
- July 31 - First ascent of K2, by an Italian expedition.

August-October


- August - First flight of a B-52 Stratofortress.
- August 6 - Emilie Dionne, one of the Dionne Quintuplets, dies of asphyxiation following a epileptic seizure at Sainte Agathe, Quebec.
- August 16 - Volume 1, Issue 1 of Sports Illustrated is published
- August 24 - President of Brazil, Getulio Vargas, commits suicide; he's been accused of conspiracy to murder an air force officer.
- September 3 - The last new episode of The Lone Ranger is aired on radio after 2,956 episodes over a period of 21 years
- September 6 - SEATO treaty signed in Manila, Philippines
- September 8 - The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) is established in Bangkok, Thailand
- September 9 - An earthquake centered on the city of Oleansville in Algeria - 1500 dead and thousands homeless
- September 11 - First Miss America Pageant broadcast on television
- September 14 - USSR tests nuclear weapon
- September 30 - USS Nautilus, 1st atomic-powered vessel (submarine), commissioned by the US Navy
- October 11 - Vietnam War: The Viet Minh takes control of North Vietnam.
- October 18 - Texas Instruments announces the worldwide first Transistor radio.
- October 20 - Dock workers' strike expands in England
- October 23 - West Germany joins NATO
- October 26 - – Member of Muslim Brotherhood Abdul Munim Abdul Rauf tries to kill Gamal Abdal Nasser
- October 31 - Algerian War of Independence: The Algerian National Liberation Front begins a revolt against French rule.

November-December


- November - The main immigration port-of-entry in New York Harbor at Ellis Island closes.
- November 2 - Dock workers' strike in England ends
- November 3 - The first in the Godzilla series of films is released in Japan.
- November 10 - US President Dwight D. Eisenhower dedicates the USMC War Memorial (Iwo Jima memorial) in Arlington National Cemetery
- November 13 - Don Estes invents the disrupter (a part to help combines work)
- November 14 - Egyptian president Mohammed Naguib is deposed - Gamal Abdel Nasser replaces him
- November 23 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at an all-time high of 382.74. More significantly, this is the first time the Dow has surpassed its 1929 peak level reached just before that year's crash.
- November 30 - In Sylacauga, Alabama, a 4 kg meteorite crashes through the roof of a house and hits Ann Hodges, badly bruising her, in the first documented case of an object from outer space hitting a person.
- December 2 - Red Scare: The United States Senate votes 67 to 22 to condemn Joseph McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute."
- December 24 - Laos becomes independent.

unknown dates


- The first organ transplants are done in Boston and Paris.
- Battle of Dien Bien Phu between French and Viet Minh forces in Indochina
- Boy Scouts of America desegregates on the basis of race
- Stop signs are changed from black-on-yellow to white-on-red
- Gerbils (Meriones Unguiculatus), brought to the United States by Dr. Victor Schwentker.
- Unification Church founded.
- Case of Lothar Malskat, who had admitted that he had painted the frescoes in Marienkirche himself, goes into trial

Births

January-February


- January 2 - Henry Bonilla, American politician
- January 4 - Dave "The Devilfish" Ulliott, English professional poker player
- January 6 - Anthony Minghella, British film director
- January 12 - Howard Stern, American radio host
- January 17 - Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., son of Robert F Kennedy and Ethel Skakel Kennedy and nephew of U.S president John F Kennedy and Edward M Kennedy
- January 22 - Peter Pilz, Austrian politician
- January 23 - Franco De Vita, Venezuelan singer and songwriter
- January 29 - Oprah Winfrey, American actress, talk show host, producer, and publisher
- January 29 - Yukinobu Hoshino, Japanese cartoonist
- February 1 - Bill Mumy, American actor and musician
- February 2 - Christie Brinkley, American model
- February 6 - Argusto Emfazie, American occultist and author
- February 12 - Philip Zimmermann, American cryptographer
- February 13 - Donnie Moore, baseball player (d. 1989)
- February 15 - Matt Groening, American cartoonist
- February 18 - John Travolta, American actor
- February 19 - Socrates, Brazilian footballer
- February 20 - Anthony Stewart Head, English actor
- February 20 - Patty Hearst, American heiress and kidnapping victim
- February 23 - Viktor Yushchenko, President of Ukraine
- February 25 - John Doe, American musician
- February 26 - Michael Bolton, American singer

March-June


- March 1 - Ron Howard, American actor, director, producer
- March 4 - Catherine O'Hara, Canadian actress
- March 8 - David Wilkie, Scottish swimmer
- March 13 - The Baroness Amos, British politician
- March 15 - Craig Wasson, American actor
- March 16 - Nancy Wilson, American singer, musician, and actress
- March 17 - Lesley-Anne Down, British actress
- March 24 - Robert Carradine, American actor
- March 29 - Karen Ann Quinlan, American right-to-die cause célèbre (d. 1985)
- April 7 - Jackie Chan, Hong Kong-born actor
- April 7 -