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December 8

December 8

December 8 is the 342nd day (343rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 23 days remaining.

Events

- 1854 - Pope Pius IX proclaims the dogma of Immaculate Conception, which holds that the Virgin Mary was born free of original sin.
- 1869 - Timothy Eaton founds T. Eaton Co. Limited in Toronto, Canada.
- 1886 - The American Federation of Labor is founded by Samuel Gompers in Columbus, Ohio.
- 1907 - King Gustav V of Sweden accedes to the Swedish throne.
- 1914 - World War I: Battle of the Falkland Islands - The Kaiserliche Marine under the command of Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee is engaged by the Royal Navy.
- 1941 - World War II: Pacific War - After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour the U.S. Congress passes a declaration of war against Japan.
- 1941 - World War II: Pacific War - China officially declares war against Japan, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour.
- 1941 - World War II: Battle of Hong Kong - The Japanese invade the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong less than 8 hours after the attack on Pearl Harbour.
- 1941 - Holocaust: Gas vans are first used as a means of execution, at the Chelmno concentration camp near Lodz in Poland.
- 1949 - Chinese Civil War: The capital of the Republic of China is moved from Nanjing to Taipei, Taiwan.
- 1959 - President of the United States, Eisenhower watches Pakistan vs Australia cricket test match at Karachi.
- 1966 - The Greek ferry Heraklion sinks in a storm in the Aegean Sea, killing over 200.
- 1968 - NLS (a system for which hypertext and the computer mouse were developed) is publicly demonstrated for the first time in San Francisco.
- 1969 - An Olympic Airways DC-6B crashes near Athens during a storm, killing 93 people.
- 1972 - United Airlines Flight 533 crashes near Chicago Midway Airport, killing 45 people.
- 1976 - The Eagles release the album Hotel California.
- 1980 - John Lennon is shot and killed by Mark David Chapman outside the Dakota Building in New York City.
- 1987 - The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed.
- 1987 - The Queen Street Massacre: Frank Vitkovic shoots and kills 8 people at the offices of Australia Post in Melbourne, Australia before being killed himself.
- 1991 - The leaders of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine sign an agreement dissolving the Soviet Union and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States.
- 1991 - The Romanian Constitution is adopted in a referendum.
- 1993 - The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is signed into law by US President Bill Clinton.
- 1994 - US President Bill Clinton signs a bill enacting United States participation in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
- 1998 - Tadjena massacre: 81 people are killed by armed groups in Algeria.
- 2004 - The Cuzco Declaration is signed in Cuzco, Peru, establishing the South American Community of Nations.
- 2004 - Former Pantera guitarist Darrell Abbott is shot and killed on stage by Nathan Gale at the Alrosa Villa nightclub in Columbus, Ohio.
- 2004 - The population of the Australian state of Victoria reaches 5 million for the first time.
- 2005 - Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slides off the runway at Chicago Midway Airport, killing a 6-year-old boy and injuring 11 other people.
- 2005 - Ante Gotovina, Croatian general accused of war crimes, was captured in the Playa de las Americas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Spanish police

Births

- 65 BC - Horace, Roman poet (d. 8 BC)
- 1542 - Mary Queen of Scots (d. 1587)
- 1626 - Queen Christina of Sweden (d. 1689)
- 1678 - Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton, English diplomat (d. 1757)
- 1708 - Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1765)
- 1730 - Jan Ingenhousz, Dutch-born British physiologist and botanist (d. 1799)
- 1765 - Eli Whitney, American inventor (d. 1825)
- 1815 - Adolph Menzel, German painter and graphic artist (d. 1905)
- 1816 - August Belmont, Sr., Prussian-born American financier (d. 1890)
- 1832 - Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian author and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)
- 1848 - Joel Chandler Harris, American author and folklorist (d. 1908)
- 1861 - William C. Durant, American automobile pioneer (d. 1947)
- 1861 - Aristide Maillol, French sculptor (d. 1944)
- 1862 - Georges Feydeau, French playwright (d. 1921)
- 1864 - Camille Claudel, French graphic artist (d. 1943)
- 1865 - Jean Sibelius, Finnish composer (d. 1957)
- 1886 - Diego Rivera, Mexican painter (d. 1957)
- 1890 - Bohuslav Martinů, Czech composer (d. 1959)
- 1894 - James Thurber, American writer (d. 1961)
- 1911 - Lee J. Cobb, American actor (d. 1976)
- 1915 - Ernest Lehman, American screenwriter (d. 2005)
- 1918 - Gérard Souzay, French baritone (d. 2004)
- 1919 - Peter Tali Coleman, American politician (d. 1997)
- 1923 - Rudolph Pariser, Chinese-born American chemist
- 1925 - Sammy Davis Jr., American actor and singer (d. 1990)
- 1927 - Vladimir Shatalov, Soviet Union-born cosmonaut
- 1930 - Maximilian Schell, Austrian-born Swiss actor, film director, and author
- 1933 - Flip Wilson, American comedian (d. 1998)
- 1936 - David Carradine, American actor
- 1937 - James MacArthur, American actor
- 1937 - Arne Næss Jr., Norwegian mountain climber and businessman (d. 2004)
- 1939 - Sir James Galway, Northern Irish flautist
- 1943 - Jim Morrison, American singer (The Doors) (d. 1971)
- 1943 - Mary Woronov, American actress
- 1947 - Gregg Allman, American musician
- 1947 - Thomas R. Cech, American chemist and Nobel Prize laureate
- 1948 - Gary Thain, New Zealand bassist (Uriah Heep) (d. 1975)
- 1950 - Rick Baker, American film makeup artist
- 1951 - Jan Eggum, Norwegian singer-songwriter
- 1953 - Kim Basinger, American actress
- 1956 - Warren Cuccurullo, American musician
- 1957 - Phil Collen, British guitarist (Def Leppard)
- 1961 - Ann Coulter, American author, political commentator, and attorney
- 1962 - Marty Friedman, American guitarist
- 1964 - Teri Hatcher, American actress
- 1966 - Sinéad O'Connor, Irish musician
- 1968 - Mike Mussina, American baseball player
- 1973 - Corey Taylor, American singer (Slipknot)
- 1975 - Kevin Harvick, American NASCAR driver
- 1976 - Dominic Monaghan, German-born British actor
- 1976 - Naimee Coleman, Irish singer and songwriter
- 1978 - Ian Somerhalder, American actor
- 1978 - Vernon Wells, American baseball player
- 1982 - Michael Essien, Ghanaian international footballer
- 1986 - Amir Khan, British boxer

Deaths

- 899 - Arnulf of Carinthia (b. 850)
- 1626 - John Davies, English poet (b. 1569)
- 1632 - Philippe van Lansberge, Flemish astronomer (b. 1561)
- 1638 - Ivan Gundulic, Croatian poet (b. 1589)
- 1643 - John Pym, English statesman (b. 1583)
- 1649 - Noël Chabanel, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1613)
- 1680 - Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester, English politician (b. 1606)
- 1691 - Richard Baxter, English clergyman (b. 1615)
- 1695 - Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville, French orientalist (b. 1625)
- 1709 - Thomas Corneille, French dramatist (b. 1625)
- 1722 - Liselotte von der Pfalz, Duchess of Orléans and sister-in-law of King Louis XIV of France (b. 1652)
- 1745 - Etienne Fourmont, French orientalist (b. 1683)
- 1744 - Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle, Duchess de Châteauroux, French mistress of King Louis XV of France (b. 1717)
- 1746 - Charles Radclyffe, British politician (b. 1693)
- 1756 - William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington, British statesman and diplomat
- 1768 - Jean Denis Attiret, French Jesuit missionary and painter (b. 1702)
- 1830 - Benjamin Constant, Swiss writer (b. 1767)
- 1859 - Thomas de Quincey, British author (b. 1785)
- 1864 - George Boole, British mathematician and philosopher, inventor of Boolean algebra (b. 1815)
- 1907 - King Oscar II of Sweden (b. 1829)
- 1917 - Mendele Moykher Sforim, Russian writer (b. 1836)
- 1952 - Charles Lightoller, British second officer on the Titanic (b. 1874)
- 1958 - Tris Speaker, American baseball player (b. 1888)
- 1963 - Field Marshal Sarit Dhanarajata, Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1908)
- 1978 - Golda Meir, Russian-born Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1898)
- 1980 - John Lennon, British musician, singer, and songwriter (b. 1940)
- 1980 - Darby Crash, American singer and songwriter (The Germs) (b. 1958)
- 1982 - Marty Robbins, American singer (b. 1925)
- 1983 - Slim Pickens, American actor (b. 1919)
- 1984 - Luther Adler, American actor (b. 1903)
- 1992 - William Shawn, American magazine editor (b. 1917)
- 1994 - Tom Jobim, Brazilian composer and arranger (b. 1927)
- 1999 - Kuczka Péter, Hungarian writer, poet, and science fiction editor (b. 1923)
- 2001 - Don Tennant, American advertising executive (b. 1922)
- 2003 - Rubén González, Cuban pianist (Buena Vista Social Club)
- 2003 - Hans Hotter, German bass-baritone (b. 1909)
- 2004 - Dimebag Darrell (Darrell Abbott), American guitarist (b. 1966)
- 2005 - Georgiy Zhzhonov Russian actor and author (b. 1915)

Holidays and observances

- Buddhism - The Enlightenment of Gautama Buddha
- R.C. Saints - The solemnity of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary: a Holy Day of Obligation
- Also see December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Bulgaria - Day of the Student (studentski praznik)
- Italy - In Milan, the opera season starts.
- Malta - Public Holiday.
- Romania - Constitution Day
- Afflux (50 Aftermath) (Discordianism)
- Panama - Mother's Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/8 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 7 - December 9 - November 8 - January 8 -- listing of all days ko:12월 8일 ms:8 Disember ja:12月8日 simple:December 8 th:8 ธันวาคม

December 8

December 8 is the 342nd day (343rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 23 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

1854

1854 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 13 - The accordion is patented by Anthony Faas.
- January 21 - Loss of the Tayleur - 380 drowned, later dubbed "the first Titanic"
- February 11 - Major streets lit by coal gas for first time.
- February 13 - Mexican troops force William Walker and his troops to retreat to Sonora
- February 14 - Texas is linked by telegraph with the rest of the United States, when a connection between New Orleans and Marshall, Texas is completed.
- February 17 - The British recognize the independence of the Orange Free State.
- February 27 – Britain sends Russia an ultimatum to withdraw from two Ottoman provinces it had conquered, Moldavia and Wallachia
- February 28 - The United States Republican Party is organized in Ripon, Wisconsin.
- March 1 - German psychologist Friedrich Eduard Beneke disappears, two years later his remains are found in the canal near Charlottenburg
- March 11- Royal Navy fleet sails from Britain under Vice Admiral Sir Charles Napier
- March 20 - The Boston Public Library opens to the public.
- March 27 – United Kingdom declares war on Russia – Crimean War begins
- March 28 – France declares war on Russia
- March 31 - Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy, signs the Treaty/Convention of Kanagawa with the Japanese government, to be precise, Tokugawa Shogunate, opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American trade. (See History of Japan)
- May 30 - The Kansas-Nebraska Act becomes law establishing the US territories of Nebraska and Kansas.
- June - The Grand Excursion takes prominent Eastern U.S. inhabitants from Chicago, Illinois to Rock Island, Illinois by railroad, then up the Mississippi River to St. Paul, Minnesota by steamboat.
- June 10 - The first class of the United States Naval Academy graduate at Annapolis, Maryland
- June 21 - In the battle at Bomarsund in Åland, Royal Navy mate Charles D. Lucas throws a live Russian artillery shell overboard by hand before it explodes - the incident is the first that will be retroactively awarded the Victoria Cross in 1857
- July 6 - In Jackson, Michigan, the first convention of the U.S. Republican Party is held.
- July 13 - In the battle of Guaymas, Mexico, General Jose Maria Yanez stops the French invasion led by Count Gaston de Raousset Boulbon.
- July 13 - Assassination of Khedive Abbas I of Egypt
- August 16 - Russian troops in the island of Bomarsund in Åland surrender to French-British troops
- September 20 - Crimean War: At the Alma, the French-British alliance wins the first battle of the war.
- October 1 - The watch company founded in 1850 in Roxbury by Aaron Lufkin Dennison relocates to Waltham, Mass. to become the Waltham Watch Company pioneer in the American System of Watch Manufacturing.
- October 17 - Newspaper The Age is founded in Melbourne, Australia.
- October 21 - Florence Nightingale leaves for Crimea with 38 other nurses
- October 25 - Crimean War: The Battle of Balaclava occurs, overall a victory for the allies, but it included the disastrous cavalry Charge of the Light Brigade, from which only 200 of 700 men survive.
- November 5 - Crimean War: Russians lose again at the Battle of Inkerman.
- November 17 - In Egypt, the Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, is inaugurated in an elaborate ceremony.
- December 8 - Pope Pius IX proclaims the dogma of Immaculate Conception, which holds that the Virgin Mary was born free of original sin. original sin cases in the London epidemic of 1854]]
- The Polyglotta Africana, an early classification of African languages based on field work under freed slaves in Freetown, Sierra Leone, is published by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle
- Frederick Augustus Albert succeeds to the throne of Saxony.
- Stockholm, Wisconsin is founded by immigrants from Karlskoga, Sweden (cf 1252).
- Chemistry Professor Benjamin Silliman, of Yale University is the first to fractionate petroleum by distillation.
- Abraham Pineo Gesner invents a process for extracting kerosene from coal.
- Said Pasha succeeds his nephew Abbas as pasha of Egypt.
- A Russian fort is established at the present site of Almaty.
- Aurora, Ontario is first settled.
- Spiegelthal excavates the tomb of Alyattes II.
- The Ambrotype is introduced for photography.
- Election of New York City mayor Fernando Wood begins the ascendancy of Tammany Hall.
- An epidemic of cholera in London kills 10,000. Dr John Snow traces the source of one outbreak (that killed 500) to a single water pump, validating his theory that cholera is water-borne, and forming the starting point for epidemiology.
- The Iceland trade is opened to foreigners.
- The future site of Franklin Pierce College in Rindge, New Hampshire is purchased by Captain Asa Brewer.

Births

- January 18 - Thomas Watson, American telephone pioneer (d. 1934)
- February 17 - Friedrich Alfred Krupp, German industrialist (d. 1902)
- March 14 - Paul Ehrlich, German scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1915)
- March 14 - Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States (d. 1925)
- March 15 - Emil Adolf von Behring, German physician, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1917)
- April 22 - Henri La Fontaine, Belgian lawyer and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1943)
- April 29 - Henri Poincaré, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1912)
- May 11 - Albion Woodbury Small, American sociologist (d. 1926)
- May 24 - John Riley Banister, law officer, cowboy, and Texas Ranger (d. 1918)
- July 3 - Leos Janacek, Czech composer (d. 1928)
- July 12 - George Eastman, American inventor (d. 1932)
- July 27 - Takahashi Korekiyo, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1936)
- August 2 - Milan I, King of Serbia (d. 1901)
- September 1 - Engelbert Humperdinck, German composer (d. 1921)
- September 6 - Georges Picquart, French general and Minister of War (d. 1914)
- October 16 - Oscar Wilde, Irish writer (d. 1900)
- October 20 - Arthur Rimbaud, French poet (d. 1891)
- November 5 - Paul Sabatier, French chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941)
- November 6 - John Philip Sousa, American composer and conductor (d. 1932)
- November 21 - Pope Benedict XV (d. 1922)
- December 23 - Victoriano Huerta, President of Mexico (d. 1916)
- December 24 - Thomas Stevens, English cyclist (d. 1935)
- Edward Harkness, American philanthropist (d. 1940)
- C. W. Post, American cereal manufacturer (d. 1914)

Deaths

- January 8 - William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, British general and politician (b. 1768)
- February 17 - John Martin, English painter (b. 1789)
- March 6 - Charles William Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry (b. 1778)
- March 11 - Willard Richards, American religious leader (b. 1804)
- March 13 - Thomas Noon Talfourd, English jurist (b. 1795)
- April 15 - Arthur Aikin, English chemist and mineralogist (b. 1773)
- April 29 - Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, British general (b. 1768)
- July 6 - Georg Ohm, German physicist
- September 8 - Angelo Mai, Italian cardinal and philologist (b. 1782)
- December 15 - Kamehameha III, King of Hawaii (b. 1814?)
- Abbas I, Pasha of Egypt (b. 1813) Category:1854 ko:1854년 ms:1854 simple:1854 th:พ.ศ. 2397

Immaculate Conception

:This article refers to the doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary, Mother of Jesus. For the doctrine of the virginal conception of Jesus Christ, see Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine). The Immaculate Conception is a Catholic doctrine that asserts that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was preserved by God from the stain of original sin at the time of her own conception. Specifically, the doctrine says she was not afflicted by the privation of sanctifying grace that afflicts mankind, but was instead filled with grace by God, and furthermore lived a life completely free from sin. It is commonly confused with the doctrine of the virgin birth, though the two doctrines deal with separate subjects. Mary was conceived by normal biological means, but her soul was acted upon by God (kept "immaculate") at the time of her conception. The Immaculate Conception was solemnly defined as a dogma by Pope Pius IX in his constitution Ineffabilis Deus, published December 8, 1854 (the Feast of the Immaculate Conception). The Feast of the Immaculate Conception of Mary had been established in 1483 by Pope Sixtus IV who stopped short of defining the doctrine as a dogma of the Catholic Faith, thus giving Catholics freedom to believe in this or not; this freedom had been reiterated by the Council of Trent. The existence of the feast was a strong indication of the Church´s belief in the Immaculate Conception, even before its 19th century definition as a dogma. The Catholic Church believes the dogma is supported by scripture (e.g. her being greeted by Angel Gabriel as "full of Grace"), and by the writings of many of the Church Fathers, either directly or indirectly, and often calls Mary the Blessed Virgin (Luke [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=49&ch=001&l=48 1:48]). Catholic theology maintains that since Jesus became incarnate of the Virgin Mary, she needed to be completely free of sin to bear the Son of God, and that Mary is "redeemed 'by the grace of Christ' but in a more perfect manner than other human beings" (Ott, Fund., Bk 3, Pt. 3, Ch. 2, §3.1.e). In the Catholic Church, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December is generally a Holy Day of Obligation, and a public holiday in countries where Catholicism is predominant. Prior to the spread of this doctrine, December 8 was celebrated as the Conception of Mary, since September 8 is the Feast of the Nativity of Mary.

History of the doctrine

Aside from the acceptability of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and its necessity or lack thereof, there is the history of its development within the Catholic Church. The Conception of Mary was celebrated in England from the ninth century. Eadmer was influential in its spread. The Normans suppressed the celebration, but it lived on in the popular mind. It was rejected by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Alexander of Hales, and St. Bonaventure (who, teaching at Paris, called it "this foreign doctrine", indicating its association with England). St Thomas Aquinas expressed questions about the subject, but said that he would accept the determination of the Church. These famous churchmen had problems with the doctrine, due to the medieval understanding of the physical workings of human conception and implantation in the womb. They did not believe that the soul was placed in the body at the moment of conception. Aquinas and Bonaventure, for example, believed that Mary was completely free from sin, but that she was not given this grace at the instant of her conception. The Oxford Franciscans William of Ware and especially Blessed John Duns Scotus defended the doctrine, despite the opposition of most scholarly opinion at the time. Scotus proposed a solution to the theological problems involved with reconciling the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, by arguing that Mary's immaculate conception did not remove her from redemption by Christ, but rather was the result of a more perfect redemption given to her on account of her special role in history. Furthermore, Scotus said that Mary was redeemed in anticipation of Christ's death on the cross. This was similar to the way that the Church explained the Last Supper (since Catholic theology teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice of Calvary made present on the altar, and Christ did not die before the Last Supper). Scotus' defense of the immaculist thesis was summed up by one of his followers as potuit, decuit ergo fecit (God could do it, it was fitting that he did it, and so he did it). Following his defense of the thesis, students at Paris swore to defend the thesis, and the tradition grew of swearing to defend the doctrine with one's blood. Popular opinion was firmly behind accepting this privilege for Mary, but such was the sensitivity of the issue and the authority of Aquinas, that it was not until 1854 that Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic Bishops, pronounced the doctrine infallible.

Protestant and Eastern Orthodox opinion

The doctrine is generally not shared by either Eastern Orthodoxy or by Protestantism. Protestants generally reject the doctrine, because they do not consider the development of dogmatic theology to be authoritative apart from Biblical exegesis, and the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not explicit in the Bible. It is accepted by some Anglo-Catholics, but is rejected by most in the Anglican Communion. In the Book of Common Prayer, December 8 is a "lesser commemoration", whose observance is optional. However, members of the Society of Mary are required to attend mass that day. Orthodox Christians do believe that Mary was without sin for her entire life, but they do not share the Catholic Church's views on original sin. They note that St. Augustine (d. 430), whose works were not well known in Eastern Christianity until after the 17th century, has exerted considerable influence over the theology of sin that has generally taken root through the Holy See, and since Eastern Orthodoxy does not share Rome's (or most Protestants') view of original sin, it considers unnecessary the doctrine that Mary would require purification prior to the Incarnation. Instead, Eastern Orthodox theologians suggest that the references among the Greek and Syrian Fathers to Mary's purity and sinlessness may refer not to an a priori state, but to her conduct after birth. Although this is not a dogma in the Orthodox Church, there is the universal belief that there was a pre-sanctification of Mary at the time of her conception, similar to the conception of Saint John the Baptist. However, there was no cleansing of original sin, since Orthodox Christians believe that that one cannot inherit original sin, or any sin for that matter; instead, 'original sin' in Orthodoxy refers to the general tendency towards sin and pain in the world, caused by the fall of Adam.

Scriptural sources

In his Apostolic Constitution [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9INEFF.HTM Ineffabilis Deus] (December 8, 1854), which officially defined the Immaculate Conception as dogma for the Catholic Church, Pope Pius IX primarily appealed to the text of Genesis [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__P5.HTM 3:15], where the serpent was told by God, "I will put enmity between you and the woman, between your seed and her seed." According to the Catholic understanding, this was a prophecy that foretold of a "woman" who would always be at enmity with the serpent — that is, a woman who would never be under the power of sin, nor in bondage to the serpent. Some Catholic theologians have also found Scriptural evidence for the Immaculate Conception in the angel Gabriel's greeting to Mary at the Annunciation, recorded by Saint Luke in Luke [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28]. The English translation, "Hail, Full of Grace," or "Hail, Favored One," is based on the Greek of Luke [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28], Χαιρε κεχαριτωμενη Chaire kecharitomene. The latter word has the verb "to grace" as its root, and the Greek syntax indicates that the action of the verb was passive, fully completed in the past, with results continuing into the future. Put another way, it means that the subject (Mary) was graced fully and completely at some time in the past, and continued in that fully graced state. The Church Fathers, almost from the beginning of Church History, found further Scriptural evidence by comparing the figure of Eve to the figure of Mary. St. Justin Martyr said that Mary was a kind of New Eve, "in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin." (Dialogue with Trypho, 100) Tertullian argued in the same manner, saying, "As Eve had believed the serpent, so Mary believed the angel. The delinquency which the one occasioned by believing, the other by believing effaced." (On the Flesh of Christ, 17) St. Irenaeus declared that Mary became "the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race," because "what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith." (Against Heresies, Book III, cap. 22, 4) St. Jerome coined the phrase, "Death came through Eve, but life has come through Mary." (Letter XXII, To Eustochium, 21)

Parallelisms in other religions

Anahita (or Nahid in Modern Persian), the mother of Mitra, whose name means "unstained" or "immaculate", was an ancient Persian deity. Her cult was strongest in Western Iran, and had parallels with that of the Semitic Near Eastern "Queen of Heaven", deification of the planet Venus. The largest temple with a Mithraic connection is the Seleucid temple at Kangavar in western Iran (c. 200 BC), dedicated to "Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the Lord Mithras". Isis was also sometimes described as immaculate. "Immaculate is our Lady Isis," is the legend around an engraving of Serapis and Isis, described by C W King, in The Gnostics and their Remains.

Common misinterpretation

There is a widespread misunderstanding of the term immaculate conception. Many people, even many Catholics, believe this refers to the conception of Jesus by Mary. Nearly every time this term is used in television or in popular culture, it is in reference to the conception of Jesus by Mary. The conception of Jesus by Mary is more properly called the incarnation of Christ. The phrase "Immaculate Conception," by Catholic interpretation, is not directly connected to the concept of the "Virgin Birth." The Catholic Church celebrates the Immaculate Conception on 8 December, exactly nine months before the official birthday of Mary. The Incarnation of Christ is celebrated on 25 March, nine months before Christmas Day.

References

- [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm Ineffabilis Deus (Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius IX defining the dogma of the Immaculate Conception)]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on the Immaculate Conception]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Original Sin]

Opinion

- [http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=4&SID=3 "St. Augustine and Original Sin"] — a short article on the different understandings of Original Sin in Eastern and Western Christianity.
- [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen214.htm Rosicrucians: The Immaculate Conception] (esoteric Christian view)
- [http://www.fisheaters.com/mary.html Summary of Roman Catholic doctrines about Mary] Category:Blessed Virgin Mary Category:Catholic theology and doctrine Category:Liturgical Calendar ja:無原罪の御宿り

Original sin

Original sin is usually understood of the condition of sinfulness (lack of holiness) in which human beings, according to Christian tradition, are born. The term is also applied, with the definite article ("the original sin"), to mankind's first sin, to which evil effects for the whole human race are attributed. Christians usually refer to this first sin as "the Fall". Usages of the term in fields like finance are mere analogies.

The original sin (the Fall)

Classical Biblical and Orthodox Jewish view

Adam's sin, as recounted in the Book of Genesis is sometimes called in Hebrew החטא הקדמון (the original sin), on the basis of the traditional Christian term. But the term used in classical Jewish literature is חטא אדם הראשׁון), (the first sin of man, or of Adam). The account in Genesis 2–3 implies that Adam and Eve initially lived in a state of intimate communion with God. God warned Adam not to eat of the fruit of "the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil" (Genesis 2:15–17).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=2] The serpent persuaded Eve, who in turn persuaded Adam, to disobey this commandment. After eating of the fruit, they immediately recognized their mistake, and became ashamed of their nakedness (Genesis 3:1–7).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] God cursed the serpent, apparently changing its physical form, and setting up eternal enmity between mankind and serpents (Genesis 3:9–15).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] God pronounced judgements on both Eve and Adam. Eve's judgement was the difficulties of pregnancy and subjection to her husband. Adam's was toil and struggle for his sustenance (Genesis 3:16–21).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden and doomed to die (Genesis 3:22–24).[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=3] According to Jewish tradition, the divine prohibition was to give them free choice and allow them to earn, as opposed to receive, absolute perfection and intimate communion with God, a higher level than the one on which they were created. The consequences affected Adam and Eve's descendants. People are not intrinsically condemned and sinful, but nevertheless begin life at a spiritual and metaphysical level inherited from Adam and Eve, far lower than Adam's original level. The course of history is meant to return humanity to Adam's original level, and then allow it to surpass that level by completing the task that Adam failed to complete. The curses and changes imposed on mankind and womankind following their sin are meant to facilitate this return to glory. According to this tradition, Adam and Eve would have attained absolute perfection and retained immortality had they succeeded in withstanding the temptation to eat from the Tree. After failing at this task, they were condemned to a period of toil to rectify the fallen universe. In Jewish tradition, this is a 6,000 year period. Jewish tradition views the serpent, and sometimes the Tree of Knowledge itself, as representatives of evil. Evil's job was and is to mislead Mankind and give the appearance that God does not actually control all elements of Creation. Adam's task was to see through this veil. After his failure, this became humanity's task through history.

Reform and Conservative Judaism's views

The more modern liberal branches of Judaism, such as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism, which see no "evil" other than the evil actions of human beings, disagree with traditions that identify the serpent with Satan. Eve's only transgression was that she disobeyed God's order. Adam was with her the entire time and at no time stopped her. Therefore, it is incorrect to blame Eve alone. Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden and had to live ordinary, human lives. In other words, they had to "leave home" and grow up and live as responsible human beings. If they had never eaten from the forbidden tree, they would never have discovered their capacity to act with free will in the world. God doesn't want human beings who have no choice but to always do what is good and right.

The original sin in Gnosticism

Gnostics saw the figure of the serpent as a divine benefactor and liberator of humanity, rather than as Satan, Lucifer, or any other ill-intentioned figure. They held that the world was created by the Demiurge, an imperfect creator who wished to rule it as a tyrant. However, the spirit of Christ interfered by possessing the serpent and telling Eve to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. The fact that Adam and Eve ate from this tree allowed them to have free will and thus defy, if need be, their Demiurge creator. Therefore, according to the Gnostics, what Christians call the Fall was really the freeing of humanity's minds and souls,.

The original sin in the Unification Church

When Adam and Eve ate the fruit, they did not "die" immediately (in the physical sense); but, according to the Unification Church interpretation, they "died" in a spiritual sense: their relationship with God was cut off. According to Unification theology, Adam and Eve sinned by having a sexual relationship before they had reached perfection. The "fruit of knowledge" was a symbol of Eve's sexual love, which could be either good (if centered on God) or evil (if not). Eve was initially tempted into sin by the Archangel Lucifer, who seduced her. The reason why Adam and Eve hid their "lower parts" after the original sin is similar to the reason why children, having swiped cookies, might hide their hands ("I have concealed my transgressions like Adam, by hiding my iniquity in my bosom." -- Job 31:33).

The original sin in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as the LDS Church, and the "Mormons") teaches a doctrine, known as the Fall of Adam, that the actions of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden brought about spiritual and physical death. Latter-day Saints believe that separation from God (spiritual death) was an intended part of the plan of God. The main objective of the plan was that mankind should be tested (see Abraham). Because separation from God was necessary, Latter-day Saints see the transgression of Adam and Eve as a great and necessary sacrifice, rather than a "mistake". Adam and Eve were cast out of God's presence and suffered physical pain and death after committing the transgression. Their choice to enter that fallen state willingly meant that the God's "Plan of Happiness" could proceed as intended, and was in line with his will. Mormons do not believe that the transgression in Eden was of a sexual nature - nor could it have been, they hold, as God commanded Adam and Eve to multiply and replenish the Earth, implying that sexual relations between our progenitors were sanctioned by Him, and that they were de facto married by God in Eden. Likewise, they do not blame Eve for being the first to partake of the fruit, but rather celebrate her wisdom in recognizing that her descendants would have to be born, live, and make righteous choices on Earth, learn to repent through the Atonement of Jesus Christ, and pass through death, in order eventually to be fully redeemed and return to live with God again. The idea is that it is better to pass through the sorrow of this life, in order to know the Good from the Evil, rather than to exist in a perpetual state of innocence and stagnant ignorance. (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/2_ne/2/11#10 2nd Nephi 2:11])

The original sin according to Muslims

The Qur'an recounts the story of Adam and Eve in a similar way to that of the Bible. However, the blame of disobedience is either put squarely on Adam, or both are blamed for the sin, but Eve is never mentioned to have convinced Adam of the sin. Adam and Eve are forgiven by God after they repent. The idea that the sin propagates to their offspring is categorically refused by the majority of Sunni and Shia muslims, citing ayahs such as: [6:164] "Every soul draws the meed of its acts on none but itself: no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another," and [2:286] "On no soul doth Allah place a burden greater than it can bear. It gets every good that it earns, and it suffers every ill that it earns." There are minor factions, such as the Quran Alone Muslims, who accept a concept of original sin according to which every single human has sinned individually before coming to this earth.

Original sin (Christian doctrine)

There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all human beings, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether.

Original sin in the New Testament

The New Testament teaching on original sin is thought by some to be summarized by the Apostle Paul: "Therefore as sin came into the world through one man and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all men sinned." (Rom 5:12 NRSV). The experience of original sin, and the spiritual pain it produces in the one who wishes to please God, is thought by some to be summed up by Paul: "I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. Now if I do what I do not want, I agree that the law is good. So then it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me. For I know that nothing good dwells within me, that is, in my flesh. I can will what is right, but I cannot do it. For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I do. Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I that do it, but sin which dwells within me. So I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. For I delight in the law of God, in my inmost self, but I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin which dwells in my members. Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?" (Romans 7:15–24). Yet here there is no mention of inherited sin or guilt, but rather the reality of sin in the life of every person. The solution to this dilemma is stated by Paul in these terms: "For God has done what the law, weakened by the flesh, could not do: sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh, in order that the just requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not according to the flesh but according to the Spirit" (Romans 8:3-4). The reference to “sinful flesh” is not necessarily a statement about inherited guilt, but rather a reference to the identification of mortal human life and sin. Though the New Testament doctrine of original sin is thought by some to be expressed by Paul, it is also thought to be implicit in the teachings of Jesus: for example in such words as: "I am the vine, you are the branches. He who abides in me, and I in him, he it is that bears much fruit, for apart from me you can do nothing" (John 15:5). This passage speaks of the lack of spiritual life in one who is outside of Christ, which is thought to be a consequence of sin. The episode in Matthew 18 in which Jesus says children are not to be despised, for "their angels in heaven do always behold the face of my Father who is in heaven," is thought by opponents of the doctrine of original sin to be evidence of the innocence of children.

Original sin in Catholicism

After quoting Saint Paul's letter to the Romans 5:12, 18, the Catechism of the Catholic Church says: "By the 'unity of the human race', all men are implicated in Adam's sin, as all are implicated in Christ's justice. Still, the transmission of original sin is a mystery that we cannot fully understand" (404). The Catholic Church teaches that original sin, in which human beings are born, is "the state of deprivation of the original holiness and justice ... it is transmitted to the descendants of Adam along with human nature" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 76). Being a state, not an act, it involves no personal responsibility (cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 405). It is a state that gives rise to other consequences: "Human nature, without being entirely corrupted, has been harmed in its natural powers, is subject to ignorance, suffering and the power of death, and has a tendency to sin. This tendency is called concupiscence" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 77). The already existing doctrine of original sin was developed especially by Saint Augustine of Hippo in reaction to Pelagianism. The Church had always held baptism to be "for the remission of sins". Infants too were baptized, and were thus treated as inheriting the guilt of Adam's transgression, which, as St Paul taught, brought death upon the whole human race. In insisting that human beings have of themselves full freedom to choose between good and evil and so can achieve justification by their own efforts, Pelagianism denied both the importance of baptism and the teaching that God is the giver of all that is good. The Catholic Church did not accept all of Augustine's ideas, in particular the opinion that involvement in Adam's guilt and punishment takes effect through the dependence of human procreation on the sexual passion, in which the spirit's inability to control flesh is evident. There is a close link between the notion of original sin and the Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, namely the Church's teaching that, in view of the saving power of the future death and resurrection of her son Jesus, she was preserved from this "stain" (i.e. deprivation of holiness), which affects others. Those who deny the existence of inherited original sin implicitly profess belief in the immaculate conception not only of Mary but of every human being.

Original sin in mainstream Protestantism

The notion of original sin as interpreted by Augustine of Hippo was affirmed by the Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin. Both Luther and Calvin agreed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the Calvinistic doctrine of "total depravity") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation. Because of this conundrum, Protestants believe that God the Father sent Jesus into the world. The personhood, life, ministry, suffering, and death of Jesus, as God incarnate in human flesh, is meant to be the atonement for original sin as well as actual sins; this atonement is according to some rendered fully effective by the Resurrection of Jesus.

Original sin in Restoration Movement

Most Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement Churches, such as the Churches of Christ, Christian Churches, and other Congregational Churches of the same origin, reject the notion of original sin, believing only in the sins for which men and women are personally responsible. Adam and Eve did bring sin into the world by introducing disobedience, and as a result the concept spread; however, sin itself is an action, and not something that one can inherit.

Original sin in Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy acknowledges that the introduction of sin into the human race affected the subsequent environment for mankind, but tends to deny any inherited guilt (such as is involved in what Orthodox consider to be a very common Western concept of original sin) or any necessary corruption of man's nature. The act of Adam is not the responsibility of all humanity. but the consequences of that act exist and plague the world. The act created an environment within which it is simply not possible, without direct Divine intervention, for a human being to avoid some sort of actual committed sin some time in his or her life. In essence, it is a type of combined "spiritual environmental pollution" and "spiritual illness".

External links

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Article "Original Sin" in Catholic Encyclopedia]
- [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/index.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]
- [http://www.bookofconcord.org/augsburgdefense/2_originalsin.html The Book of Concord (www.bookofconcord.org):] The Defense of the Augsburg Confession, Article II: Of Original Sin
- [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-044.stm Sermon #44: Original Sin] by John Wesley
- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-63 Dictionary of the History of Ideas:] Cosmic Fall
- [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/21-25/22-14.htm Original Sin as Privation: An Inquiry into a Theology of Sin and Sanctification] by Leon Hynson
- [http://www.tenbiggestmyths.net/spirituality/original.sin Original Sin Myths] category:Christian philosophy category:Islamic philosophy Category:Christian theology Category:Jewish mysticism Category:Theology Category:Torah events ja:原罪

Timothy Eaton

Timothy Eaton (1834 – January 31, 1907) was a Canadian businessman who founded the Eaton's department store, one of the most important retail businesses in Canada's history. He was born in Ballymena, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, of a Protestant Scottish ancestry. As a 20-year-old Irish apprentice shopkeeper, Timothy Eaton sailed from Ireland to settle with other family members in southern Ontario, Canada. In 1861, with the help of his brothers Robert and James, Timothy Eaton set up a bakery business in the town of Kirkton, Ontario which went under after only a few months. Undaunted, he opened a dry goods store in St. Marys, Ontario. In 1869, Eaton purchased an existing dry-goods and haberdashery business at 178 Yonge Street in Toronto. In promoting his new business, Eaton embraced two retail practices that were ground-breaking at the time: first, all goods had one price (no haggling) with no credit given, and second, all purchases came with a money-back guarantee (a practice expressed in what would become the long-standing store slogan of "Goods Satisfactory or Money Refunded"). Toronto in Winnipeg.]] Starting in 1884, Timothy Eaton introduced Canada to the wonders of the mail-order catalogue, reaching the thousands of small towns and rural communities with an array of products previously unattainable. In these tiny communities, the arrival of Eaton's catalogue was a major event. More than clothing, furniture, or the latest in kitchen gadgetry, the catalogue offered milking machines, and just about every other contraption or latest invention desirable. And, when rendered obsolete by the new season’s catalogue, it served another important use in the outdoor privy of most every rural home. Timothy Eaton spawned a colossal retail empire that his offspring would expand coast to coast, reaching its high point during World War II, when the T. Eaton Co. Limited employed more than 70,000 people. Although Timothy Eaton did not invent the department store, nor was he the first retailer in the world to implement a money-back guarantee, the chain he founded popularized both concepts and revolutionized retailing in North America. Timothy Eaton died of pneumonia on January 31, 1907 and is buried in Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto. He was succeeded by his son, John Craig Eaton. In 1919, two life-sized statues of Timothy Eaton were donated by the Eaton's employees to the Toronto and Winnipeg stores in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the company. For years, it was tradition for customers in both Toronto and Winnipeg to rub the toe of the statue for good luck. The Toronto statue is now housed by the Royal Ontario Museum, and the Winnipeg statue sits in the city's new arena, the MTS Centre, in almost in the exact same spot where it stood in the now demolished Eaton's store. Museum-goers in Toronto and hockey fans in Winnipeg continue to rub Timothy’s toe for luck.

External links

- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=40819 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online] Category: Eaton's Eaton, Timothy Eaton, Timothy

December 8

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December 8

Events

Births

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Holidays and observances

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1854

Events

Births

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Immaculate Conception

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References

Opinion

Original sin

The original sin (the Fall)

Classical Biblical and Orthodox Jewish view

Reform and Conservative Judaism's views

The original sin in Gnosticism

The original sin in the Unification Church

The original sin in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The original sin according to Muslims

Original sin (Christian doctrine)

Original sin in the New Testament

Original sin in Catholicism

Original sin in mainstream Protestantism

Original sin in Restoration Movement

Original sin in Eastern Orthodoxy

See also

External links

Timothy Eaton

External links