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Battle Of Neaje

Battle of Neaje

The Battle of Nesjar was a sea battle off the coast of Norway in 1016. The exact location is unkown, but it is somewhere in today's Langesundfjorden. The fighting parties were the throne claimant Olav Haraldsson (later Saint Olav) on one side, and an alliance backing the Swedish vassal Svein Ladejarl on the other. After the defeat of Olav Tryggvason at Svolder, Norway had been divided into a Swedish part governed by Svein Ladejarl and a Danish part run by Eirik Jarl. However, after Eirik joined his brother-in-law Canute the Great in his attempt to conquer England, Danish rule folded, and power was assumed by Olav Haraldsson, a throne claimant from the Harald Fairhair family line. Svein, who was based in Trøndelag, learned that Olav was rallying support in Eastern Norway. He set sail along the coast of Norway. Along the way he joined forces with those of several allies among Norway's farmer-chieftains. The most prominent of these was Erling Skjalgsson. Olav, on the other hand, had finished raising his forces, and had begun his trip northwards to confront Svein. The fleets clashed off the coast of today's Telemark. Few accounts of the battle survive; however, it is generally regarded as a fierce battle with heavy casualties. None of the major players were killed, as would be usual in this age of chieftains leading the line. However, Svein Ladejarl was chased off and fled to Sweden, thus relinquishing his grip on power. The road was now seemed open for Olav to establish a unified rule of Norway. However, along the way he was later forced to ally with Erling Skjalgsson, an alliance which was always uneasy. It also ended violently when Erling was killed in connection with the battle of Boknafjorden in 1028. His followers got revenge two years later, when Olav Haraldsson himself was killed in the battle of Stiklestad. Category:1016 Nesjar 1016 Nesjar 1016

Norway

The Kingdom of Norway (Norwegian: Kongeriket Norge / Kongeriket Noreg) is a Nordic country on the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, bordering Sweden, Finland and Russia, with territorial waters bordering Danish and British waters. Norway's extensive coastline along the North Atlantic Ocean is home to its famous fjords. The country has a very elongated shape. The arctic island territories of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are under Norwegian sovereignty and are part of the Kingdom. Bouvet Island in the South Atlantic Ocean and Peter I Island in the South Pacific Ocean are also external dependencies, but these are not considered part of the Kingdom. Additionally, Norway has a claim for Dronning Maud Land in Antarctica.

History

In the 9th century Norway consisted of a number of petty kingdoms. According to tradition, Harald Fairhair gathered the small kingdoms into one and in 872 with the battle of Hafrsfjord, he established a feudal state. The Viking age (8th to 11th centuries) was one of national unification and expansion. The Norwegians settled on Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and parts of the British Islands and attempted to settle at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada (perhaps the Vinland of The Saga of Eric the Red). Norwegians founded the modern day Irish cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford and captured the Anglo-Saxon city of Eoforwic renaming it Jorvik, today known as York. The Norwegian Rollo invaded and was ceded Normandy by the French king Charles the Simple in 911. Rollo's great-great-great-grandson William the Conqueror successfully invaded and conquered England in 1066. The Norwegian royal line died out in 1387, partly because of the grand recession after the black plague in 1349, wiping out the majority of the population, and partly because Queen Margrethe's son, heir to the throne, died at barely 17 years of age. The country entered a long period as the weaker part of a union first with Denmark and Sweden – the Kalmar Union – then with Denmark. Margrethe was also queen of Denmark and Sweden. With the forced introduction of Protestantism in 1537, Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of Saint Olav at the Nidaros shrine. With them, ironically, went much of the contact with the cultural and economical life of the rest of Europe. Also, the 17th century saw Norway's total area decrease with the loss of the territories Bohuslän, Jämtland and Härjedalen to Sweden. In the light of national romanticism during the 19th century, this period was by some called the "400-year night". After Denmark-Norway sided with Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to the king of Sweden in 1814. However, Norway declared her independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models and elected the Danish prince Christian Fredrik as king on 17 May 1814. Norway was forced into a personal union with Sweden, but kept its liberal constitution and independent institutions, except for the foreign service. Growing Norwegian dissatisfaction with the union during the late 19th century, national romanticism, growing national culture, literature (Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson), painting (Hans Gude, Adolph Tiedemand), and music (Edvard Grieg) spawned the dissolution of the union on 7 June 1905. The Norwegian government offered the throne of Norway to Danish Prince Carl. After a referendum confirming the monarchy, the Parliament unanimously elected him king. He took the name of Haakon VII, after the medieval kings of independent Norway. In 1913, Norwegian women gained suffrage. Norway was a neutral country during World War I. Norway also attempted to claim neutrality during World War II, but was invaded by German forces on the 9th of April 1940 (Operation Weserübung). The Allies also had plans to invade Norway, in order to take advantage of her strategically important Atlantic coast, but were thwarted by the German operation. Norway put up a stiff fight against the German occupation and armed resistance in Norway went on for two months. King Haakon and the Norwegian government continued the fight from exile in Rotherhithe, London. On the day of the invasion, the collaborative leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling — Vidkun Quisling — tried to seize power, but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Quisling, as minister president, later formed a government under German control. During the five years of Nazi occupation, Norwegians built a strong resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both armed resistance and civil disobedience. In 1944, the Germans evacuated the provinces of Finnmark and northern Troms, using a scorched earth tactic to create a vast area of No-man's land in response to the Red Army attacking their positions in eastern Finnmark. The Soviets attacked into eastern Finnmark to create a buffer zone after pushing the German forces out of the arctic Kola peninsula. The Russians peacefully returned the area to Norwegian control after the war. The German forces in Norway surrendered on 8 May 1945. The occupation during World War II disturbed the Norwegians' confidence in neutrality, and they turned instead to collective security. Norway was one of the signatories of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949 and was a founding member of the United Nations, providing its first secretary general – Trygve Lie. Norway has twice voted against joining the European Union (in 1972 and 1994), but is associated with the EU via the European Economic Area. However, Norway is a member of the much smaller European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

Politics

Norway is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. The Royal House is a branch of the princely family of Glücksburg, originally from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. [http://www.kongehuset.no/dt_kongehuset_allAtOnce.asp?ogid=21&mgid=21&gid=54&aid=] The functions of the King, Harald V, are mainly ceremonial, but he has influence as the symbol of national unity. Although the constitution of 1814 grants important executive powers to the king, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King (King's Council, or cabinet). The reserve powers vested in the Monarch by the constitution are however significant and an important security part of the role of the Monarchy, and were last used during World War II. The Council of State consists of a Prime Minister and his council, formally appointed by the King. Since 1884, parliamentarism has ensured that the cabinet must have the support of the parliament, so the appointment by the King is a formality. parliamentarism The Norwegian parliament, Stortinget, currently has 169 members (increased from 165, effective from the elections of 12 September 2005). The members are elected from the 19 counties for 4-year terms according to a system of proportional representation. After elections the Storting divides into two chambers, the Odelsting and the Lagting, which meet separately or jointly depending on the agenda. Laws are proposed by the Odelsting and decided by the Lagting or, in case of disagreement, by the joint Storting. Impeachment cases are raised by the Odelsting and judged by the Lagting as part of the High Court of the Realm. Apart from this, the Storting functions as a unicameral parliament. The regular courts include the Supreme Court or Høyesterett (17 permanent judges and a chief justice), courts of appeal, city and district courts, and conciliation councils. Judges attached to regular courts are appointed by the King in council after nomination by the Ministry of Justice. The special High Court of the Realm, which consists of the Supreme Court plus the Lagting, hears impeachment cases. In order to form a government, more than half (currently at least 10 out of 19 members) of the Council of State are required to belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

Counties

Evangelical Lutheran Church Norway is divided into 19 administrative regions, called fylker (singular fylke) and 433 kommuner (singular kommune). Fylke and kommune are officially translated to English as county and municipality. The fylke is the intermediate administration between state and municipality.
- Akershus
- Aust-Agder
- Buskerud
- Finnmark
- Hedmark
- Hordaland
- Møre og Romsdal
- Nordland
- Nord-Trøndelag
- Oppland
- Oslo
- Østfold
- Rogaland
- Sogn og Fjordane
- Sør-Trøndelag
- Telemark
- Troms
- Vest-Agder
- Vestfold See also Regions of Norway.

Geography

Regions of Norway The landscape is generally rugged and mountainous, topped by glaciers, and its coastline of over 83,000 km [http://odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/environment/032091-991558/dok-bn.html] is punctuated by steep-sloped inlets known as fjords, as well as a multitude of islands and islets. The Northern part of the country is also known as the Land of the Midnight Sun because of its northern location, north of the Arctic Circle, where for part of each summer the sun does not set, and in winter much of its land remains dark for long periods. The southern part is not known for this, however in summertime, the sun is only away for a few hours. Norway is bounded for its entire length by seas of the North Atlantic Ocean: the North Sea to the southwest and its large inlet the Skagerrak to the south, the Norwegian Sea to the west, and the Barents Sea to the northeast. To the east, in order from south to north, it shares a long border with Sweden, a shorter one with Finland, and a still shorter one with Russia. Norway's highest point is the Galdhøpiggen at 2,469 m. With a maximum depth of 514 m, Hornindalsvatnet is Norway's and Europe's deepest lake. The Norwegian climate is fairly temperate, especially along the coast under the influence of the Gulf Stream. The inland climate can be more severe and to the north more subarctic conditions are found, especially in Finnmark. Climate data for some cities in different regions of the country; base period 1961-1990 (temperatures are 24hr average): Data from Norges Meteorologiske Institutt (Norwegian Meteorological Institute). Note: Temperatures have tended to be higher in recent years (see main article).
[http://met.no/english/climate/ Norwegian Meteorological Institute: The climate of Norway]

Economy

main article The Norwegian economy is a prosperous bastion of social capitalism, featuring a combination of free market activity and government intervention. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector (through large-scale state enterprises). The country is richly endowed with natural resources - petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals - and is highly dependent on its petroleum production and international oil prices; in 2004, oil and gas accounted for 50% of exports. Only Saudi Arabia and Russia export more oil than Norway, which is not a member of OPEC. The last 25 years, the Norwegian economy has shown various signs of the economic phenomenon called Dutch disease. Norway opted to stay out of the European Union during a referendum in 1972, and again in November 1994. However, Norway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participate in the EU's single market via the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. In 2000 the government sold one-third of the then 100% state-owned oil company Statoil. The economic growth was 0.8% in 1999, 2.7% in 2000, and 1.3% in 2001. After little growth in 2002 and 2003, the economy expanded more rapidly in 2004. With arguably the highest quality of life worldwide, Norwegians still worry about that time in the next two decades when the oil and gas begin to run out. Accordingly, Norway has been saving its oil-boosted budget surpluses in a Government Petroleum Fund, which is invested abroad and at the end of the second quarter of 2005 was valued at 181.5 billion US dollars . Economical overheating is avoided by the partial saving - rather than spending - of the oil revenues which are of very big importance for a relatively small country.

Demographics

The Norwegian population is 4.6 million and increases by 0.4% per year (estimate July 2004). Ethnically most Norwegians are Nordic / North Germanic, while small minorities in the north are Finnish (see also Cwen). The Sami are instead considered an indigenous people, and traditionally live in the Northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. The largest concentration of Sami people is, however, found in the Norwegian capital of Oslo. In recent years, immigration has accounted for more than half the population growth, and 7.9% of the population are immigrants as of 1 January 2005. Norway only takes in a very limited number of asylum seekers and aims to repatriate these people as quickly as possible. The largest immigrant groups are Pakistanis, Swedes, Danes, Iraqis, Vietnamese and Somalis. (Here, immigrants are defined as persons with two foreign-born parents [http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/minifakta_en/en/minifakta.pdf].) Approximately 86% of the inhabitants are members of the Evangelic Lutheran Church of Norway (state church). Other Christian societies total about 4.5% (the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church, the Catholic Church, Pentecostal congregations, the Methodist Church, etc.). Among non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest in Norway with about 1.5%, and other religions are at less than 1% each. About 1.5% belong to the secular Human Ethical Union. As of 1 January 2003 approximately 5% of the population are unaffiliated ([http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/07/02/10/trosamf_en/]). The Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. They have officially equal status, i.e. they are both used in public administration, in schools, churches, and on radio and television, but Bokmål is used by the majority. Around 95 percent of the population speak Norwegian as their native tongue, although many speak dialects that differ significantly from the written language. Nevertheless, all of the Norwegian dialects are interintelligible. Several Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by the Sami people. The Germanic Norwegian language and the Finno-Ugric Sami languages are entirely unrelated. However, the Finnish language bears some similarities to the Sami language.

Culture

Famous Norwegians include the playwrights/novelists Baron Ludvig Holberg and Henrik Ibsen, explorers Roald Amundsen, Fridtjof Nansen, and Thor Heyerdahl, expressionist painter Edvard Munch and the romanticist composer Edvard Grieg. The playwright/novelists Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Knut Hamsun and Sigrid Undset have all won the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1903, 1920 and 1928 respectively. Norwegians celebrate their national day on May 17, Constitution Day. Many people wear bunad (traditional costumes) and most participate in or watch the 17 May parade through the towns. Henrik Wergeland was the founder of the 17 May parade. These parades differ markedly from those of many other countries in that, rather than the military parades of, for example, France, they consist of children.
- Music of Norway
- Norse mythology
- [http://www.nfi.no/english/norwegianfilms/ Norwegian films]
- Norwegian Theatres

Miscellaneous topics

- Holidays in Norway
- Infrastructure in Norway
- Car numberplates in Norway
- Communications
- Power supply
- Transportation
- Foreign relations of Norway
- Military of Norway
- List of cities in Norway
- List of national parks of Norway
- List of Norwegian companies
- List of Norwegian language radio stations
- List of Norwegian newspapers
- List of Norwegian television channels
- List of Norwegians
- List of schools in Norway
- Norwegian literature
- Norwegian national football team
- Norwegian Premier League
- Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund
- Regions of Norway
- Tourism in Norway
- Cuisine of Norway
- Philharmonic Orchestras in Norway
- Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra
- Oslo Philharmonic Orchestra

International rankings

- [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html GDP per capita] - 4th of 231 countries
- Human Development Index - 1st of 177 countries 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001
- Index of Economic Freedom - 29th of 155 countries
- Reporters Without Borders Worldwide press freedom index - 1st of 166 countries 2003, 2002
- [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers 2004] Children's Index: Rank 1, Women's Index: Rank 6, Mother's Index: Rank 6 (119 countries)
- [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2004] - 8th of 145 countries
- [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report World Economic Forum: Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005] - 6th of 104 countries

External links

- [http://www.norway.info Norway.info] - Norway - the Official site
- [http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/minifakta_en/en/index.html Minifacts about Norway from Statistics Norway]
- [http://odin.dep.no/odin/english/bn.html ODIN] Information from the Government and Ministries
- [http://www.stortinget.no/english Official site of the Parliament (Stortinget)]
- [http://www.kongehuset.no/default.asp?lang=eng Official site of the Royal House]
- [http://www.norway.org Official website for the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, DC]
- [http://www.norway.no Norway.no] - Official portal
- [http://www.lovdata.no/info/lawdata.html Translated Norwegian legislation]
- [http://www.odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/system/032005-990424/ The Norwegian Constitution in English]
- [http://www.ub.uio.no/ujur/publikasjoner/skriftserie/18/ Sources to Legal Information in Norway]
- [http://www.norges-bank.no/english/notes_and_coins/ Norges Bank - current notes and coins]
- [http://www.norges-bank.no/english/ The Central Bank of Norway]
- [http://www.world-newspapers.com/norway.html Norwegian news in English]
- [http://odin.dep.no/ud/html/2000/minifakta/e/eng-02.html Public holidays in Norway]
- [http://ngis2.statkart.no/norgesglasset/default.html Searchable map of Norway]
- [http://www.domstol.no/Domstolene/index.asp?startID=&topExpand=1000010&menuitemid=1000033&strUrl=//internet/showObject.asp?i=1000107 The Norwegian court system]
- [http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp237_e.htm WTO: Trade Policy Review: Norway]
- [http://www.stavanger-web.com/jul/christma.htm Christmas in Norway]
- [http://www.studyinnorway.no/ Study In Norway] als:Norwegen zh-min-nan:Norge [[got:

Denmark

The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark) is geographically the smallest and southernmost Nordic country, and is part of the European Union. It is located at in Scandinavia which is in northern Europe, but it does not lie on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Denmark borders the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, and consists of a peninsula attached to Northern Germany named Jutland (Jylland), the islands Funen (Fyn), Zealand (Sjælland), Bornholm and many smaller islands, the waters of which are often referred to as the Danish Archipelago. Denmark lies north of Germany (its only land neighbour), southwest of Sweden, and south of Norway. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are Crown territories of Denmark, each with political home rule.

History

:Main article: History of Denmark The origin of Denmark is lost in prehistory. The oldest Danevirke is from the 7th century, at the same time as the new Runic alphabet. Oldest city: Ribe is from about 810. Up into the 10th century the Danes were known as Vikings, together with Norwegians and Swedes, colonising, raiding and trading in all parts of Europe. Viking explorers first discovered Iceland by accident in the ninth century, en route to the Faroe Islands. Erik the Red, or Erik Thorvaldson, was exiled from the colony for manslaughter in 980, and set sail for the west, to explore the lands to the west. He established the first settelments in Greenland around this time, naming the land, according to ledgend, to attract settelers. Erik's son Leif the Lucky(Leif Ericson)finally set foot in the Americas around the year 1000. While some say he was blown off course, it is most likely that he was diliberatly seeking the land spotted by Bjarni Herjulfsson several years earlier. He established a colony at L'Anse aux Meadows, which lasted only a year. Two further attempts at colonization by his brother ended in failure. At various times the King of Denmark has ruled parts of England and Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, France, especially Normandy and the Virgin Islands, Tranquebar in India, Estonia and what is now Northern Germany. Scania, Blekinge and Halland were part of Denmark for most of its early history, but were lost to Sweden in 1658. The union with Norway was dissolved in 1814, when Norway entered a new union with Sweden (until 1905). The Danish liberal and national movement gained momentum in the 1830s, and after the European revolutions of 1848 Denmark became a constitutional monarchy June 5 1849. After the Second War of Schleswig (Danish: Slesvig) in 1864 Denmark was forced to cede Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, in a defeat that left deep marks in the Danish national identity. After this point Denmark adopted a policy of neutrality, as a result of which Denmark stayed neutral in World War I. Following the defeat of Germany, Denmark was offered by the Versailles powers the return of Schleswig-Holstein. Fearing German irredentism Denmark refused to consider the return of Holstein and insisted on a plebiscite concerning the return of Schleswig. In 1920, following the plebiscite, Northern Schleswig was recovered by Denmark. Despite its continued neutrality Denmark was invaded by Germany (Operation Weserübung), on April 9, 1940. Though at first accorded self-rule (which ended in 1943 due to a mounting resistance movement), Denmark remained militarily occupied throughout World War II. The Danish sympathy for the Allied Cause was strong; 1,900 Danish Police Officers were arrested by the Gestapo and sent, under guard, to be interned in Buchenwald. After the war, Denmark became one of the founding members of NATO and, in 1973, joined the European Economic Community (later, the European Union).

Politics and government

:Main article: Politics of Denmark Denmark is the oldest monarchy in the world. In 1849, it became a constitutional monarchy with the adoption of a new constitution. The monarch is formally head of state, a role which is mainly ceremonial, since executive power is exercised by the cabinet ministers, with the prime minister acting as the first among equals (primus inter pares). Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Danish parliament, known as the Folketing, which consists of (no more than) 179 members. The Danish Judiciary is functionally and administratively independent of the executive and the legislature. Elections for parliament must be held at least every four years; but the prime minister can call for an earlier election, if he so decides. Should parliament succeed in a vote of no confidence against the Prime Minister the entire government resigns. The country is often run by minority governments.

Counties

:Main article: Counties of Denmark Denmark is divided into 13 counties (amter, singular: amt), and 271 municipalities (kommuner, singular kommune). The coming Danish Municipal Reform will replace the counties with five new regions and reduce the number of municipalities to 98. The new municipalities will take over most of the responsibilities of the former counties. Most of the new municipalities will have a population of at least 20,000 people. The reform will be implemented on 1 January 2007.
- Aarhus (Århus)
- Frederiksborg
- Funen (Fyn)
- Copenhagen (København)
- North Jutland (Nordjylland)
- Ribe
- Ringkjøbing
- Roskilde
- South Jutland (Sønderjylland)
- Storstrøm
- Vejle
- Viborg
- West Zealand (Vestsjælland) Three municipalities have county privileges:
- Bornholm (regional municipality)
- Copenhagen (København)
- Frederiksberg Copenhagen County comprises the municipalities of metropolitan Copenhagen, except Copenhagen Municipality and Frederiksberg Municipality. Bornholm Regional Municipality comprise the five former municipalities on the island Bornholm and the island's former county. Greenland and the Faroe Islands also belong to the Kingdom of Denmark, but have autonomous status and are largely self-governing, and are each represented by two seats in the parliament.

Geography

Faroe Islands Faroe Islands :Main article: Geography of Denmark Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jutland (Jylland) and 405 named islands. Of these, 323 are habited, with the largest being Zealand (Sjælland) and Funen (Fyn). The island of Bornholm is located somewhat east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea. Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; the Øresund Bridge connects Zealand with Sweden, the Great Belt Bridge connects Funen with Zealand, and the Small Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen. Ferries connect one to the smaller islands. The country is mostly flat with little elevation; the highest natural point is Møllehøj, at 170.86 metres. The climate is temperate, with mild winters and cool summers. Main cities are the capital Copenhagen (on Zealand), Aarhus, Aalborg (on Jutland) and Odense (on Fyn)..

Economy

:Main article: Economy of Denmark This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech agriculture, up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government welfare measures, comfortable living standards, a stable currency, and high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is a net exporter of food and energy and has a comfortable balance of payments surplus. The Danish economy is highly unionized; 75% of its labour force [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/01/10/business/unions2.html] are members of a union in the Danish Confederation of Trade Unions. Relationships between unions and employers are cooperative: unions have a day-to-day role in managing the workplace, and their representatives sit on most companies' board of directors. Rules on work schedules and pay are negotiated between unions and employers, with minimal government involvement. The government has been very successful in meeting, and even exceeding, the economic convergence criteria for participating in the third phase (a common European currency) of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), but Denmark, in a September 2000 referendum, reconfirmed its decision not to join the 12 other EU members in the euro. Even so, the Danish currency remains pegged to the euro. Denmark has also placed first on the Economist Intelligence Unit's "e-readiness" rankings for the past two years. "A country's "e-readiness" is a measure of its e-business environment, a collection of factors that indicate how amenable a market is to Internet-based opportunities."

Demographics

:Main article: Demographics of Denmark The majority of the population is of Scandinavian descent, with small groups of Inuit (from Greenland), Faroese, and immigrants. According to official statistics in 2003 immigrants made up 6.2% of the total population. Danish is spoken in the entire country, although a small group near the German border also speaks German. Many Danes are fluent in English as well, particularly those in larger cities and the youth, who are taught English in school. Of the religions in Denmark, according to official statistics from January 2002 84.3% of Danes are members of the Lutheran state church, the Danish People's Church (Den Danske Folkekirke), also known as the Church of Denmark. The rest are primarily of other Christian denominations and also about 2% are Muslims. For the last decade Danish People's Church has seen a decline in the number of memberships. In the later years, the old norse religion Asatru has begun to reemerge. Asatru was approved as a religious movement by the Danish government on November 8th 2003.

Culture

:Main article: Culture of Denmark Perhaps the most famous Dane is actually a mythical figure: Hamlet, the title character of William Shakespeare's greatest play, which was set in a real castle (Kronborg) in Helsingør, north of Copenhagen. The Dane most well-known in foreign countries is probably Hans Christian Andersen, a writer mostly famous for such fairy tales as The Emperor's New Clothes, The Little Mermaid, and The Ugly Duckling. Other Danes that is probably known outside of Denmark in various degrees, includes: :See also: List of Danes
- Morten Andersen, NFL kicker (Only in the United States)
- Bille August, film director
- Vitus Bering, explorer and navigator
- Karen Blixen, also known as Isak Dinesen, author
- Niels Bohr, physicist and Nobel Prize laureate
- Victor Borge, entertainer, pianist
- Tycho Brahe, astronomer
- Ole Kirk Christiansen, inventor of LEGO
- René Dif, member of the pop band Aqua
- N.F.S. Grundtvig, poet, hymnalist, educationalist
- Piet Hein, polymath
- Anders Hejlsberg, computer scientist, inventor of the C# programming language
- Georg Jensen, designer
- Søren Kierkegaard, existentialist philosopher
- Michael Laudrup, soccer player. Winner of Confederations Cup 1995
- Viggo Mortensen, actor in USA
- Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, transport and business mogul
- Connie Nielsen, actor in USA
- Brigitte Nielsen, actress
- Carl Nielsen, composer
- Mickey Beyer-Clausen, Philanthropist, Entrepreneur
- Bjarne Riis, professional road bicycle racer, winner of the 1996 Tour de France
- Peter Schmeichel soccer player (goalkeeper). Winner of European Football Championship 1992, Confederations Cup 1995 and UEFA Champions League 1999.
- Bjarne Stroustrup, computer scientist, inventor of the C++ programming language
- Lars von Trier, film director
- Lars Ulrich, musician, member of band Metallica
- Jørn Utzon, architect
- Whigfield, singer
- Hans Christian Ørsted, physicist, discoverer of electromagnetism

Miscellaneous topics

- Courts of Denmark
- Communications in Denmark
- Danish colonization of the Americas
- Education in Denmark
- Foreign relations of Denmark
- Holidays in Denmark
- List of Danish monarchs - Danish monarchs family tree
- Danish Orders of Chivalry
- List of towns in Denmark
- Military of Denmark
- Rescue of the Danish Jews
- Stamps and postal history of Denmark
- Tourism in Denmark
- Transportation in Denmark
- Trees of Denmark
- Reporters without borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2004: Ranked 1 out of 166 countries (in an 8-way tie)

References

- [http://www.um.dk/Publikationer/UM/English/Denmark/index.asp In-depth description of Denmark published by the Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs]

External links

- [http://www.milhist.dk/index_uk.htm Danish military history]
- [http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/europe/denmark Danish Newspapers]
- [http://denmark.dk/portal/page?_pageid=374,477789&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL Official Portal of Denmark]
- [http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/denmark/index.do Human rights reports] from Amnesty International
- [http://www.world-gazetteer.com/s/p_dk.htm List of Danish cities] from world-gazetteer.com
- [http://www.bo-k.dk/dk/ Old Denmark in Cyberspace - Information about Denmark and the Danes]
- [http://www.kms.dk/C1256C62002F8C6B/ Online charts and maps by the Danish survey authority]
- [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=14785 Satellite image of Denmark] at NASA's Earth Observatory Category:European Union member states Category:Monarchies Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe fiu-vro:Taani zh-min-nan:Dan-kok als:Dänemark ko:덴마크 ms:Denmark ja:デンマーク simple:Denmark th:ประเทศเดนมาร์ก

Canute the Great

Canute(or Cnut) I, or Canute the Great (Danish: Knud II den Store, Norwegian: Knut den mektige) (994/995 – November 12, 1035) was king of England, Denmark and Norway and governor or overlord of Schleswig and Pomerania. He was the son of sea-king Sweyn Forkbeard who was an avid supporter of the old faith and reputedly a member of the Jomsvikings. Canute's mother was Gunhild (formerly Swiatoslawa daughter of Mieszko I of Poland). Canute was reared by a mother whose own mother had been abducted from a religious house and married to the first Duke of Poland, Mieszko, who later adopted Christianity. This along with his father's stout beliefs was probably the foundation of Canute's pragmatic relation to religion which would later greatly influence both Denmark and Britain. Accompanying his father on his successful invasion of England in August 1013, Canute was proclaimed king by the Danish fleet on Sweyn's death the following February, but returned to Denmark (April 1014) on the restoration of the defeated king Ethelred the Unready by the Witenagemot of English nobles. Invading England once more (August 1015), Canute fought a series of inconclusive conflicts with the English led by Ethelred and (from April 1016) by Ethelred's son, Edmund II of England until his crushing victory (October 1016) at the Battle of Assandun (probably either Ashingdon or Ashdon (known as Ascenduná in the Little Domesday Book of 1086), both in Essex, England). Meeting on an island in the river Severn, Canute and Edmund agreed to divide the kingdom, but Edmund's death (November 1016) left Canute as sole ruler, leading to his acclamation as king by the Witenagemot in January 1017. Canute solidified his new position as supreme ruler by marrying Ethelred's widow, Emma of Normandy, daughter of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy. In doing so, he strengthened political and commercial ties between England and Normandy while establishing his intentions to rule in a Christian fashion, as Emma was very devout. As king of England, Canute combined English and Danish institutions and personnel. His mutilation in April 1014 of the hostages taken by his father in pledge of English loyalty is remembered above all as being uncharacteristic of his rule. His codification (c.1020) of England's laws overlaid an element of uniformity on Saxon tradition. By dividing the country (1017) after the Danish fashion into the four great earldoms of Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria, he instituted the system of territorial lordships which would underlie English government for centuries. The very last Danegeld ever to be paid, a sum of £82,500, was paid to Canute in 1018. He felt secure enough to send the invasion fleet back to Denmark with a payment of £72,000 that same year. In order to associate his line with the overthrown English dynasty and to insure himself against attack from Normandy (place of exile of Ethelred's sons Edward and Alfred), Canute married (July 1017) Ethelred's widow Emma of Normandy, later designating their son Harthacanute as heir in preference to Harold, his (illegitimate?) son by Aelgifu of Northampton, a concubine. In 1018 (or 1019) Canute succeeded his elder brother Harold II as king of Denmark, and appointed his brother-in-law Ulf Jarl as the earl of Denmark. When the Swedish king Anund Jakob and the Norwegian king Saint Olaf took advantage of Canute's absence and attacked Denmark, Ulf convinced the freemen to elect Harthacanute king, since they were miscontent with Canute's absenteeism. This was a ruse from Ulf since his role as the caretaker of Harthacanute would make him the ruler of Denmark. When Canute learnt of what had happened in 1026, he returned to Denmark and with Ulf Jarl's help, he defeated the Swedes and the Norwegians at the Battle of Helgeå. This service, did not, however, make Canute forgive Ulf for his coup. At a banquet in Roskilde, the two brothers-in-law were playing chess and started arguing with each other. The next day, the Christmas of 1026, Canute had one of his Housecarls kill Ulf Jarl in the church of Trinity. The accounts of the two brothers and Ulf's death are contradictory. In 1028, Canute conquered Norway with a fleet of fifty ships from England: his attempt to govern Norway through Aelgifu and his other son by her, Sweyn, ended in rebellion and the restoration of the former Norwegian dynasty under Magnus I. Magnus I Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor was friendly with Canute and had his young son Henry married to Canute's daughter Cunigunde (Gunhilda). The emperor gave Canute the Mark of Schleswig and Pomerania to govern. The latter was probably the fief of Canute, since Boleslaus I of Poland sent his army to help Canute conquer England. Canute is generally regarded as a wise and successful king of England, although this view may in part be attributable to his good treatment of the church, which controlled the history writers of the day. Thus we see him described even today as a religious man, despite the fact that he lived openly in what was effectively a bigamous relationship, and despite his responsibility for many political murders. He is perhaps best remembered for the legend of how he commanded the waves to go back. According to the legend, he grew tired of flattery from his courtiers. When one such flatterer gushed that the king could even command the obedience of the sea, Canute proved him wrong by practical demonstration at Southampton, his point being that even a king's powers have limits. Unfortunately, this legend is sometimes misunderstood to mean that he believed himself so powerful that the natural elements would obey him, and that his failure to command the tides only made him look foolish. It is quite possible that the legend is simply pro-Canute propaganda. Canute died in 1035, at Shaftesbury in Dorset, and was buried at Winchester. On his death, Canute was succeeded in Denmark by Harthacanute, reigning as Canute III. Harold took power in England, however, ruling until his death (1040), whereupon the two crowns were again briefly reunited under Harthacanute. Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs Category:Danish monarchs Category:Norwegian monarchs Category:990s births Category:1035 deaths Category:Viking Age ko:크누트 대왕 ja:クヌーズ1世 (デンマーク王)

Olav Haraldsson

Olav II Haraldsson ( 995 – July 29 1030), king from 1015–1028, (known during his lifetime as the Stout and after his death as Saint Olav), was born in the year in which Olav Tryggvasson came to Norway. His father was Harald Grenske, great-grandchild of Harald I Fairhair.

Concerning the king's name

King Olav II Haraldsson of Norway had the given name Oláfr in the extinct Old Norse and the modern Icelandic. Olav is the modern equivalent in Norwegian, formerly often spelled Olaf. His name in Danish is Oluf, in Swedish Olof. Other names, such as Oláfr hinn helgi, Olavus rex, and Olaf (as used in English) are used interchangeably (see the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson).

Reign

After some years' absence in England, fighting the Danes, he returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, obtaining the support of the five petty kings of the Uplands. In 1016 he defeated Earl Sweyn, hitherto the virtual ruler of Norway, at the Battle of Neaje, and within a few years had won more power than had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors on the throne. Battle of Neaje, Nerike, where Olav baptized locals during his escape]] He had annihilated the petty kings of the South, had crushed the aristocracy, enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout the kingdom, asserted his suzerainty in the Orkney Islands, had achieved peace with king Olof Skötkonung of Sweden through Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker, and was for some time engaged to his daughter, the princess of Sweden, Ingegerd Olofsdotter without his approval, and had conducted a successful raid on Denmark. But his success was short-lived, for in 1026, he lost the Battle of the Helgeå and in 1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied round the invading Knut the Great, and Olav had to flee to Kievan Rus. During the voyage he stayed some time in Sweden in the province of Nerike where, according to local legend, he baptized many locals. On his return a year later, seizing an opportunity to win back the kingdom after Knut the Great's vassal Håkon Jarl was lost at sea, he fell at the Battle of Stiklestad, where his own subjects were arrayed against him.

Sainthood

Battle of Stiklestad Owing to Olav's later status as the patron saint of Norway, and to his importance in later medieval historiography and in Norwegian folklore, it is difficult to assess the character of the historical Olav. Judging from the bare outlines of known historical facts, he appears, more than anything else, as a fairly unsuccessful ruler, who had his power based on some sort of alliance with the much more powerful king Knut the Great; who was driven into exile when he claimed a power of his own; and whose attempt at a reconquest was swiftly crushed. This calls for an explanation of the status he gained after his death. Three factors are important: his role in the christianization of Norway, the various dynastic relationships among the ruling families, and the needs for legitimization in a later period.

Christianization

Olav is generally held to be the driving force behind Norway's final conversion to Christianity. This is an exaggeration. Large stone crosses and other Christian symbols suggest that at least the coastal areas of Norway were deeply influenced by Christianity long before Olav's time; with one exception, all the rulers of Norway back to Håkon the Good (c. 920 – 961) had been Christians; and Olav's main opponent, Knut the Great, was a Christian ruler. What seems clear is that Olav made efforts to establish a church organization on a broader scale than before, among other things by importing bishops from England and Germany, and that he tried to enforce Christianity also in the inland areas, which had the least communication with the rest of Europe, and which economically were more strongly based on agriculture, so that the inclination to hold on to the former fertility cult would have been stronger than in the more diversified and expansive western parts of the country.

Olav's dynasty

For various reasons, most importantly the death of king Knut the Great in 1035, but perhaps even a certain discontent among Norwegian nobles with the Danish rule in the years after Olav's death in 1030, Olav's son Magnus the Good, assumed power in Norway, eventually also in Denmark. Numerous churches in Denmark were dedicated to Olav during his reign, and the sagas give glimpses of similar efforts to promote the cult of his deceased father on the part of the young king.

Saint Olav

Among the bishops that Olav brought with him from England, was Grimkell (Grimkillus). He was probably the only one of the missionary bishops who was left in the country at the time of Olav's death, and he stood behind the translation and beatification of Olav on August 3, 1031. At this time, a formal canonization procedure through the papal curia was not customary; in Olav's case, this did not happen until 1888. Grimkell was later appointed bishop in the diocese of Selsey in the south-east of England. This is probably the reason why the earliest traces of a liturgical cult of St Olav are found in England. An office for St Olav is found in the so-called Leofric collectar (c. 1050), which was testamented by bishop Leofric of Exeter to the church of Exeter, the neighbouring diocese of Selsey. This English cult seems to have been short-lived. Adam of Bremen, writing c. 1070, mentions pilgrimage to the saint's shrine in Nidaros, but this is the only firm trace we have of a cult of St Olav in Norway before the middle of the twelfth century. By this time he was also being referred to as "The Eternal King of Norway". In 1152/3, Nidaros was separated from Lund as an archbishopric of its own. It is likely that whatever formal or informal – which, we do not know – veneration of Olav as a saint there may have been in Nidaros prior to this, has been emphasised and formalized on this occasion. During the visit of the papal legate, Nicholas Brekespear (later pope Pope Adrian IV), the poem Geisli ("the ray of sun") was recited. In this poem, we hear for the first time of miracles performed by St Olav. One of these took place on the day of his death, when a blind man got his eye-sight back again after having rubbed his eyes with hands that were stained with the blood from the saint. The texts which were used for the liturgical celebration of St Olav during most of the Middle Ages, were probably compiled or written by Eystein Erlendsson, the second archbishop of Norway (1161–1189). The nine miracles reported in Geisli form the core of the catalogue of miracles in this office. The celebration of St Olav was widespread in the Nordic countries. Apart from the early traces of a cult in England, there are only scattered references to him outside of the Nordic area. Several churches in England were dedicated to him (often as St Olave). St Olave Hart Street in the City of London is the burial place of Samuel Pepys and his wife. Another south of London Bridge gave its name to Tooley Street and to the St Olave's Poor Law Union, later to become the Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey: its workhouse in Rotherhithe became the St Olave's Hospital, now an old-people's home a few hundred metres from St Olaf's Church, which is the Norwegian church in London. The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav was founded in 1847 by Oscar I, king of Norway and Sweden, in memory of this king. He is called Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ, eternal King of Norway, a designation which goes back to the thirteenth century. The only country which keeps July 29th as a holiday are the Faroe Islands, see Ólavsøka.

References

- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Category:Norwegian monarchs Category:Saints Category:995 births Category:1030 deaths Category:Viking Age Category:Fairhair dynasty

Trøndelag

Trøndelag is the name of a geographical region in the "middle" of Norway, consisting of the two counties Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag. A person from Trøndelag is called a trønder. The largest city, unofficial capital of Trøndelag and also the first capital of Norway, is Trondheim (Sør-Trøndelag). The dialect spoken in the area is characterized by dropping out all vowel endings. The region is popularily known for its moonshine homebrew, the karsk. Trondheim is known for being the rock 'n' roll capital of Norway, with great bands like Dum Dum Boys, Motorpsycho, Stage Dolls, Åggis,TNT, D.D.E., Tre Små Kinesere, Åge Aleksandersen, Gåte and many more.

History

People have lived in Trøndelag for thousands of years (see Rock carvings in Central Norway, Nøstvet and Lihult cultures and Corded Ware culture).
In the early Viking Age, Trøndelag was a petty kingdom. Since Håkon Grjotgardsson, Trøndelag was ruled by the earl of Lade. Lade is located close to todays Trondheim. The powerful earls of Lade continued to play a very significant political role in Norway up to 1030. Earls of Lade (Ladejarl) were:
- Håkon Grjotgardsson, the first earl of Lade.
- Sigurd Håkonsson, son of Håkon. Killed by Harald Greyhide.
- Håkon Sigurdsson, son of Sigurd. Conspired with Harald Bluetooth against Harald Greyhide, and subsequently became vassal of Harald Bluetooth, and in reality independent ruler of Norway. After the arrival of Olaf Trygvason, Håkon quickly lost all support, and was killed by his own slave, Tormod Kark, in 995.
- Eirik Håkonson, son of Håkon. Together with his brother, Svein, governor of Norway under Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark from 1000 to 1012.
- Håkon Eiriksson, son of Eirik. Governor of Norway under Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark from 1012 to 1015.

External links

- [http://nlhstud.nlh.no/~tf/diverse/ollest/ordlest.html Trøndersk - Norwegian dictionary]
- [http://www.tvtrondelag.no/ TV Trøndelag]
- [http://www.ntfk.no/kultur/sider/Trondelagshistorie.bind1.htm Trøndelags historie (The history of Trøndelag)] Category:Regions of Norway

Telemark

Telemark is a county in Norway, bordering Vestfold, Buskerud, Hordaland, Rogaland and Aust-Agder. The county administration is in Skien. The county is located in southeastern Norway,extending from Hardangervidda to the Skagerrak coast. The coastline extends from Langesundsfjorden to Gjernestangen at the border to Aust-Agder. Telemark has a very broken and heterogenous landscape, including many hills and valleys. The largest population centres are Skien, Porsgrunn, Notodden, Rjukan and Kragerø. Other important places are Stathelle, Ulefoss, Brevik, Langesund, Bø , Fyresdal and Vinje.

Notable people from Telemark

- Hallvard Graatop (c.1400–1475), from Drangedal lead rebellion against Danish rule in 1438.
- Aasmund Olavsson Vinje (1818–1870), author from Vinje.
- Sondre Norheim (1825–1897), father of skiing from Morgedal in Kviteseid
- Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906), author from Skien
- Vidkun Quisling (1887–1945), politician, traitor from Fyresdal
- Aslaug Vaa (1889–1965), author from Rauland in Vinje
- Tarjei Vesaas (1897–1970), author from Vinje
- Anne Grimdalen (1899–1961), sculptor from Skafså in Tokke
- Eivind Groven (1901–1977), composer from Lårdal in Tokke
- Klaus Egge (1906–1979), composer from Gransherad in Notodden
- Hans Herbjørnsrud (1938–), author from Heddal in Notodden
- Tor Åge Bringsværd (1939–), author from Skien

History

In the early Viking Age, before Harald Fairhair, Telemark was a petty kingdom. The film The heroes of Telemark is loosely based on the raid on a heavy water plant at Rjukan during World War II. Ray Mears made a documentary The real heroes of Telemark as a response to the inaccuracies of the film, giving an account more focused on the outdoor skills that were required for the operation (spending months in remote cabins).

Municipalities

- Bamble
- Bø
- Drangedal
- Fyresdal
- Hjartdal
- Kragerø
- Kviteseid
- Nissedal
- Nome
- Notodden
- Porsgrunn
- Sauherad
- Seljord
- Siljan
- Skien
- Tinn
- Tokke
- Vinje

Districts

- Vest-Telemark
- Midt Telemark
- Øst Telemark
- Vestmar
- Grenland

External links

- [http://www.telemark-fk.no Homepage of Telemark County]
- [http://www.telemark-fk.no/C1256A1000361FD7/0/C941AC78A23972CFC1256BE60037028F?OpenDocument County map] Category:Counties of Norway

Battle of Stiklestad

The Battle of Stiklestad (Old Norse Stiklarstaðir) in 1030 is one of the most famous battles in the history of Norway. In this battle King Olaf II of Norway (Old Norse Óláfr Haraldsson) lost his life. He was later made a saint, and the battle represents the victory of Christianity over traditional pagan beliefs in Norway.

History

During the 8th Century, Norway was controlled by several local strong kings having control over their regional areas. At the end of the century, King Harald Fairhair (ON Haraldr Hárfagri) managed, in no little part due to the military superiority gained by his alliance with Sigurd Ladejarl of Nidaros, to subjugate these mini-kingdoms, and created the first unified Norwegian state. This alliance folded after Harald's death, together with the infant state. The Lade family and various decendants of Harald Fairhair would spend the next century interlocked in feuds over power. As well as power politics, religion also played part in these conflicts, as two of the Fairhair heirs, Håkon the Good and Olav Tryggvason attempted the conversion of the then pagan Norwegians into Christianity. In the year 1000 Svein (ON Sveinn) and Eric (ON Eiríkr) of the Ladejarls took control over Norway, being supported by the Danish king Svein. In the year 1015 Olav Haraldsson, representing the Hárfagri family, returned from one of his viking trips and he was immediately elected as King of Norway. In June 1016 he won the battle at Nesjar against the Ladejarls. The major reason behind Olav Haraldsson's success in becoming King of Norway was the fact that Denmark was busy conquering England. In the year 1028 however, the Danish King Canute the Great made an alliance with the Ladejarls, and Olav had go into exile in Garðaríki (Russia). In the year of 1029 the last Ladejarl Håkon Jarl drowned, and Olav decided to return to Norway with his army to regain his throne and the Kingdom of Norway. According to saga sources, he traveled with his 3,600 men army through Sweden and crossed the mountains into the valley of Verdal (ON Veradalr), 80 km north of the city of Trondheim. Olav and his men arrived at Stiklestad a farm in the lower part of the valley. This was where the Battle of Stiklestad took place, as described by Snorre (Snorri Sturluson) in his famous book Heimskringla 200 years later. At Stiklestad, Olav met an army led by Hårek from Tjøtta (ON Hárekr ór Þjóttu), Tore Hund (ON Þórir Hundr) from Bjarkøy and Kalv Arneson (ON Kálfr Árnason), a man who previously served Olav. The peasant army consisted of more than 7,000 men according to Snorre. The battle took place on July 29, 1030. At the end of the day, Olav's army had lost. During the battle, Olav received three severe wounds and died leaning against a large stone. On top of this stone, the Stiklestad Church was later erected. His body was carried away and buried in secrecy in Trondheim. The year after the battle his coffin was moved to the Klement Church in Trondheim. According to Snorre, his hair had grown since he was buried. Olav was sanctified and given the name Olav den Hellige (Saint Olaf). The Stiklestad Church was erected on top of the stone against which he died. The stone is supposedly still inside the altar of the church. 100 years later, the Nidaros Cathedral was built in Trondheim, and Olav's coffin was moved to this church. In the 15th Century, during the Protestant Reformation period, Olav's coffin was moved and his remains was buried somewhere in Nidaros Cathedral — exactly where is still today an unsolved mystery. July 29 1954, the owner of the farm Sul arranged to have a theater play on his premises. The historic play was based upon both the story of the Battle of Stiklestad described by Snorre and the events that could likely have taken place at the Sul farm at the time before the battle. Snorre writes that Olav had visited this farm with his army on his way to Stiklestad. Today, 50 years later, more than 600,000 people have travelled to Stiklestad to view The Saint Olav Drama at what is now the largest outdoor theatre in Scandinavia.

Evaluation

While Snorre's description of the battles in the Heimskringa makes for epic reading, a lot of its grandeur most likely must be put down to the writer's taste for the grand. In Gardarrike, Olav was only surrounded by his most loyal followers. Neither can one expect that recruitment was especially ample in Sweden or through the sparsely populated valleys through which Olav travelled. Thus, Olav's army probably was of a rather rag-tag character, an impression accentuated by tales of how local robber groups would join it as Olav made his way down Verdal. In fact, why Olav chose to travel through the rather barren and politically hostile Trøndelag, rather than to try and rally his relatives and political allies of Eastern Norway, is to this day an unsolved mystery. Perhaps he was making a ditch attempt for Nidaros, hoping to win acceptance for his claim to the throne amongst the peasants of Trondelag. On the other hand, the opposition, basically lower nobles and grand farmers under influence of the Danish king Canute, could not have had much time to assemble a large force. When alerted to Olav's presence, they must have responded swiftly, considering that they met Olav relatively far up in the valley. Therefore, their action points more towards a small, hastily arranged rally of men rather than the elaborate logistics that would have been needed to assemble a 10,000 man strong army. Those who could have mobilized a large scale army, the local nobles of Trøndelag (of which Einar Tambarskjelvar was a prime example) were notable largely by their absence on either side. Also, a battlefield of a raging battle between nearly 20,000 men should have produced rich archeological findings to that effect; at Stiklestad, however, these are sparse. Based on this information, the most logical conclusion therefore is that while the battle of Stiklestad had massive political, social and religious consequences, it in military terms probably was a unspectacular if raw clash between two small bands counting tens and hundreds rather than thousands. Perhaps Snorre attempted to show its significance by blowing its proportions out of size and scale? Olav's role in Norwegian history had only just begun at his death. While nobles and rich farmers had expected their position to improve with the removal of the aggressive Olav, the opposite happened. The rule of Canute's mistress Alfiva and their infant son Svein exceedingly harsh on the people. Especially the church, a traditional ally of Olav, came under the squeeze. Thus, it accentuated the late king's martyr status, as it joined and egged on common folk in revolting against the hardships enforced by Danish the succeeding Danish rule. Olav's heroic last stand made for great nation-building material in the immature Norwegian state. Even nature lended a hand, as the day of the battle coincided with a nearly full solar eclipse, as reflected in Snorre's description of an ill-fated 'blooded red sun', interpreted as a certain omen of bad things to come. Olav, a rather stubborn and rash ruler, prone to rough treatment of his enemies, ironically became Norway's patron saint. His canonization was performed only a year after his death by the bishop of Nidaros. The cult of Olav not only unified the country, it also fulfilled the conversion of the nation, something for which the king had fought so hard. While divise in life, in death Olav - perpeetus rex normanni, the eternal king of Norwegians - wielded an unifying power no foreign monarch could hope to undo. Canute, most distracted by the task of administrating England, managed to rule Norway for five years after the battle through his viceroy son Svein. However, when Olav's illegitimate son Magnus (dubbed 'the Good') lay claim to the Norwegian throne, Canute had to yield. Thus, a century of prosperity and expansion followed, lasting until the kingdom again decended into a civil war over succession.

External links

- [http://www.stiklestad.no/english/ Information about Stiklestad, the history, the play and the museum] Category:1030 Stiklestad Stiklestad Category:History of Norway

Category:1016

ko:분류:1016년

Category:Battles of Norway

Norway Category:History of Norway

Мова програмування Perl

Perl - мова програмування створена Ларрі Волом (Larry Wall), яка запозичила властивості з C, sed, awk, shell, та, в меншій мірі, з інших мов програмування. Іноді Perl розшифровують як "Мова практичного виділення та звітів" (Practical Extraction and Report Language). Перша версія Perl з'явилася в 1987 році. Perl було створено як мову для виділення необхідної інформації з текстових даних, та створення звітів з отриманої інформації. Perl містить потужний механізм роботи з регулярними виразами(regular expressions), який вбудований в синтаксис мови. Завдяки всім цим якостям Perl став часто використовуватись для написання CGI-скриптів. Perl - вільне програмне забезпечення, що розповсюджується під комбінацією двох ліцензій GPL та Artistic License. Існують версії цієї мови програмування для переважної більшості існуючих операційних систем. Прикладом програмного забезпечення написаного на Perl є Вікіпедія, яка до січня 2002 року була Perl-скриптом. В Інтернет-проектах Perl часто використовується в поєднанні з веб-сервером Apache та його модулем mod_perl. Також широке застосування Perl має в системному програмуванні в операційній системі Linux. Величезна колекція різноманітних модулів знаходиться на сайті CPAN. Актуальна версія 5.8.3 має підтримку Unicode. Також ведуться роботи із створення наступної версії - Perl 6.

Ресурси Інтернет

- http://www.perl.com
- http://www.perl.org
- http://www.cpan.org
- http://www.parrotcode.org
- http://www.perldoc.com Категорія:Мови програмування ja:Perl

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Stonewall
You may be looking for:
- The Stonewall riots, a series of gay rights riots held around the Stonewall Inn.
- Stonewall - A film dramatizing the general atmosphere of the gay community immediately before and the beginning of the riots.
- Stonewall, Louisiana, United States
- Stonewall, Texas

Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty (), 907-1125, also known as the Khitan Empire, was an empire in eastern