Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Epidamnos

Epidamnos

The Greek city of Epidamnos (Strabo Geography vi.316), later the Roman Dyrrachium (modern Durrës, Albania, ca. 30 km W of Tirana) was founded in 627 BC in Illyria by a group of colonists from Corinth and Corcyra (modern Corfu). Aristotle's Politics several times draws for examples on the internal government of Epidamnos, which was run as a tight oligarchy that appointed a ruling magistrate; tradesmen and craftsmen were excluded from power, until internal strife produced a more democratic government. Then the elite exiles appealed to the mother-city Corinth, initiating a struggle between Corcyra and Corinth that is described by Thucydides. Individual trading with the local Illyrians was forbidden at Epidamnos: all traffic was through the authorized city agent or poletes. In the 4th century BC the city-state was part of the kingdoms of Cassander and Pyrrhus. In 229 BC, when the Romans seized the city the "-damnos" part of the name was inauspicious to Latin ears, and its name became Dyrrhachium. Pausanias (6.x.8) says "the modern [Roman] city is not the ancient one, being at a short distance from it. The modern city is called Dyrrhachium from its founder." The name Dyrrachion is found on coins of the 5th century BC; in the Roman period Dyrrachium was more common. However, the city maintained a semi-autonomy and was turned into a Roman colony. Dyrrachium was the landing place for Roman passengers crossing the Ionian Sea from Brundisium, which made it a fairly busy way-station. Here commenced the Via Egnatia, the Roman military road to Thessalonica that connected Roman Illyria with Macedonia and Thrace. In 48 BC Pompey was based at Dyrrachium and beat off an attack by Julius Caesar (see Battle of Dyrrhachium). In 345 BC the city was levelled by an earthquake and rebuilt on its old foundations. The modern city is built directly over the ancient site, so it is primarily on the basis of inscriptions and serendipitous finds that some idea of its monuments has been formed. Inscriptions offer evidence on the following Roman monuments: an aqueduct constructed by Hadrian and restored by Alexander Severus bears a dedicatory inscription at Arapaj, a short distance from Durazzo: (CIL III, 1-709); the Roman temple of Minerva; the Temple of Diana (CIL III, 1-602), which is perhaps the one mentioned by Appian (BCiv. 2.60); the equestrian statue of L. Titinius Sulpicianus (CIL III, 1-605); the library (CIL m, 1-67). The last inscription mentions that for the dedication of the library 24 gladiators fought in pairs. The conjecture that there was an amphitheater in the city is confirmed by a passage from the 15th-century Vita di Skanderbeg by Marin Barleti: "amphitheatrum mira arte ingenioque constructum". As a result of occasional discoveries, the following data are available: a 3d century mosaic pavement with a female head surrounded by garlands of vegetables and flowers, which brings to mind those painted on Apulian vases; remains of houses covered by other layers, the lowest of which, of the Greek era, was found at a depth of 5 m. Columns with Corinthian capitals and sections of finished marble revetment, discovered on the nearby hillside at Stani, belong probably to the Temple of Minerva or to the Capitolium. In the necropolis east of the hills that stand above the city have been found a stele of Lepidia Salvia, a sarcophagus with a scene of the Calydonian Boar hunt (now at Istanbul), and numerous Roman tombs. Classical sources not mentioned in the text: Strabo 5.283; 6.316,323,327; Ptolemy 3.12; Dio Cassius. 41.49; Pomponius Mela 2.56; Pliny Natural History 3.145; 4.36; 6.217; 14.30; 19.144; 32.18. CIL refers to the series of published inscriptions Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.

External link


- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus site:] several sources, including William Smith, ed., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) Category:Ancient Greek cities Category:Roman towns and cities Category:History of Albania Category:Corinthian colonies

Strabo

"Strabo" ("squinty") was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo." A native of Sicily so clear sighted that he could see things at great distance as if they were nearby was also called "Strabo." See also Walahfrid Strabo and Theodoric Strabo. Theodoric Strabo The most significant figure by this name, however, was Strabo (born 63 BC or 64 BC, died ca. 24 AD), a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Nowadays, Strabo is mostly famous for his Geographika ("Geography"), a 17-book work containing history and descriptions of people and places all over the world as known to him. Strabo was born in a wealthy family from Amaseia (current-day Amasya, Turkey) in Pontus, which became part of the Roman empire just around the time of his birth. He studied under various geographers and philosophers, first in his own area, later in Rome. He was philosophically a stoicist, politically a proponent of Roman imperialism. Later he made extensive travels to among others Egypt and Ethiopia. It is not known when he wrote his Geographika though remarks in it place the finished version in the reign of Emperor Tiberius; some place its first drafts around 7 AD, others around 18 AD. The death of Juba, king of Maurousia is mentioned, an event which took place in 23 AD. Strabo's Historia is lost: Strabo quotes it himself, and other classical authors mention that it existed. All that we have of it is a fragment of papyrus now at the University of Milan (renumbered P[apyrus] 46). Several different dates have been proposed for Strabo's death, most of them placing it shortly after 23 AD.

The Geography

The Geographika is an extensive work in Greek, spanning 17 volumes, and can be regarded as an encyclopedia of the geographical knowledge of his time; except for parts of Book 7, it has come down to us complete. Yet while it does cover the entire world known to the Greeks and Romans of his time, it suffers from several major flaws: a constant and very intrusive defense of the poet Homer as a geographical source, leading him to dismiss more recent writers, such as Herodotus, who were often eyewitnesses to what they reported; a preoccupation with minute, often captiously argumentative, criticism of these other writers; a peculiarly Greek aprioristic attitude to facts, seeking to derive them from the pure exercise of reason: in sum, one would prefer more geography and less argumentation. These byways, however, do provide modern scholars with valuable historical information on the methods of ancient geography and on many older geographers whose works have not come down to us. Some thirty manuscripts of Geographika or parts of it have survived, almost all of them medieval copies of copies, though there are fragments from papyrus rolls which were probably copied out ca AD 100‑300. Scholars have struggled for a century and a half to produce an accurate edition close to what Strabo wrote. A definitive one has been in publication since 2002, appearing at a rate of about a volume a year.

External links

The text of Strabo online


- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html Books 1‑7, 15‑17] in English translation, ed. H. L. Jones (1924), at LacusCurtius
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+toc Books 6‑14] in English translation, ed. H. L. Jones (1924), Perseus Digital Library

Secondary material


- [http://members.aol.com/spothecary/editions.html Sarah Pothecary, "Editions of Strabo's Geographia"]; see also this author's [http://members.aol.com/spothecary/gettingstarted.html "Getting started with Strabo"] Category:60s BC births Category:24 deaths Category:Ancient Greeks Category:Roman era geographers Category:Roman era historians

Albania

:Albania was also the name of an unrelated ancient state in the Caucasus – see Caucasian Albania. Albania is a Mediterranean country in southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Serbia and Montenegro in the north, the Republic of Macedonia in the east, and Greece in the south, has a coast on the Adriatic Sea in the west, and a coast on the Ionian Sea in the southwest. The country is an emerging democracy and is formally named the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë).

History

Main articles: Illyria, Illyricum, Dalmatia, History of Albania. In the area that is today Albania, human activity has been present since the beginning of human history. The earlier inhabitants were probably part of the pre-Indo-European populace that occupied the coastline of most parts of the Mediterranean. Their physical remains are scarce though, and concentrated on the coastal region. Soon, these first inhabitants were overrun by the Proto-Hellenic tribes that gradually occupied modern-day Greece, southern parts of what is now the Republic of Macedonia and the south of present-day Albania. This process was completed over the second millennium BC and did not really affect northern or central Albania, an area that at the time presented the image of a political vacuum (in essence a historical paradox). Historians do not agree over the origin of the Illyrians. Some of them maintain that the Illyrians descended from the pre-Indo-European Pelasgians, while most scholars place them in the later wave of Indo-European invasions. Their presence can be traced back to 900 BC, when their political structure was formulated in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Excellent metal craftsmen and fierce warriors, the Illyrians formed warlord based kingdoms that fought amongst themselves for most of their history. Only during the 6th century did the Illyrians venture significant raids against their immediate neighbours: the kingdom of the Molossians in northern Epirus (present southern Albania), the kingdom of Macedon, and the kingdom of Paionia. Probably their most important success was the slaughter of Perdiccas III, king of Macedon. Unfortunately for the Illyrians, Perdiccas was succeeded by Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, who effectively terminated the Illyrian aggression. Besides warfare, the Illyrians were also peaceful traders of agricultural products and metal works. The Illyrian culture was influenced by the Greek culture (mainly the south Illyrian tribes). Albania is also the site of several ancient Greek colonies. After being conquered by the Roman Empire, Illyria was reorganized as a Roman province, Illyricum, later divided into the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia, the lands comprising Albania mostly being included in Dalmatia. Later, the Byzantine Empire governed the region. After centuries, use of the name Illyria to denote the region fell out of fashion. In the middle ages, the name Albania (see Origin and history of the name Albania) began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. The territory of Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1478, after years of resistance under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skenderbeu, the Albanian National Hero. After the First Balkan War, Albania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, becoming a principality. From 1928 on, the country was ruled by King Zog I until 1938 when it became a puppet of Italy. The communists took over after World War II, in November 1944, under the leader of the resistance, Enver Hoxha. From 1945 until 1990 Albania had one of the most repressive governments in Europe. The communist party was created in 1941 with the direction of Bolshevik Communist Parties. All those who opposed it were eliminated. Enver Hoxha became the leader of this party. For many decades of his domination, Hoxha created and destroyed relationships with Belgrade, Moscow, and China, always in his personal interests. The country was isolated, first from the West (Western Europe, North America and Australasia) and later even from the communist East. In 1985, Enver Hoxha died and Ramiz Alia took his place. Initially, Alia tried to follow in Hoxha's footsteps, but in Eastern Europe the changes had already started: Mikhail Gorbachev had appeared in the Soviet Union with new policies (Glasnost and perestroika). The totalitarian regime was pressured by the US and Europe and the hate of its own people. After Nicolae Ceauşescu (the communist leader of Romania) was executed in a revolution, Alia knew he would be next if changes were not made. He signed the Helsinki Agreement (which was signed by other countries in 1975) that respected some human rights. He also allowed pluralism, and even though his party won the election of 1991 it was clear that the change would not be stopped. In 1992 the general elections were won by the Democratic Party with 62% of the votes. In the general elections of June 1996 the Democratic Party tried to win an absolute majority and manipulated the results. In 1997 the fraud of the pyramid schemes shocked the entire government and riots started. Many cities were controlled by militia and armed citizens. This anarchy and rebellion caused the socialist party to win the early elections of 1997. Since 1990 Albania has been oriented towards the West, was accepted in the Council of Europe and has requested membership in NATO. The working force of Albania has continued to emigrate to Greece, Italy, Europe and North America. Corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious. The politics have not fulfilled the people's hope for a short and not too painful transition.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Albania The head of state is the president, who is elected by the Kuvendi, or the Assembly of the Republic of Albania every 4 years. The main part of the Assembly's 140 members is elected every 4 years. 100 of the parliament's members are chosen by the people with a direct vote, while the other 40 members are chosen using a proportional system. The head of government is the Prime Minister who is assisted by a council of ministers. The Council of Ministers is selected by the Prime Minister (A process called "forming the government") and then approved by a simple majority (71 votes) in the Assembly.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Districts of Albania and Counties of Albania Albania is divided into 12 qark (county or prefecture), which are further divided into 36 rrethe (districts). The capital city, Tiranë, has a special status. The districts are: See also: List of cities in Albania (Note: some cities have the same name as the district they are in).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Albania Geography of Albania Albania consists of mostly hilly and mountainous terrain, the highest mountain, Korab in the district of Dibra reaching up to 2,753 m. The country mostly has a land climate, with cold winters and hot summers. Besides capital city Tirana, with 520,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are Durrës, Elbasan, Shkodër, Gjirokastër, Vlorë and Korçë. In Albanian grammar a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: so both Tiranë and Tirana, Shkodër and Shkodra are used.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Albania Albania is one of Europe's most impoverished countries, with half of the economically-active population still engaged in agriculture and a fifth said to be working abroad. The country has to deal with a high unemployment rate, corruption up to high government levels and organised crime. The country has almost no exports, and imports many goods from Greece and Italy. Money for imports comes from financial aid and from the money that emigrants working abroad bring to Albania. This is a good status quo business for both Greece and Italy. Albania's coastline on the Ionian Sea, near the Greek tourist island of Corfu, is becoming increasingly popular with foreign visitors due to its relatively unspoilt nature and good beaches. However, the tourist industry is still in its infancy. Growth in GNP per Capita: (n/a) 20% Poorest: (n/a) 20% Richest: (n/a) Aid per Capita: 52 US$ External Debt: 41.3 % of GDP Defence Expenditure: (n/a) Labour Force in Agriculture: 55 % Children in Labour Force: 1 % of children aged 10-14 work

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Albania Most of the population is ethnically Albanian (95% according to the CIA World Factbook Feb 2005), there is a Greek minority (3% of the population). Many ethnic Albanians also live in the bordering countries of Serbia and Montenegro (around 1,850,000; of that, around 1,800,000 in Serbia (around 1,700,000 in its province called Kosovo (officially Kosovo and Metohia) only) and around 50,000 in Montenegro) and the Republic of Macedonia (around 500,000). There is an ethnic Albanian population in Greece which is not recognized by the Greek state, known as the Çamë (in Greek: Τσάμηδες Tsámidhes), estimated 50,000, mainly in Epirus. Over 600,000 Albanian immigrants have emigrated to Greece since 1991. The language is Albanian, although Greek is also spoken by the Greek minority in the southern regions of the country. Since the occupation by the Ottomans, the majority of Albanians have been Muslim (70%), even though religion was prohibited during the communist era. According to 1939 statistics, the Albanian Orthodox (20%) and Roman Catholic Church (10%) would be the other main religions in Albania. Religious fanaticism has never been a serious problem, with people from different religions living in peace and even getting married without any problem. 20% of the total Muslim population is Bektashi, people who follow a faith originating in the Turkish migrations into Turkey, and came to Albania through the Ottoman Janissaries. It has outwardly Shi'ite Islamic elements, but is really a Shamanic-Pantheistic faith.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Albania
- Cuisine of Albania
- Music of Albania

Miscellaneous topics


- List of Albania-related articles
- List of Albanians
- Albanian mythology
- Beslidhja Skaut Albania
- List of sovereign states
- Communications in Albania
- Education in Albania
- Foreign relations of Albania
- Military of Albania
- Transportation in Albania
- Public holidays in Albania
- List of Albanian-Americans

External links


- [http://www.balkanforums.com Albania and the Balkans] Discussion Forum
- [http://www.tanmarket.com/ALBANIA_PRESENTATION Albanian Presentation by TanMarket.com]
- [http://www.tanmarket.com/albania.html Albania Profile by TanMarket.com]
- [http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Albanian Etymological Dictionary]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Albania] - CIA's Factbook on Albania
- [http://www.albanian.com/community/index.php General information on Albanians]
- [http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/al.html More links of the Albanian government]
- [http://www.albaniafoto.com/en/ Albania Pictures]
- [http://www.albeu.com An Albanian news portal] (in Albanian)
- [http://www.opic.gov/links/countryInfo.asp?country=Albania®ion=euro OPIC Guide on Albania]
- [http://www.travelconsumer.com/countries/albania.htm Travel guide to Albania]
- [http://hotelkalemi.tripod.com Guide to Gjirokaster]
- [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/albania/map.html Map of Albania]
- [http://mysite.verizon.net/vze7b2yg/ ALBoZONE - History, Literature, Pictures, Multimedia]
- [http://www.forumi.zeriyt.com Discussion Forum for Albanians] (English/Albanian)

Official government websites


- [http://www.kohajavore.cg.yu/forum/viewtopic.php?t=11 Koha Javore] (Albanian)
- [http://www.albca.com/aclis Albanian Canadian League Information Service - ACLIS] (Albanian and English)
- [http://www.tanmarket.com/php TanPortal Albanian Social Economic] (Albanian)
- [http://www.albca.com Albanian Canadian League - ACL] (Albanian and English)
- [http://www.keshilliministrave.al/english/default.asp Department of Information] (Albanian and English)
- [http://www.parlament.al The Albanian Parliament] (Albanian, English and French)
- [http://www.president.al Presidency of Albania] (Albanian and English)
- [http://www.instat.gov.al Albanian Institute of Statistics] (Albanian and English) fiu-vro:Albaania roa-rup:Albanii zh-min-nan:Shqipëria als:Albanien ko:알바니아 ms:Albania ja:アルバニア simple:Albania th:ประเทศแอลเบเนีย

Illyria

: This article is about the ancient region in the south of Europe. For other uses of this word, see Illyria (disambiguation). In classical history, Illyria or Illyricum or Illyrikon was a kingdom in the western part of today's Balkan Peninsula, founded by the tribes and clans of Illyrians, an ancient people who spoke an Indo-European language (the Illyrian languages). The delineation of ancient Illyria can pose a problem to historians, since before the Roman conquest the Illyrians were not unified into an Illyrian kingdom, and Illyria's borders before Rome are not always clear. For example, the Dalmatae, though classed as an Illyrian tribe by language, were only subject to the kingdom of Illyria for a short time and soon defected during the reign of King Gentius.

Illyria before the Indo-European migrations

Settlement of Proto-Illyrian tribes

Some archaeologists propose that the Proto-Illyrians settled in what would become Illyria as early as the Early Bronze Age, and presumably soon mingled with the previous non-Indo-European inhabitants. This mixture would eventually result in the formation of the Illyrian tribes who inhabited Illyria in the Classical period---the Autariatae, Dassaretae, Chelidones, Taulanti, etc.---who were kin to tribes further north, also often classed as Illyrians: the Dalmatae, Pannoni, and others. The Illyrians produced and traded cattle, horses, agricultural goods, and wares fashioned from locally-mined copper and iron. Feuds and warfare were constant facts of life for the Illyrian tribes, and Illyrian pirates plagued shipping on the Adriatic Sea. Councils of elders chose the chieftains who headed each of the numerous Illyrian tribes. From time to time, local chieftains extended their rule over other tribes and formed short-lived kingdoms. During the 5th century BC, a well-developed Illyrian population center existed as far north as the upper Sava River valley in what is now Slovenia. Illyrian friezes discovered near the present-day Slovenian city of Ljubljana depict ritual sacrifices, feasts, battles, sporting events, and other activities. At various times, groups of Illyrians migrated over land and sea into Italy.

Illyrian kingdom

The Illyrian king Bardyllis turned Illyria into a formidable local power in the 4th century BC. The main cities of the Illyrian kingdom were Lissus and Epidamnus (also known as Dyrrhacion, Dyrrhachium). In 359 BC, King Perdiccas III of Macedonia was killed by attacking Illyrians. In 358 BC, however, Macedonia's Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great, defeated the Illyrians and assumed control of their territory as far as Lake Ohrid. Alexander himself routed the forces of the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus in 335 BC, and Illyrian tribal leaders and soldiers accompanied Alexander on his conquest of Persia. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, independent Illyrian kingdoms again arose. In 312 BC, King Glaukias expelled the Greeks from Epidamnus. By the end of the third century, an Illyrian kingdom based near what is now the Albanian city of Shkodër controlled parts of northern Albania, Montenegro, and Herzegovina. Under Queen Teuta, Illyrians attacked Roman merchant vessels plying the Adriatic Sea and gave Rome an excuse to invade the Balkans. In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC and 219 BC, Rome overran the Illyrian settlements in the Neretva river valley and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe. In 180 BC the Dalmatians declared themselves independent of the Illyrian king Gentius, who kept his capital at Skodra. The Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, at Scodra in 168 BC and captured him, bringing him to Rome in 165 BC. Four client-republics were set up, which were in fact ruled by Rome. Later, the region would be directly governed by Rome and organized as a province. For the subsequent Roman period of Illyrian history, see Roman province of Illyricum.

Religion in ancient Illyria

The Illyrian town of Rhizon (Risan, Montenegro) had its own protector and they called him Medauras. Medauras was depicted as carrying a lance and riding on horseback. Human sacrifice also played a role in the lives of the Illyrians. The ancient historian Arrian records the Illyrian chieftain Kleitus sacrificing three boys, three girls and three rams just before his battle with Alexander the Great. The most common type of burial among the Iron-Age Illyrians was tumulus or mound burial. The kin of the first tumuli would be buried around that and the higher the status of those in these burials the higher the mound. Archaeology has brought forth numerous artifacts placed within these tumuli such as weapons, ornaments, garments, and clay vessels. Items needed for the journey into the Illyrian afterlife.

Legacy

After the province of Illyricum was divided into Dalmatia and Pannonia in 10 AD, the terms "Illyria" and "Illyrian" would generally go out of use, but would still be used in some circles. The name Illyria was revived by Napoleon for the 'Provinces of Illyria' that were incorporated into the French Empire from 1809 to 1813, and the 'Kingdom of Illyria' was part of Austria until 1849, after which time it was not used in the reorganised Austro-Hungarian Empire. The name Illyrians was used by some groups among the Croats up to their period of romantic nationalism in the 19th century, but was eventually abandoned as a potentially misleading anachronism. In drama and literature Illyria can be a half-fictional country, e.g., in William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Jean-Paul Sartre's Les Mains Sales and in Lloyd Alexander's The Illyrian Adventure ISBN 0141303131. Illyria has also been used in the popular television show Angel to portray an ancient god/demon that was reborn in Winifred Burkle's body, killing her in the process. The Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Damage" featured an alien race known as Illyrians, whose homeworld is the planet Illyria, an obvious reference to the historical Earth region.

See also


- Illyrians
- Roman province of Illyricum
- History of Albania
- History of the Balkans
- History of Europe

References


- Wilkes, John. The Illyrians. 1992, Blackwell books.

External links


- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.483891,20.786133&spn=1.982043,3.522491&t=k Illyria region in google map] Category:Illyria ko:일리리아

Corinth

Corinth, or Korinth (Κόρινθος; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is a Greek city, on the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow stretch of land that joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of Greece. To the west of the isthmus lies the Gulf of Corinth, to the east lies the Saronic Gulf. Corinth is about 48 miles (78 km) southwest of Athens. The isthmus, which was in ancient times traversed by hauling ships over the rocky ridge on sledges, is now cut by a canal. Corinth is located at 37°56' North, 22°55' East (38.56, 22.55). Corinth is also the capital of the prefecture of Corinthia. The city is (clockwise) surrounded by the coastal townlets of Lechaio, Isthmia, Kechries, and the inland townlets of Examilia and Ancient Corinth right next to the archaelogical site. Geophysically the city is likewise surrounded by the narrow coastal plain of Vocha, Corinthian Gulf, Corinth Canal, Saronic Gulf, Oneia mountains, and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth where the medieval acropolis was built.

History

Prehistoric era

The city was founded in the Neolithic Age, circa 6000 BC. According to myth, the city was founded by Corinthos, a descendant of the god Helios (the Sun), while other myths suggest that it was founded by the goddess Ephyra, a daugter of the titan Oceanus, thus the ancient name of the city (also Ephyra). There is evidence that the city was destroyed around 2000 BC. Before the end of the Mycenaean period the Dorians attempted to settle in Corinth. While at first they failed, their second attempt was successful when their leader Aletes followed a different path around the Corinthian Gulf from Antirio. Some ancient names for the place, such as Korinthos, derive from a pre-Greek, "Pelasgian" language; it seems likely that Corinth was also the site of a Bronze Age Mycenaean palace-city, like Mycenae, Tiryns or Pylos. According to myth, Sisyphus was the founder of a race of ancient kings at Corinth. It was also in Corinth that Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, abandoned Medea.

Classical era

Medea Later, in classical times the ancient city rivalled Athens and Thebes in wealth, based on the Isthmian traffic and trade. Until the mid-6th century Corinth was a major exporter of black-figure pottery to cities around the Greek world. Athenian potters later came to dominate the market. Corinth's great temple on its ancient acropolis was dedicated to Aphrodite. According to most sources, there were more than one thousand temple prostitutes employed at the Temple of Aphrodite. Corinth was also the host of the Isthmian Games. In the 7th century BC, when Corinth was ruled by the tyrants Cypselus (r. 657-627 BC) and his son Periander (r. 627-585 BC), the city sent forth colonists to found new settlements: Epidamnus (modern day Durres, Albania), Syracuse, Ambracia (modern day town of Lefkas), Corcyra (modern day town of Corfu) and Anactorium. Periander also founded Apollonia (modern day Fier, Albania) and Potidaea (in Chalcidice). Corinth was also one of the nine Greek sponsor-cities to found the colony of Naukratis in Ancient Egypt. Naucratis was founded to accommodate the increasing trade volume between the Greek world and the pharaohnic Egypt, during the reign of Pharaoh Psammetichus I of the 26th dynasty. 26th dynasty Periander was one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. During his reign the first Corinthian coins were forged. He was the first to attempt to cut across the Isthmus to create a seaway to allow ship traffic between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. He abandoned the venture due to the extreme technical difficulties he met, but he created the Diolkos (a stone-build overland ramp) instead. The era of the Cypselids, ending with Periander's nephew Psammetichus, named after the hellenophile Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I (see above), was the golden age of the city of Corinth. During this era Corinthians developed the Corinthian order, the third order of the classical architecture after the Ionic and the Doric. The Corinthian order was the most complicated of the three, showing the accumulation of wealth and the luxurious lifestyle in the ancient city-state, while the Doric order was analogous to the strict and simplistic lifestyle of the older Dorians like the Spartans, and the Ionic was a balance between those two following the philosophy of harmony of Ionians like the Athenians. Doric]] Doric]] At this time there was a famous ancient saying: "Ou pantos plein es Korinthon", which translates as "Not everyone is able to go to Corinth", due to the expensive living standards that prevailed in the city. The city was renowned for the temple prostitutes of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who served the wealthy merchants and the powerful officials living in or travelling in and out of the city. The most famous of them, Lais, was said to have extraordinary abilities and charged tremendous fees for her favours. The city had two main ports, one in the Corinthian Gulf and one in the Saronic Gulf, serving the trade routes of the western and eastern Mediterranean, respectively. In the Corinthian Gulf lied Lechaion, which connected the city to it's western colonies (Greek: apoikoiai) and Magna Graecia, while in the Saronic Gulf the port of Kenchreai served the ships coming from Athens, Ionia, Cyprus and the rest of the Levant. Both ports had docks for the large war fleet of the city-state. The city was a major participant in the Persian Wars, offering 40 war ships in the sea Battle of Salamis under the admiral Adeimantos and 5,000 hoplites (wearing their characteristic Corinthian helmets) in the following Battle of Plataea but afterwards was frequently an enemy of Athens and an ally of Sparta in the Peloponnesian League. In 431 BC, one of the factors leading to the Peloponnesian War was the dispute between Corinth and Athens over the Corinthian colony of Corcyra (Corfu), which probably stemmed from the traditional trade rivalry between the two cities. Peloponnesian War After the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, which were former allies with Sparta in the Peloponnesian League, had grown dissatisfied with the hegemony of Sparta and started the Corinthian War against it, which further weakened the city-states of the Peloponnese. This weakeness allowed for the subsequent invasion of the Macedonians of the north and the forging of the Corinthian League by Philip II of Macedon against the Persian Empire. Philip's son Alexander the Great was the first general of the Hellenes. In the 4th century BC, Corinth was home to Diogenes of Sinope, one of the world's best known cynics.

Roman era

The Romans under Lucius Mummius destroyed Corinth following a siege in 146 BC; when he entered the city Mummius put all the men to the sword and sold the women and children into slavery before he torched the city, for which he was given the cognomen Achaicus as the conqueror of the Achaean League (see Battle of Corinth). While there is archeological evidence of some minimal habitation in the years afterwards, Julius Caesar refounded the city as Colonia laus Iulia Corinthiensis in 44 BC shortly before his assassination. According to Appian, the new settlers were drawn from freedmen of Rome. Under the Romans it became the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (Acts 18:12-16). It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious, immoral and vicious habits of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews. When Paul first visited the city (AD 51 or 52), Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was proconsul. Paul resided here for eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became acquainted with Aquila and Priscilla, and soon after his departure Apollos came from Ephesus. Although he intended to pass through Corinth the second time before he visited Macedonia, circumstances were such, in the absence of Titus, that he went from Troas to Macedonia, and then likely passed into Corinth for a "second benefit" (2 Corinthians 1:15), and remained for three months, according to Acts 20:3. During this second visit in the spring of 58 it is likely the Epistle to the Romans was written. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians reflects the difficulties of maintaining a Christian community in such a cosmopolitan city.

Byzantine era

The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 375 and again in 551. During Alaric's invasion of Greece, in 395–396, Corinth was one of the cities he despoiled, selling many of its citizens into slavery. During the reign of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, a large stone wall was erected from the Saronic to the Corinthian gulf, protecting the city and the Peloponnesean peninsula from the barbarian invasions of the north. The stone wall was about six miles (10 km) long and was named Examilion (exi=six in Greek). During this era Corinth was the seat of the Thema of Hellas (representing modern day Greece). In the 12th century (during the reign of the Comnenus dynasty), the wealth of the city, generated from the silk trade to the Latin states of western Europe, attracted the attention of the Sicilian Normans under the Roger of Sicily, who plundered it in 1147.

Principality of Achaea

In 1204 Geoffrey I de Villehardouin, nephew of the homonymous famous historian of the Fourth Crusade, was granted Corinth after the sack of Constantinople, with the title of Prince of Achaea. From 1205-1208 the Corinthians resisted the Frankish domination from their stronghold in Acrocorinth, under the command of the Greek general Leo Sgouros. The French knight William of Champlitte led the crusader forces. In 1208 Leo Sgouros killed himself by riding off the top of Acrocorinth, but from 1208 to 1210 the Corinthians continued to resist against the enemy forces. After the collapse of resistant and for the years to come Corinth became a full part of the Principality, governed by the Villehardouins from their capital in Andravida of Elis. Corinth was the last sifnificant town of Achaea on its northern borders with another crusader state, the Duchy of Athens.

Ottoman Rule

In 1458 five years after the final Fall of Constantinople, the Turks of the Ottoman Empire conquered the city and its mighty castle. During the Greek War of Independence, 1821-1830 the city was totally destroyed by the Turkish forces. The city was officially liberated in 1832 after the Treaty of London. In 1833, the site was considered among the candidates for the new capital city of the recently founded Kingdom of Greece, due to its historical significance and strategic position. Athens, then an insignificant village, was chosen insted.
North: Gulf of Corinth,
Loutraki-Perachoras (NE)
West: Vocha,
Lechaio		 Corinth East: Saronic Gulf,
Isthmia,
Kechries (SE)
South: Oneia mountains,
Examilia,
Ancient Corinth (SW)

Corinth today

Ancient Corinth In 1858 the old city (ancient Corinth, today a village 3km SW of the modern city) was totally destroyed by an earthquake. The new city of Corinth was founded on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth. Corinth is the second largest city in the periphery of Peloponnese after Kalamata (53,659 inh. in 2001). In the census of 1991 the city had a population of 28,071 while latest data 2001 show an increase of 2,363 inhabitants (+8,4%) to 30,434. It should be noted the fact that between the census of 1981 and that of 1991 the city had one of the fastest increasing populations in the country. The Municipality of Corinth or Dimos Korinthion has a population of 36,991 in 2001. The municipality includes the townlet of Ancient Corinth (1,770 inh.), where the ancient and the medieval city used to be built at the foothills of the rock of Acrocorinth 3km from the new city centre, the townlet of Examilia (1,547 inh.), and the smaller settlements of Xylokeriza (777 inh.) and Solomos (686 inh.). The Corinth Canal, carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean and the Aegean, is about 4 km east of the city, cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth. A city square is located next to its port. The port operates north of the square, and serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility. Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level. Copper cables, petroleum products, medical equipment, marble, gypsum, ceramic tiles, salt, mineral water & beverages, meat products, and gums are produced nearby. Currently (2005) a period of de-industrialisation has commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility disrupted their operations. A large oil-refinery complex is situated about 12 km northeast of the city, which some think is the line marking the Athens metro area. The complex is amongst the largest in the eastern Mediterranean. It is surrounded by Greece Interstate 8A and a 3+1 lanes per direction freeway. A modern rest area with restaurants and gas stations is located nearby on the freeway. The city is the terminal point of a newly-built ultra-modern electric railway line to the Athens metropolitan area. Expectations for further economic and residential expansion are significant due to this new development. The city is also a major road hub being the entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece.

External links


- [http://www.media.net.gr/korinthos.htm Media in Corinth]
- [http://www.xeniosmagazine.gr/prefectures/corinthia/index1.html Xenios Magazine articles on Corinthia]
- [http://corinth.sas.upenn.edu/hist.html History Timeline]
- [http://corinth.sas.upenn.edu/ Corinth Computer Project]
- [http://www.world66.com/lib/map/handle?loc=europe|greece|corinth Satelite Image; Corinth canal separates Corinth (on the left) from Loutraki (on the right)] ---- Partial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 Category:Cities and towns in Greece Category:Coastal cities Category:Ancient Greek cities Category:Archaeological sites Category:Archaeological sites in Greece
- Category:Greek prefectural capitals Category:Pauline churches ja:コリントス

Aristotle

by Lysippos. Louvre Museum.]] Aristotle (Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs; 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote many books about physics, poetry, zoology, logic, rhetoric, government, and biology. Aristotle, along with Plato and Socrates, is generally considered one of the most influential ancient Greek philosophers in Western thought. Among them they transformed Presocratic Greek philosophy into the foundations of Western philosophy as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle form the core of Ancient philosophy. Aristotle placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses and would correspondingly be better classed among modern empiricists (see materialism and empiricism). He also achieved a "grounding" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (Endoxa); his goal being non-contradiction rather than Truth. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the scientific method centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in treatise form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. Their works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics, and zoology. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on aesthetics, economics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also dealt with education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works practically comprise an encyclopedia of Greek knowledge.

Biography

Early life and studies at the Academy

encyclopedia.]] Aristotle was born at Stageira, a colony of Andros on the Macedonian peninsula of Chalcidice in 384 BC. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King Amyntas III of Macedon. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of Macedonia. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in medicine and biology from his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an orphan and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, Proxenus of Atarneus. He taught Aristotle Greek, rhetoric, and poetry (O'Connor et al., 2004). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to Athens at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena. From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of Plato and distinguished himself at the Academy. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with Xenocrates and other Platonists, and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the Epicureans, who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by patristic writers such as Justin Martyr and Gregory Nazianzen, the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early Christian heretics, not in any well-grounded historical tradition.

Aristotle as philosopher and tutor

After the death of Plato (347 BC), Aristotle was considered as the next head of the Academy, a post that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of Hermias, ruler of Atarneus in Asia Minor, and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, and Aristotle went with his family to Mytilene. It is also reported that he stopped on Lesbos and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor of Alexander the Great, who was then 13. Plutarch wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although Bertrand Russell disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation. It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example Hephaestion and Harpalus. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost. According to sources such as Plutarch and Diogenes, Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the 340s BC, and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead.

Founder and master of the Lyceum

In about 335 BC, Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as Aulus Gellius says, have conducted a school of rhetoric during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceios, from which his school has come to be known as the Lyceum. (It was also called the Peripatetic School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- peripateo -- the shaded walks -- peripatoi -- around the gymnasium). During the thirteen years (335 BC–322 BC) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote Dialogues in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more didactic and the language more technical than in the Dialogues. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. Pliny claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and Strabo asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library. During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died the following year, 322 BC. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the tides," is without historical foundation. Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character—as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries—was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When Platonism ceased to dominate the world of Christian speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the 13th century, as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral defects, "the master of those who know". Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the middle ages. The likes of Avicenna, Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KINDI.html 1] were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the Golden Age of Islam.

Methodology

Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual". Plato had defined it as the "science of the idea", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the universal; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in particular things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive. In Aristotle's terminology, the term natural philosophy corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: motion, light, and the laws of physics. Many centuries later these subjects would later become the basis of modern science, as studied through the scientific method. The term philosophy is distinct from metaphysics, which is what moderns term philosophy. In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method. "All science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical." By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as "the knowledge of immaterial being," and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, Analytic, be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy.

Aristotle's epistemology

Logic

History

Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'" (Bocheński, 1951). However, Plato reports that syntax was thought of before him, by Prodikos of Keos, who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics, the earlier philosophers used concepts like reductio ad absurdum as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for deduction, he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his dialectic, which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Bocheński, 1951). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from premises, so he focused on having good premises so that the conclusion would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method (Rose, 1968).

Analytics and the Organon

What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not authentic, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of Christ: #Categories #On Interpretation #Prior Analytics #Posterior Analytics #Topics #On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of Metaphysics. (Bocheński, 1951).

Modal logic

Aristotle is also the creator of syllogisms with modalities (modal logic). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of truth. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968).

Science

Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this worldview did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through experiment. For example, in his book The history of animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Had he only made some observations, he would have discovered that this claim is false. Rather, based on what one's senses told one, Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through reason alone. One of the reasons for this was that Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them. In contrast, today's "science" assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray, and therefore one must compare one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one see if one's ideas are based in reality. This position is known as empiricism or the scientific method.

Aristotle's metaphysics

Aristotle's four causes

Aristotle names four "causes" of things, but the word cause (Greek: , aitia) is not used in the modern sense of "cause and effect", under which causes are events or states of affairs. Rather, the four causes are like different ways of explaining something: ; The Material Cause (That from which it comes): This is the material that makes up an object, for example, "the bronze and silver ... are causes of the statue and the bowl." ; The Formal Cause (That which it is): This is the blueprint or the idea commonly held of what an object should be. Aristotle says, "The form is the account (and the genera of the account) of the essence (for instance, the cause of an octave is the ratio two to one, and in general number), and the parts that are in the account." ; The Efficient Cause (That which moves it): This is the person who makes an object, or "unmoved movers" (gods) who move nature. For example, "a father is a cause of his child; and in general the producer is a cause of the product and the initiator of the change is a cause." This is closest to the modern definition of "cause". ; The Final Cause (That of which its purpose is): The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve. This includes "all the intermediate steps that are for the end ... for example, slimming, purging, drugs, or instruments are for health; all of these are for the end, though they differ in that some are activities while others are instruments." An example of an artifact that has all four causes would be a table, which has material causes (wood and nails), a formal cause (the blueprint, or a generally agreed idea of what tables are), an efficient cause (the carpenter), and a final cause (using it to dine on). Aristotle argues that natural objects such as an "individual man" have all four causes. The material cause of an individual man would be the flesh and bone that make up an individual man. The formal cause would be the blueprint of man, that which is used as a guide to create an individual man and to keep him in a certain state called man. The efficient cause of an individual man would be the father of that man, or in the case of all men an �unmoved mover� who breathed (anima: breath) into the soul (anima: soul) of man. The final cause of man would be as Aristotle stated, �Now we take the human�s function to be a certain kind of life, and take this life to be the soul�s activity and actions that express reason. Hence the excellent man�s function is to do this finely and well. Each function is completed well when its completion expresses the proper virtue. Therefore the human good turns out to be the souls� activity that expresses virtue.�

The difference between natural objects and artifacts

The difference between natural objects and an artifact is that natural objects have self movement. Aristotle defined the difference between a natural object and an artifact when he stated, �In contrast to these, a bed, a cloak, or any other artifact-insofar as it is described as such i.e., as a bed, a cloak, or whatever, and to the extent that it is a product of a craft-has no innate impulse to change; but insofar as it is coincidentally made of stone or earth or a mixture of these, it has an innate impulse to change and just to that extent. This is because a nature is a type of principle and cause of motion and stability within those things to which it primarily belongs in their own right and not coincidentally.� The natural objects are changed to artifacts through crafts but they have an innate impulse of self movement to convert through time to their natural state, and they will all turn into that state when all animals with reason are extinct from the earth.

Modes of causation

Aristotle states two modes of causation:
- Proper Causation: Things take place for the sake of something, and the result is that which is intended.
- Accidental Causation: Things that take place not out of necessity. E.g. things that take place by chance/coincidence. This cause is indeterminable.

Chance

Chance lies in the realm of accidental causes. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. However, chance can only apply to human beings. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (Physics, 2.6).

The Five Elements


- Fire which is hot and dry.
- Earth which is cold and dry.
- Air which is hot and wet.
- Water which is cold and wet.
- Aether which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire ↔ Air ↔ Water ↔ Earth etc.), while aether is on its own. The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal).

Aristotle's ethics

Although Aristotle wrote several works on ethics, the major one was the Nicomachean Ethics, which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses virtues. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. Also, as it is not a theoretical discipline, he thought a person had to study in order to become "good." Thus, if a person was to become virtuous, they could not simply study what virtue is, they had to actually do virtuous activity. In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the Highest Good. Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man. But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or Nous. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfulling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious. Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as being always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances.

Nicomachean ethics

In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually behaving virtuously and developing virtue rather than committing specific good actions. This can be opposed to Kantian ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. Nicomachean Ethics emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour — what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that happiness is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for goodness, good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy.

Aristotle's critics

goodness (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael.]] Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds.
- His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist.
- At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, Plato, appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments.
- Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful empirical investigation, but often drifted into abstract logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence; for example, his assertion that objects of different mass fall at different speeds under gravity, which was later refuted by John Philoponus. Credit is often given to Galileo, even though Philopinus lived centuries before him.
- In the Middle Ages, roughly from the 12th century to the 15th century, the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established dogma. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and systematic so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the sceptical methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato.
- Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time, and that he was a far lesser mathematician than many of his learned contemporaries. Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The Western mind is "Aristotelian". By this we mean that it formats the external world into factual and "scien"-tific categories. (By "Scien"-tific we mean that something is knowable or known. Latin scientia = knowledge). Under the premise of external categorization, the Aristotelian mind has come to equate "experience" with the unified chronical and spatial ontological structure that is the "external" universe -- visible, audible and sensible by the handful of our common, well-identified senses. By so equating the two, the Aristotelian mind is fully confident, or fully "positive" of the meanings of its utterances and the purposes of all actions. That is to say, it dismisses the possibility of dubious meanings as interpreted by subjects that are at variance in perspectives or phenomenology, and it dismisses the importance of anything other than an objectively defined "purpose" to an action. Therefore, the Aristotelian mind assumes that when subject A utters "I am X," he or she is referring to the same experience and is expressing the same purpose as subject B who also utters "I am X."

Bibliography

Note: Bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.

Major works

The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the Corpus Aristotelicum. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the Athenaion Politeia or the fragments of other politeia are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such On Colours may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by Nicolaus of Damascus. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval palmistries, astrological and magical texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk.

Logical writings


- Organon (collected works on logic):
  - (1a) Categories (or Categoriae)
  - (16a) On Interpretation (or De Interpretatione)
  - (24a) Prior Analytics (or Analytica Priora)
  - (71a) Posterior Analytics (or Analytica Posteriora)
  - (100b) Topics (or Topica)
  - (164a) On Sophistical Refutations (or De Sophisticis Elenchis)

Physical and scientific writings


- (184a) Physics (or Physica)
- (268a) On the Heavens (or De Caelo)
- (314a) On Generation and Corruption (or De Generatione et Corruptione)
- (338a) Meteorology (or Meteorologica)
- (391a) On the Cosmos (or De Mundo, or On the Universe)
-
- (402a) On the Soul (or De Anima)
- (436a) Little Physical Treatises (or Parva Naturalia):
  - On Sense and the Sensible (or De Sensu et Sensibilibus)
  - On Memory and Reminiscence (or De Memoria et Reminiscentia)
  - On Sleep and Sleeplessness (or De Somno et Vigilia)
  - On Dreams (or De Insomniis)
-
  - On Prophesying by Dreams (or De Divinatione per Somnum)
  - On Longevity and Shortness of Life (or De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae)
  - On Youth and Old Age (On Life and Death) (or De Juventute et Senectute, De Vita et Morte)
  - On Breathing (or De Respiratione)
- (481a) On Breath (or De Spiritu)
-
- (486a) History of Animals (or Historia Animalium, or On the History of Animals, or Description of Animals)
- (639a) On the Parts of Animals (or De Partibus Animalium)
- (698a) On the Gait of Animals (or De Motu Animalium, or On the Movement of Animals)
- (704a) On the Progression of Animals (or De Incessu Animalium)
- (715a) On the Generation of Animals (or De Generatione Animalium)
- (791a) On Colours (or De Coloribus)
-
- (800a) De audibilibus
- (805a) Physiognomics (or Physiognomonica)
-
- On Plants (or De Plantis)
-
- (830a) On Marvellous Things Heard (or Mirabilibus Auscultationibus, or On Things Heard)
-
- (847a) Mechanical Problems (or Mechanica)
-
- (859a) Problems (or Problemata)
-
- (968a) On Indivisible Lines (or De Lineis Insecabilibus)
-
- (973a) Situations and Names of Winds (or Ventorum Situs)
-

Metaphysical writings


- (980a) Metaphysics (or Metaphysica)

Ethical writings


- (1094a) Nicomachean Ethics (or Ethica Nicomachea, or The Ethics)
- (1181a) Great Ethics (or Magna Moralia)
-
- (1214a) Eudemian Ethics (or Ethica Eudemia)
- (1249a) Virtues and Vices (or De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus, Libellus de virtutibus)
-
- (1252a) Politics (or Politica)
- (1343a) Economics (or Oeconomica)

Aesthetic writings


- (1354a) Rhetoric (or Ars Rhetorica, or The Art of Rhetoric or Treatise on Rhetoric)
- Rhetoric to Alexander (or Rhetorica ad Alexandrum)
-
- (1447a) Poetics (or Ars Poetica)

Writings absent from Corpus Aristotelicum


- The Constitution of the Athenians (or Athenaion Politeia, or The Athenian Consitution)
-
- On Melissus, On Xenophanes, and On Gorgias. These are sometimes grouped together and called the "MXG" writings. They clearly are not written by Aristotle, and are believed to date from the fifth century AD. However, because they have frequently been attributed to him in the past, they are often included in compilations of his writings (for example, in the Loeb Classical Library).

Specific editions


- Princeton University Press: The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by Jonathan Barnes ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works)
- Oxford University Press: Clarendon Aristotle Series. [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa Scholarly edition]
- Harvard University Press: Loeb Classical Library (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages)

Named after Aristotle


- Aristoteles crater on the Moon.
- The Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
- Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of J. Arthur Rank, became a common expression in Cockney rhyming slang.

See also


- Aristotelian view of God
- Aristotelian theory of gravity
- Philosophy
- Plato
- Logic

References

Needless to say, the secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.
- A popular exposition for the general reader.
-
- A detailed and scholarly work, but very readable.
-
-
-
-
- For the general reader.

External links

Aristotle Aristotle
-
- [http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time]
- [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle.], 2004.
- [http://www.non-contradiction.com/ An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts]
- [http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle.]
- [http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic]
- O'Connor, J. John & Robertson, Edmund F., [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html Aristotle], 2004.
-
-
- [http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page]
- [http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aristotle/ Read Aristotle's works online]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview]
- Category:Aristotle Category:Ancient Greek philosophers Category:Aristotelian philosophers Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians Category:Empiricists Category:Rhetoric Category:Greek logicians Category:Meteorologists ko:아리스토텔레스 ms:Aristotle ja:アリストテレス simple:Aristotle th:อริสโตเติล

City-state

A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city, and usually having sovereignty. City-states were common in ancient times. Though sovereign, many such cities joined in formal or informal leagues under a high king. In some cases historical empires or leagues were formed by the right of conquest (e.g., Mycenae, or Rome), but many were formed under peaceful alliances or for mutual protection (e.g., the Peloponnesian League). In the Middle Ages, city-states were particularly a feature of what are now Germany and Italy. A number of them formed the Hanseatic League, which was a significant force in trade for a number of centuries.

Modern-day city-states

Monaco

The Principality of Monaco is a perfect exemple of a city-state, Monaco-Ville (the ancient fortified city, which is not a city even though its name means "Monaco-City") and the well known district Monte-Carlo are actually districts and not cities. The territory of the country correspond to the city limits (one government and one town hall, each having specific powers): the Principality of Monaco and the city of Monaco.

Singapore

The port city of Singapore was established by the British East India Company in 1819, and became a British crown colony in 1867. Except for a brief period of Japanese occupation during World War II, Singapore remained a British colony until 1963. In that year, Singapore joined Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah in the new federation of Malaysia. Unrest marked the two short years during which Singapore was part of Malaysia. Race-riots between the majority Chinese and minority Malays in the city were frequent, and the federal government, dominated by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), clashed with the state government, which was dominated by the People's Action Party (PAP). The UMNO feared that the PAP would challenge their dominant position in the federal government and tip the racial demographics of Malaya. Finally, Singapore was expelled from the federation in