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Eudes III, Duke Of Burgundy

Eudes III, Duke of Burgundy

Eudes III of Burgundy (1166 – July 6 1218) was duke of Burgundy between 1192 and 1218. Eudes was the eldest son of duke Hugh III and Beatrice d'Albon. He was married twice, first to Teresa, princess of Portugal, daughter of king Afonso I of Portugal, then to Alice of Vergy. Eudes did not follow his father's aggressive policies towards France and proved a worthy ally of king Philip II of France on his wars against John Lackland and the Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV of Germany. He fought bravely against the latest in the battle of Bouvines, where he lost, according to contemporary chroniclers, two horses beneath him. Eudes was also an important figure in the Crusade against the Cathars. When Philip II refused to get involved, the Duke of Burgundy stepped forward with the support of the local bishops and his vassals and organized the campaign of 1209 against the Cathar strongholds. See also: Dukes of Burgundy family tree Category:Dukes of Burgundy Category:1166 births Category:1218 deaths ja:ウード3世 (ブルゴーニュ公)

1166

Events

- Marko III succeeds Yoannis V as patriarch of Alexandria.
- Henry the Lion erects first bronze statue north of the Alps.
- Giraldo Sempavor captures Evora.

Births

- July 29 - Henry II of Champagne (d. 1197)
- December 24 - John of England (died 1216)
- Eudes III, Duke of Burgundy (died 1218)
- William de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey (died 1240)

Deaths

- May 7 - William I of Sicily
- Santa Rosalia, patron saint of Palermo (according to legend)

Heads of states

- England - Henry II Curt Mantle, King of England (reigned 1154 - 1189).
- France - Louis VII, King of France (reigned 1137 - 1180). Category:1166 ko:1166년 simple:1166

1218

Events

- Damietta is besieged by the knights of the Fifth Crusade.
- Livonian Brothers of the Sword begin to conquer Estonia.
- Minamoto no Sanetomo becomes Udaijin of Japan.
- Alfonso IX of Castile founds a university in Salamanca.

Ongoing events

- Fifth Crusade (1217-1221)

Births

- February 12 - Kujo Yoritsune, Japanese shogun (died 1256)
- May 1 - John I, Count of Hainaut (died 1257)
- May 1 - Rudolph I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1291)
- October 30 - Emperor Chūkyō of Japan (died 1234)
- Abel of Denmark (died 1252)

Deaths

- February 2 - Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (b. 1186)
- June 25 - Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, French crusader (born 1160)
- July 6 - Eudes III, Duke of Burgundy (born 1166)
- December 30 - Richard de Clare, 4th Earl of Hertford, English politician (born 1162)
- Al-Adil I, Egyptian general and ruler (born 1145)
- Hugh I of Cyprus
- Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor Category:1218 ko:1218년

1192

Events

- The Third Crusade ends in disaster. Richard I of England and Saladin negotiate visiting rights for pilgrims to come to the Holy City of Jerusalem.
- Richard I of England taken hostage by Leopold V of Austria.
- Minamoto no Yoritomo granted title of shogun, thereby officially establishing the first shogunate in the history of Japan.
- Enrico Dandolo becomes Doge of Venice.
- Marco Polo Bridge, or Lugouqiao, completed in Beijing.

Births

- September 17 - Minamoto no Sanetomo, Japanese shogun (died 1219)
- Giorgi IV Lasha, King of Georgia (died 1223)
- Stefan Radoslav, King of Serbia (died 1234)

Deaths

- April 26 - Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan (born 1127)
- April 28 - Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem
- May 5 - Duke Ottokar IV of Styria (born 1163)
- August 25 - Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (born 1142)
- Kilij Arslan II, Wultan of Rüm
- Mingayl, Prince of Połock

Heads of states

- England - Richard I King of England (reigned from 1189 to 1199)
- France - Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned from 1180 to 1223)
- Germany - Henry VI Holy Roman Emperor (1191 to 1197) and King of Germany (1190 to 1197)
- Pope - Celestine III (pope from 1191 to 1198)
- China - Song Guangzong (宋光宗) (reigned from 1189 to 1194) Category:1192 ko:1192년

Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy

Hugh III of Burgundy (1142 – August 25 1192, in Acre) was duke of Burgundy between 1162 and 1192. Hugh was the eldest son of duke Eudes II and Marie of Blois. He was married twice, first to Beatrice d'Albon, then to Alice of Lorraine (daughter of duke Matthias I), and had several sons and daughters. The rule of Hugh III marked the ending of a period of relative peace in the duchy of Burgundy. Hugh was a belligerent man and soon was involved in conflicts against king Louis VII of France over their borders. When Philip Augustus succeeded Louis in 1180, Hugh seized the opportunity and forced several men to change alliance to Burgundy. Philip II was not happy with the loss of his vassals and invaded the duchy, besieging Chatillon. The town fell and with it, its garrison, commanded by Eudes, Hugh's heir. A peace was negotiated and Hugh had to pay a high ransom for his son and give up ambitions over French territory. Hugh then turned his energies to the Holy Land, embarking in the Third Crusade in the retinue of Philip II. He was the most trusted ally of Richard, the Lionheart and fought with him against Saladin. When Philip returned to France, he left Hugh in charge of the French troops. Hugh played a major role in the victory of the battle of Arsuf (September 7 1191) and the conquer of Acre, where he died in the following year. In 1187, Hugh transferred the capital of Burgundy to Dijon, and endeavoured to turn the city into a major commercial centre. See also: Dukes of Burgundy family tree Category:1142 births Category:1192 deaths Category:Dukes of Burgundy Category:Crusades ja:ユーグ3世 (ブルゴーニュ公)

Philip II of France

Philip II (French: Philippe II), called Philip Augustus (French: Philippe Auguste) (August 21,1165 – July 14,1223), was King of France from 1180 to 1223. A member of the Capetian dynasty, Philip Augustus was born August 21, 1165 at Gonesse, Val-d'Oise, France, the son of Louis VII of France and his third wife, Adèle of Champagne. Philip was a younger half-brother of Marie de Champagne, Alix of France, Marguerite of France and Alys, Countess of the Vexin. He was an older brother of Agnes of France. In declining health, his father had him crowned at Reims in 1179. He was married on April 28, 1180 to Isabelle of Hainaut. His father and co-ruler died on September 18, 1180. His eldest son Louis (later King Louis VIII), was born on September 5, 1187. As king, he would become one of the most successful in consolidating France into one royal domain. He seized the territories of Maine, Touraine, Anjou, Brittany and all of Normandy from King John of England. His decisive victory at the Battle of Bouvines over King John and a coalition of forces that included Otto IV of Germany ended the immediate threat of challenges to this expansion (1214) and left Philip Augustus as the most powerful monarch in all of Europe. He reorganized the government, bringing to the country a financial stability which permitted a sharp increase in prosperity. His reign was popular with ordinary people when he checked the power of the nobles and passed some of it on to the growing middle class his reign had created. He went on the Third Crusade with Richard the Lionhearted and the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick I Barbarossa (1189-1192). His army left Vézelay on July 1, 1190. At first the French and English crusaders traveled together, but the armies split at Lyons, as King Richard decided to go by sea, and Philip Augustus took the overland route through the Alps to Genoa. The French and English armies were reunited in Messina, where they wintered together. On March 30, 1191 the French set sail for the Holy Land, where they launched several assaults on Acre before King Richard arrived (see Siege of Acre). By the time Acre surrendered on July 12, Philip Augustus was terribly ill with dysentery and had little more interest in further crusading. He decided to return to France, a decision that displeased King Richard, who said, "It is a shame and a disgrace on my lord if he goes away without having finished the business that brought him hither. But still, if he finds himself in bad health, or is afraid lest he should die here, his will be done." So on July 31, 1191 the French army remained in Outremer under the command of Hugues III, duke of Burgundy. King Philip and his cousin Peter de Courtenay, count of Nevers, made their way to Genoa and from there returned to France. Philip Augustus decided to marry again, and so August 15, 1193 he married Ingeborg of Denmark (1175-1236), the daughter of King Valdemar I of Denmark. She was renamed Isambour, and Stephan of Dornik described her as "very kind, young of age but old of wisdom." For some unknown reason, Philip Augustus was repulsed by her, and he refused to have her be crowned queen. Ingeborg protested this treatment, so he shut her up in a convent. He asked the pope for an annulment, on the grounds of non-consummation. Philip Augustus had not counted on Ingeborg, however; she insisted that the marriage had been consummated, and she was his wife and the rightful queen of France. In the meantime Philip Augustus had married for a third time on May 7, 1196 to Princess Agnès of Méranie (c.1180 - July 29, 1201). Their children were: # Marie (1198 - October 15, 1224) # Philippe Hurepel (1200 - 1234) Pope Innocent III declared that this new marriage was null and void, since Philip Augustus was still wed to Ingeborg. He ordered Philip to part from Agnès and when he did not, the pope placed France under an interdict in 1199. This continued until September 7, 1200. Due to pressure from the pope and from Ingeborg's brother, King Valdemar II of Denmark, Philip Augustus finally took Ingeborg back as his queen in 1213. Philip Augustus would play a significant role in one of the greatest centuries of innovation in construction and in education. With Paris as his capital, he had the main thoroughfares paved, built a central market, Les Halles, continued the construction begun in 1163 of the Gothic Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral, constructed the Louvre as a fortress and gave a charter to the University of Paris (the Sorbonne) in 1200. Under his guidance, Paris became the first city of teachers the medieval world had known. Philip Augustus died July 14, 1223 at Mantes and was interred in Saint Denis Basilica. He was succeeded by his son by Isabelle of Hainaut, Louis VIII.

Sources

- Payne, Robert. The Dream and the Tomb, 1984
- Baldwin, John W. The Government of Philip Augustus, 1991 Category:1165 births Category:1223 deaths Category:Natives of Ile-de-France Category:French monarchs Category:Crusades Category:Dukes of Brittany Category:Counts of Vermandois ja:フィリップ2世 (フランス王)

Otto IV of Germany

Otto IV of Brunswick (died 1218) was King of Germany (1208-1215) and Holy Roman Emperor from 1209 - 1215. The son of Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Matilda Plantagenet, Otto was elected king when his rival for the throne, Philip of Swabia (Hohenstaufen), was murdered. Otto had been supported by the Pope Innocent III, but Innocent withdrew his support after Otto's military adventures in Italy. In 1211 the Diet of Nuremberg ordered Otto deposed and Frederick II Hohenstaufen elected in his place, but nothing came of this decree until Otto decisively lost the battle of Bouvines (July, 1214) to the forces of Philip II of France. He was deposed in 1215 and died in 1218. Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor Category:Holy Roman emperors Category:German Kings Category:Kings of Burgundy Category:Dukes of Swabia ja:オットー4世

Albigensian Crusade

The Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) was a brutal 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the religion practiced by the Cathars of Languedoc, which the Roman Catholic hierarchy considered heretical. It is historically significant for a number of reasons: the violence inflicted was extreme even by medieval standards; the church offered legally sanctioned dominion over conquered lands to northern French nobles and the King of France, acting as essentially Catholic mercenaries, who then nearly doubled the size of France, acquiring regions which at the time had closer cultural and language ties to Catalonia (see Occitan). Finally, the Albigensian Crusade had a role in the creation and institutionalization of the Medieval Inquisition.

Origin

The Catholic Church had always dealt with movements it considered heretical, but prior to the 12th century these groups were organized in small numbers such as wayward street preachers or small localized sects. The Cathars however were a large and popular mass movement across an entire region, a new phenomenon for the Church to deal with. Much of the entire region of Southern France was openly converting to Catharism and the belief was spreading to other areas. Catharism, along with other heretical sects of the period such as the Waldensians, appeared in cities and towns of newly urbanized areas. It was no coincidence Cathars originated in southern France, one of the most urbanized and populated areas of Europe at the time. The Cathars were especially numerous in the region of Languedoc in western Mediterranean France, then part of the Catalan-Aragonese Confederation or the Kingdom of Aragon. They were also called Albigensians because of the movement's presence in and around the city of Albi. Political control in Languedoc was divided amongst many local lords and town councils. Before the crusade, there was little oppression in the area and a fairly advanced cultural level. When he came to power in 1198, Pope Innocent III was determined to suppress the Cathars. At first he tried peaceful conversion, however priests sent in to convert the Albigensians met with little success. The Cathars were protected by local nobles, and also by bishops who resented papal authority. In 1204 the pope suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France, appointing papal legates. In 1206 the Pope sought support for action from the nobles of Languedoc. Noblemen who protected the Cathars were excommunicated. The powerful count Raymond VI of Toulouse refused to assist and was excommunicated in May, 1207. The Pope called upon the French king, Philippe II, to act against those nobles who permitted Catharism, but Philippe was involved in the Bouvines War and declined to act. Count Raymond met with the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, in January 1208, and after an angry meeting, Pierre de Castelnau was killed the following day. The Pope reacted to the killing by issuing a bull declaring a crusade against Languedoc — offering the land of the heretics to any who would fight. This offer of land drew much of the nobility of the north of France into the conflict, against the nobility of the south.

Crusades

The military campaigns of the Crusade can be divided into a number of periods, the first from 1209 to 1215 was a series of great success for the crusaders in Languedoc. The captured lands however were largely lost between 1215 and 1225 in a series of revolts and reverses. The situation turned again following the intervention of the French king, Louis VIII, in 1226. He died in November of that year, but the efforts continued under Louis IX; the area was reconquered by 1229 and main protagonists made peace. From 1233 the efforts of the Inquisition to crush Catharism were key, there was resistance and revolts with the military action finally ending in 1255 but the Cathar efforts were clearly doomed. 1255.]]

Initial success 1209 to 1215

By mid 1209 around 10,000 crusaders had gathered in Lyon and began to march south. In June Raymond of Toulouse, recognizing the potential disaster at hand, promised to act against the Cathars, and his excommunication was lifted. The crusaders headed towards Montpellier and the lands of Raymond-Roger de Trencavel, aiming for the Cathar communities around Albi and Carcassonne. Like Raymond of Toulouse, Raymond-Roger de Trencavel sought an accommodation with the crusaders, but Raymond-Roger was refused a meeting and raced back to Carcassonne to prepare his defences. In July the crusaders captured the small village of Servian and headed for Béziers, arriving on July 21. They surrounded the town and demanded the Catharists be handed over; the demand was refused. The town fell the following day, an abortive sortie was pursued back into the town and the population was slaughtered. According to Caesar of Heisterbach the papal representative, Abbot Arnaud-Amaury, declared "Caedite eos! Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius" — Latin for "Slay them all! God will know his own." Béziers is believed to have held no more than 500 Cathars, but over 10,000 citizens were killed. The news of the horror at Béziers quickly spread and many settlements were cowed. The next major target for the crusade was Carcassonne. The town was well fortified, but vulnerable and over-populated with refugees. The crusaders arrived outside the town on August 1, 1209. The siege did not last long, by August 7 the crusaders had cut the town's access to water, Raymond-Roger sought negotiations but was taken prisoner while under truce, and the town surrendered on August 15. The inhabitants were not massacred but all were forced to leave the town. The crusader Simon de Montfort was granted control of the area encompassing Carcassonne, Albi, and Béziers. After Carcassonne most towns surrendered without a struggle. Albi, Castelnaudary, Castres, Fanjeaux, Limoux, Lombers and Montéal all fell quickly during the autumn. However some of the towns quickly taken later revolted. The next struggle centred around Lastours and the adjacent castle of Cabaret. Attacked in December 1209, Pierre-Roger de Cabaret repulsed the attackers. Fighting largely halted over the winter but many new crusaders arrived. In March 1210, Bram was captured after a short siege. In June the well fortified town of Minerve was invested, it withstood a heavy bombardment but in late June the town's main well was destroyed and on July 22, the inhabitants surrendered, the Cathar residents were given a chance to convert and the 140 who refused were burned. In August the crusade proceeded to Termes and despite attacks from Pierre-Roger de Cabaret the siege was solid and in December the town fell. It was the last action of the year. When action resumed in 1211 the actions of Arnaud-Amaury and Simon de Montfort had alienated several lords over the winter including Raymond of Toulouse, who had been excommunicated again. The crusaders returned in force to Lastours in March and Pierre-Roger de Cabaret soon agreed to surrender. In May the crusading force was directed against some revolters, the castle of Aimery de Montréal was retaken, he and his senior knights were hanged and several hundred Cathars were burned. Cassès and Montferrand both fell easily in early June and the crusaders headed for Toulouse. The town was besieged but for once the attackers were short of supplies and men, and so Simon de Montfort withdrew before the end of the month. Emboldened Raymond of Toulouse led a force to attack de Monfort at Castelnaudary in September. De Montfort broke free from the siege but Castelnaudary fell and the forces of Raymond went on to liberate over thirty towns before grinding to a halt at Lastours in the autumn. The following year much of the province of Toulouse was re-captured. In 1213 forces led by the king Peter II of Aragon, I of Catalonia came to the aid of Toulouse. The force besieged Muret, but in September a sortie from the castle led to the death of king Peter and his army fled. It was a serious blow for the resisters and in 1214 the situation became worse, Raymond was forced to flee to England and his lands were given by the Pope to the freshly victorious Philippe II, a ploy which succeeded in interesting the king in the conflict. In November the ever active Simon de Montfort entered Périgord and easily captured the castles of Domme and Montfort, he also occupied Castlenaud and destroyed the fortifications of Beynac. In 1215 Castelnaud was lost and swiftly recaptured by de Montfort and the crusaders entered Toulouse. Toulouse was gifted to de Monfort and in April 1216 he ceded his lands to Philippe.

Revolts and reverses 1216 to 1225

However, Raymond together with his son returned to the region in April, 1216 and soon raised a substantial force from disaffected towns. Beaucaire was besieged in May and fell after a three month siege, the efforts of de Montfort to relieve the town were repulsed. De Montfort had then to put down an uprising in Toulouse before heading west to captured Bigorre but was repulsed at Lourdes in December 1216. In 1217 while de Montfort was occupied in the Foix region Raymond took Toulouse in September, de Montfort hurried back but his forces were inadequate to take the town before campaigning halted. De Montfort renewed the siege in the spring of 1218; he was killed in June while fighting in a sortie. The crusade was left in temporary disarray. The command passed to the more cautious Philippe II and he was concerned with Toulouse rather than heresy. Innocent III had also died in July 1216. The conflict fell into something a lull until 1219, although the crusaders had taken Belcaire and besieged Marmande in late 1218 under Amaury de Montfort. Marmande fell on June 3, 1219 but attempts to retake Toulouse faltered and a number of de Montfort holds fell. In 1220 Castelnaudary was taken from de Montfort, and while Amaury de Montfort attacked the town from July 1220 the town withstood an eight month siege. In 1221 the success of Raymond and his son continued, Montréal and Fanjeaux were captured and many Catholics fled. In 1222 Raymond died and was succeeded by his son Raymond. In 1223 Philippe II died and was succeeded by Louis VIII. In 1224 Amaury de Montfort abandoned Carcassonne and fled, the son of Raymond-Roger de Trencaval returned from exile to reclaim the area. Amaury de Montfort offered his claim to the lands of Languedoc to Louis VIII and he accepted.

French King intervenes

In November 1225 Raymond, like his father, was excommunicated. Louis VIII headed the new crusade into the area in June 1226, towns and castles surrendered without resistance. Avignon, nominally under the rule of the German emperor, did resist and it took a three month siege to finally subdue the town into surrendering in September. Louis VIII died in November and was succeeded by the child king Louis IX. But queen Blanche of Castile allowed the crusade to continue under Humbert de Beaujeu. Labécède fell in 1227 and Vareilles and Toulouse in 1228. However queen Blanche offered Raymond a treaty, recognizing him as ruler of Toulouse in return for fighting Cathars, returning all Church property, turning over his castles and destroying the defences of Toulouse. Raymond agreed and signed a treaty at Meaux in April 1229; he was then seized, whipped and briefly imprisoned.

Inquisition

1229 presiding over an Auto-da-fe against Albigensians (1475).]] Languedoc now was firmly under the control of the king of France. The Inquisition was established in Toulouse in November 1229 and the process of ridding the area of heresy and investing the remaining Cathar strongholds began. Under Pope Gregory IX the Inquistion was given almost unlimited power to suppress the heretics and from 1233 a ruthless campaign started, burning Cathars wherever they were found, even exhuming bodies for burning. Naturally many resisted, taking refuge in a few fortresses in Fenouillèdes and Montségur or inciting uprisings. In 1235 the Inquisition was forced out of Albi, Narbonne, and Toulouse. Raymond-Roger de Trencavel led a military effort in 1240, he was defeated at Carcassonne in October and then besieged at Montréal where he soon surrendered and was allowed passage to exile in Aragon. In 1242 Raymond de Toulouse attempted a revolt to coincide with an English invasion, but the English were quickly repulsed and his support collapsed. Raymond was pardoned by the king. The Cathar strongholds slowly fell, the largest at Peyrepertuse in 1240, Montségur withstood a nine month siege before being captured in March 1244. The final holdout, a small, isolated fort at Quéribus had been also overlooked until August 1255 when it quickly fell. The last Cathar burning by the Inquisition occurred in 1321.

References

- Sumption, Jonathan: "The Albigensian Crusade", Faber and Faber

External links

- [http://xenophongroup.com/montjoie/albigens.htm Albigensian Crusade]
- [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Languedoc and the Crusade against them] Category:Crusades Category:Genocides ja:アルビジョア十字軍

1209

Events

- Albigensian Crusade against Cathars (1209-1218)
- the Franciscans are founded.
- Cambridge University founded.
- In August, Simon De Monfort, leader of Albigensian Crusade, takes over Carcassonne
- Genghis Khan conquers Turkestan

Births

- January 5 - Richard, Earl of Cornwall, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1272)
- Hajji Bektash Wali, Turkish mystic (died 1271)

Deaths

- Daoji, Chinese buddhist monk (born 1130)
- Walter Map, Welsh writer (born 1137)
- Phillipe de Plessis, Grand Master of the Knights Templar (born 1165)
- Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Persian theologian and philosopher (born 1149) Category:1209 ko:1209년

Cathar

:This article is about a religious movement called "Catharism", for the information on a Star Wars race under the same name, see the list of Star Wars races. To see information on the band with the same name see Cathar (Band). Cathar (Band) Catharism was a religious movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the 10^th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as heretical. It existed throughout much of Western Europe, but its home was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern France. The name Cathar most likely originated from Greek καθαροί, "pure ones". One of the first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau, who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat." The Cathars were also sometimes labelled Albigensians. This name originates from the end of the 12^th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts.

Origins

The beliefs came originally from Eastern Europe by way of trade routes. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the Bogomils of Thrace. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils (and Paulicians). It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the Rituel Cathare de Lyon and the Nouveau Testament en Provencal) contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar theologians, called Cathari or perfecti by their Catholic executioners and judges, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as "bons hommes" or "bons chrétiens", literally "good men" or "good christians", were few in number; the mass of believers (credentes) were not initiated into the doctrine at all—they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called convenenza to become "hereticized" by receiving the consolamentum, the baptism of the Spirit, before their death. The first French Cathars appeared in Limousin between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at Toulouse in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of Aquitaine, and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the bons hommes, and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Périgord.

Beliefs

Much of what one finds said of Cathar beliefs is based upon the claims and denunciations of their victorious orthodox opponents. In examining any declaration about Cathar beliefs, this historical fact must be held in balanced consideration. It is commonly claimed that Catharism was based on the idea that the world is evil. This is rather a simplistic summary of a much more complex vision. It might better be said that the Cathars proclaimed there existed within humankind a spark of divine light. This light had fallen into captivity within a realm of corruption - identified with the material world. This was a distinct feature of classical Gnosticism, of Manicheanism and of the theology of the Bogomils. This concept of the human condition within Catharism most probably was due to direct and indirect historical influences from these older and violently suppressed Gnostic movements. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by a lesser and evil deity known in Gnostic myth as the Demiurge. This creative force was not the "True God", though he made pretense of being the "one and only God" before whom was no other. The Cathars identified this lesser diety, the Demiurge, with the being known by the name of Satan. (It should be noted that classical Gnosticism had not made this explicit link between the Demiurge and Satan). Essentially, the Cathars proclaimed that the God worshipped by orthodox Christianity was an imposter, and his church was a corrupt abomination deeply infused by the evils of the material realm. The Cathars apparently believed that people could be reincarnated. Reincarnation was not however a desired event. The goal of the Cathar was liberation from the realm of limitation and corruption identified with material existence. The way to escape was to live an ascetic's life, a life dedicated to standing apart as much as possible from the material world and its many evils. Those that did live this life were called 'Perfects' (Parfaits). By virtue of their noble dedication, they had the power to aid others to break free of material enslavement so that they might upon death achieve liberation and return to the realm of light that was their true source and ultimate destination. The Perfects themselves lived lives of unimpeachable frugality (this due to their belief that the material world was evil). Commonly, the wiping away of sin, called the consolamentum, was performed on someone about to die. After receiving this, some believers were alleged (again, by their detractors) to stop eating, so that they could die faster, and with less taint from the world. The consolamentum was the major sacrament of the Cathar faith, marking entry to the ascetic life of the 'Perfects', or in modified form as an annointing of the dying, so that they would reincarnate as a 'Perfect'. They did not perform any rite of marriage, as procreation (bringing more souls into the world) was frowned upon. It was as a result of this particular belief that the slanderous term "buggery" was coined (after the 'Bulgars', or 'Bougres') since if they were to give in to sexual temptation, this would at least ensure that no children resulted. The Cathars held many beliefs that were odious to the rest of medieval society - but of course the Cathars themselves judged medieval society and its social and religious stuctures to be odious! They did not believe in the doctrine of the Trinity claiming it was an invention of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catharist concept of Jesus resembled modalistic monarchianism in the West and adoptionism in the East. The Western concept resembled the Oneness doctrine of the nature of God taught by Oneness Pentecostals and Swedenborgians today. Most Cathars, however, believed that Jesus had been an apparition, a ghost, that showed the way to God. They refused to believe that the good God could or would come in material form, since all physical objects were tainted by sin. This specific belief is called docetism. Furthermore, they believed that the god of the Old Testament was the Devil, since he had created the world to keep them in obedience to Him. Some did not think that the rite of communion even blessed the bread, they did not accept the Catholic sacraments as valid. Women were treated as equals, because their physical form was irrelevant. One of their ideas most repugnant to feudal Europe was the belief that oaths were a sin, because they attached you to the world. To call them a sin in this manner was seen as very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on oaths. Objection to the Cathars was not only theological, in as much of what the Cathars taught and practiced was considered to be very destabilizing in its effects on society. The dualism of the Cathars was also the basis of their moral teaching. Man, they taught, is a living contradiction. Hence, the liberation of the soul from its captivity in the body is the true end of our being. It was alleged by their opponents that suicide was customary among them in the form of the endura (starvation), however their is no historical evidence to suggest this. Their Catholic enemies argued that extinction of bodily life on the largest scale consistent with human existence was considered the perfect aim and logical end of Cathar teaching. As generation propagates the slavery of the soul to the body, perpetual chastity should be practiced, by all Cathars, at all times. Matrimonial intercourse is unlawful; concubinage, being of a less permanent nature, is preferable to marriage. Abandonment of his wife by the husband, or vice versa, is desirable. Procreation was abhorred by the Albigenses even in the animal kingdom. Consequently, abstention from all animal food, except fish, was enjoined. Cathar Perfects also practiced a diet very similar to strict vegetarianism, with one exception. They were required to avoid eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter. Having said this, they were allowed to eat fish, as little was then known about the mating habits of marine creatures which were generally believed to simply appear spontaneously in the sea. Their belief in metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls, the result of their logical rejection of purgatory, furnishes another explanation for the same abstinence. To this practice they added long and rigorous fasts. War and capital punishment were absolutely condemned, an anomality in a crusading age. For these reasons and others, civil and religious authorities took a hard stance against the Cathars.

Suppression

In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and clearly shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St. Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180–1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement. The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period — in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179) — had scarcely more effect. By the time Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Cathari. St Dominic encountered them while travelling, and tried to combat the strange doctrines. He had concluded that only the best of preachers could win over people who had falling in with the Cathari sect. This lead to the establishment on the Dominican Order in 1216. The order was to live up to the terms of his famous rebuke, "Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth." At first Pope Innocent III tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204, Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, excommunicated the Count of Toulouse as an abettor of heresy in 1207. Peter was then murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to Rome, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "probably at the connivance of Raymond VI, count of Toulouse". As soon as he heard of the murder, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars. This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church. In one famous incident in 1209, most of Béziers were slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate. Arnaud-Amaury, the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, "Kill them all, God will know his own". The Catholic Encyclopedia denies these words were ever spoken. The war also involved Peter II, the king of Aragon, who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the Battle of Muret. The war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of Béziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished. In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy. The Inquisition was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13^th century, and a great part of the 14^th century, it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the prat des cramats near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252). Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux at the beginning of the 14^th century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts, and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Other movements, such as the Waldensians and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit survived into the 14^th and 15^th century, until they were gradually replaced by, or absorbed into, early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites.

Influences

- Christian Rosencreuz, according to some, may have been associated with an underground Cathar movement that hid from the Inquisition. However, this is highly unlikely because there is absolutely no evidence that the Cathar movement still existed by Rosencreuz' time, nor is there any concrete evidence that Rosencreuz existed at all.

The Holy Grail

- It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the Holy Grail of Christian mythology, especially in the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings.

Visigoths

Visigoths had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or Burgundy. The Crusade to rid Christendom of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of Arianism. The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and Franks of Paris, because Burgundy's Geneva would later erupt in Calvinism with opposition by the Franks at that time as well.

References

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm "Albigenses"] by N.A. Weber. The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1907.
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03435a.htm "Cathari"] by N.A. Weber. The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908.
- Histories of the Cathars: Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, trans. Barbera Bray, Vintage Books, 1979
- Montsegur and the Mystery of the Cathars, Jean Markale, ISBN 0-89281-090-4, Inner Traditions, http://www.innertraditions.com/titles/momyca.html
- The Cathars, Malcolm Lambert, ISBN 0-631-14343-2, Blackwell, 1998
- The Treasure of Montsegur: A Novel of the Cathars, Sophy Burnham, ISBN 0060000791, Harper, 2002
- All Things Are Lights, Robert Shea, ISBN 0345329031, Ballantine, 1986
- [http://www.profilebooks.co.uk/title.php?titleissue_id=26 The Perfect Heresy], Stephen Shea, ISBN 1-86197-350-0, Profile Books 2000
- [http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0811Inquisition.html Heresy and the Inquisition II Persecution of Heretics] by Dr M D Magee, 12 December 2002.
- [http://www.esperazabedandbreakfast.com B&B Accommodation near Cathar castles]
- [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Langudoc] James McDonald, 2005.
- Hilaire Belloc, The Great Heresies, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/HERESY5.TXT chapter 5: The Albigensian Attack]
- lastours The four cathar castles above Lastours.

External links

- [http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/seals/soeast.html Seal of france] Category:Gnosticism Category:History of Catholicism in France Category:Esoteric schools of thought ja:カタリ派 simple:Cathar

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