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Explorer I

Explorer I

Explorer-I, officially known as Satellite 1958 Alpha, was the first United States Earth satellite and was sent aloft as part of the United States program for the International Geophysical Year 1957-1958. It was designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of the California Institute of Technology under the direction of Dr. William H. Pickering. The satellite instrumentation of Explorer-I was designed and built by Dr. James Van Allen of the State University of Iowa.

Mission description

The satellite was launched from Cape Canaveral (now Kennedy Space Center) in Florida at 10:48pm EST on January 31, 1958, by the Jupiter-C vehicle. The Jupiter-C has its origins in the United States Army's Project Orbiter in 1954. The project was canceled in 1955, however, when the decision was made to proceed with Project Vanguard. Following the launch of the Soviet Sputnik I on October 4, 1957, ABMA was directed to proceed with the launching of a satellite using the Jupiter-C, which had already been flight-tested in nose-cone re-entry tests for the Jupiter IRBM (intermediate-range ballistic missile). Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C and building the Explorer-I in 84 days.

Spacecraft design

Explorer I was equipped with a geiger counter for the purposes of detecting cosmic rays. Sometimes the instrumentation would report the expected cosmic-ray count (~30 counts per second) but sometimes it would show a peculiar 0 counts per second. The Iowa group (under Van Allen) noted that all of the 0 counts per second reports were from an altitude of 2000+ km over South America, while passes at 500 km would show the expected level of cosmic rays. After Explorer III, it was decided that the original geiger counter had been overwhelmed by strong radiation coming from a belt of charged particles trapped in space by the Earth's magnetic field. (see: Van Allen radiation belt)

Mission results

Van Allen radiation belt] The discovery of the Van Allen Belts by the Explorer satellites was considered to be one of the outstanding discoveries of the International Geophysical Year. Explorer-I was placed in an orbit with a perigee of 360 kilometers (224 miles) and an apogee of 2520 kilometers (1575 miles) having a period of 114.9 minutes. The total weight was 13.97 kilograms (30.8 lb), of which 8.3 kilograms (18.3 lb) were instrumentation. The instrument section at the front end of the satellite and the empty scaled-down fourth-stage rocket casing orbited as a single unit, spinning around its long axis at 750 revolutions per minute. Instrumentation consisted of a cosmic-ray detection package, an internal temperature sensor, three external temperature sensors, a nose-cone temperature sensor, a micrometeorite impact microphone, and a ring of micrometeorite erosion gauges. Data from these instruments were transmitted to the ground by a 60-milliwatt transmitter operating on 108.03 megahertz and a 10 milliwatt transmitter operating on 108.00 MHz. Transmitting antennas consisted of two fibreglass slot antennas in the body of the satellite itself and four flexible whips forming a turnstile antenna. The rotation of the satellite about its long axis kept the flexible whips extended. The external skin of the instrument section was painted in alternate strips of white and dark green to provide passive temperature control of the satellite. The proportions of the light and dark strips were determined by studies of shadow-sunlight intervals based on firing time, trajectory, orbit, and inclination. Electrical power was provided by nickel-cadmium chemical batteries that made up approximately 40 percent of the payload weight. These provided power that operated the high power transmitter for 31 days and the low-power transmitter for 105 days. Because of the limited space available and the requirements for low weight, the Explorer-I instrumentation was designed and built with simplicity and high reliability in mind. It was completely successful. Explorer I stopped transmission of data on May 23, 1958, when its batteries died, but remained in orbit for more than 12 years. It made a fiery reentry over the Pacific Ocean on March 31, 1970. Explorer I was the first of the long-running Explorer program, which as of November 2004 has launched 83 Explorer probes. The identically-constructed flight backup of Explorer I is currently located in the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, Milestones of Flight Gallery.

See also


- Jupiter-C launch vehicle

Reference


- Data Sheet, Department of Astronautics, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Previous mission:
First U.S satellite		 Explorer program Next mission:
Explorer 2
Category:Satellites Category:Explorer program

International Geophysical Year

The International Geophysical Year or IGY was an international scientific effort that lasted from July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958. The IGY encompassed eleven Earth sciences: aurora and airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, glaciology, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping), meteorology, oceanography, seismology and solar activity. Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union launched artificial satellites for this event; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 of October 1957 was the first successful artificial satellite. Other significant achievements of the IGY included the discovery of the Van Allen Belts and the discovery of mid-ocean submarine ridges, an important confirmation of plate tectonics.

Motivation

There had been two preceding International Polar Years, from 1882 to 1883 and from 1932 to 1933. In the 1950s new instrumentation, including especially rocketry and seismography, inspired U.S. scientist Lloyd Berkner to propose a third polar year. The IGY was chosen to occur during a solar maximum, during which some unusual effects of the sun on the Earth might be observed.

History

For the history of the International Polar Years, see the article International Polar Year. The International Council of Scientific Unions, a parent body, broadened the proposals from polar studies to geophysical research. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. IGY is featured in a song of the same name on Donald Fagen's solo album, The Nightfly: :What a beautiful world this will be :What a glorious time to be free

External links


- [http://scaa.usask.ca/gallery/northern/currie/en_polaryear.shtml University of Saskatchewan Archives]
- [http://www.wdc.rl.ac.uk/ionosondes/history History of ionosondes, at the U.K.'s Rutherford Appleton Laboratory]
- [http://www.arctic.at/castaway/history/history.html History of arctic exploration] Category:Earth sciences ja:国際地球観測年

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

The Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), in La Cañada Flintridge, near Pasadena, California, USA, builds and operates unmanned spacecraft for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). JPL-run projects include the Galileo Jupiter mission and the Mars rovers, including the 1997 Mars Pathfinder and the twin 2003 Mars Exploration Rovers. To date, JPL has sent unmanned missions to every planet except Pluto. In addition, JPL has also done extensive mapping missions of the Earth. JPL also manages the world-wide Deep Space Network, with facilities in California's Mojave Desert, in Spain near Madrid and in Australia near Canberra. Almost all of the 177 acre (0.7 km²) JPL campus is actually located in the city of La Cañada Flintridge, California, but the JPL main gate and several buildings are in Pasadena, so it maintains a Pasadena address (4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109). There are approximately 5,000 full-time employees, and typically a few thousand additional contractors work there on any given day. There are also some college student interns and co-op students. The lab has an open house once a year on a Saturday in May, when the public is invited to tour the facilities and see live demonstrations of JPL science and technology. More limited private tours are also available throughout the year if scheduled well in advance. Thousands of schoolchildren from around Southern California and elsewhere visit the lab every year.

History

JPL dates back to the 1930s, when Caltech professor Theodore von Kármán began running rocket propulsion experiments on the site. JPL was co-founded with rocket scientist Jack Parsons, which has led some to affectionately refer to it as the "Jack Parsons Lab." (Despite its name, JPL had not been concerned with work on turbojets or other air-breathing jet engines: Rocket engines were often called "jets" before the mid-1940s.) During World War II, the United States Army Air Corps asked JPL to analyze the V2 rockets that were developed by Nazi Germany, as well as work on other projects for the war effort. From this study, JPL developed the Corporal rocket which was used in the Korean War. This project later evolved into the Sergeant Rocket until it was discontinued in 1958. By 1958, JPL's government affiliation was transferred to the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and JPL's current mission of unmanned planetary exploration began. JPL retained its original name after the transition, even though research into jet propulsion ceased after 1958. In 1995 JPL once again got involved in propulsion design, issuing a contract to [http://www.space-rockets.com/ Wickman Spacecraft and Propulsion Company] to develop a rocket engine and jet engine that could directly burn the Martian atmosphere of carbon dioxide.

Other works

In addition to its government work, JPL has also assisted the nearby motion picture and television industries, by advising them about scientific accuracy in their productions. Science-fiction shows advised by JPL include Babylon 5 and its sequel series Crusade. The Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-five-foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks.

Missions

Listed chronologically, the following significant missions were partially sponsored by JPL. See [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/ this page] for a complete list of missions.
- Explorer program
- Mariner program
- Pioneer 3 + 4
- Viking program
- Voyager program
- Magellan probe
- Galileo probe
- Deep Space 1 + 2
- Mars Global Surveyor
- Cassini-Huygens
- Stardust
- Mars Odyssey
- Mars Pathfinder
- Mars Exploration Rover Mission
- Spitzer Space Telescope

List of Directors


- Dr. Theodore von Kármán, 1938 – 1944
- Dr. Frank Malina, 1944 – 1946
- Dr. Louis Dunn, 1946 – October 1, 1954
- Dr. William H. Pickering, October 1, 1954 – March 31, 1976
- Dr. Bruce C. Murray, April 1, 1976 – June 30, 1982
- Dr. Lew Allen, Jr., July 22, 1982 – December 31, 1990
- Dr. Edward C. Stone, January 1, 1991 – April 30, 2001
- Dr. Charles Elachi, May 1, 2001 – Present

External links


- [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/ JPL's official site] Category:Big Science Category:NASA facilities Category:Pasadena, California ja:ジェット推進研究所

William Hayward Pickering

Sir William Hayward Pickering ONZ KBE (December 24, 1910—March 15, 2004) was a New Zealand-American who headed Pasadena, California's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) for 22 years, retiring in 1976. He was a senior NASA luminary and pioneered the exploration of space. His group launched Explorer I from Cape Canaveral on 31 January 1958 less than four months after the Russians had launched Sputnik (much to the surprise of the Americans). Explorer III discovered the radiation field round the earth that is now known as the Van Allen radiation belt. Explorer 1 orbited for 10 years and was the forerunner of a number of successful JPL earth and deep-space satellites. William Hayward Pickering is not to be confused with William Henry Pickering, an astronomer from an earlier era. Born in Wellington, New Zealand, Pickering attended Havelock School, Marlborough, where Lord Rutherford had attended previously. As a boarder at Wellington College he was introduced to astronomy under the instruction of the famous Charles Gifford (then a master at Wellington College) at the school's observatory. After spending one year at Canterbury University College he completed his bachelor's degree at the California Institute of Technology and completed a PhD in physics in 1936. His specialty was in electrical engineering and he concentrated on what is now telemetry. He is one of the few non-politicians to have appeared on the cover of Time twice. In 1972, he was awarded the IEEE Edison Medal, 'For contributions to telecommunications, rocket guidance and spacecraft control, and for inspiring leadership in unmanned exploration of the solar system.' In 1975 he was awarded the National Medal of Science by President Gerald Ford, and was created an honorary (because of his American citizenship) knight commander in the Order of the British Empire. In 1994 he won the Japan Prize. On June 2, 2003 he became an honorary member of the Order of New Zealand.

External links


- [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/pickering.html IEEE Legacies]
- [http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/pickering.html Biography of William Pickering by The New Zealand Edge]
- [http://beacon.jpl.nasa.gov/exhibits/directors/pickeringgal.htm Faces of Leadership: the Directors of JPL]
- [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/sputnik/pickering.html William H. Pickering] Pickering, William Hayward Pickering, William Hayward Pickering, William Hayward Pickering, William Hayward Pickering, William Hayward Category:New Zealand-Americans Category:New Zealand people Category:Nelsonians

State University of Iowa

The University of Iowa is a university in Iowa City, Iowa. The university was founded in 1847 as the State University of Iowa, only 59 days after Iowa became a state. In spite of its original name, it is not to be confused with Iowa State University. In 1855, Iowa became the first public university in the United States to admit men and women on an equal basis. The university offered its first doctoral degree in 1898. It established the first law school west of the Mississippi. The university was also the first to use television in education (1932) and pioneered the field of standardized testing. Bachelors, master's, and doctoral programs are offered through the Henry B. Tippie College of Business, the College of Dentistry, the College of Engineering, the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, the College of Public Health, the College of Education, the College of Law, the Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, the Graduate College, the College of Nursing, and the College of Pharmacy. It is also the home of the Iowa Writers' Workshop. Another project hosted by the University of Iowa is a virtual reality driving simulator, which they use to test vehicle and roadway technology, and the driver reactions to this technology. The University is currently home to ISCABBS, an aging public bulletin board system that was the largest internet community in the world prior to the commercialization of the world wide web.

Campus

The University of Iowa's main campus is located in Iowa City, with the campus bordered by Park Road to the north and Dubuque and Gilbert Streets roughly to the east. U.S. Highway 6 traverses the university campus. The Iowa River flows through the campus. The University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics - the public teaching hospital affiliated with the school - is located on the main campus. The Oakdale Campus, which is home to the university's research facilities and the driving simulator, is located north of Interstate 80 in adjacent Coralville.

Sports

The school's sports teams are called the Iowa Hawkeyes. They participate in the NCAA's Division I-A and in the Big Ten Conference. Iowa's football team plays its home games at historic Kinnick Stadium, named after former Iowa football player Nile Kinnick who won the Heisman Trophy in 1939. Iowa battles Iowa State University annually for the Cy-Hawk Trophy, a traveling award. It also has a Big Ten rivalry with Minnesota. The two schools' football teams meet yearly to battle for Floyd of Rosedale, a traveling trophy in the shape of a bronzed pig. In 2004, Iowa and Wisconsin unveiled the Heartland Trophy, a bronze bull, to be played for in their annual rivalry. The Hawkeye football team has won eleven Big Ten football titles. The school is also famous for its wrestling program. The Hawkeye grapplers have won an amazing 27 NCAA national titles and over 30 Big Ten titles. The trampoline was invented by University members George Nissen and Larry Griswold around 1935. Griswold, was the assistant gymnastics coach and Nissen was a tumbler on the gymnastics team.

Accomplished alumni


- Archie Alexander, first African-American graduate (in engineering); and, governor of the Virgin Islands
- B.J. Armstrong, former NBA point guard for the Chicago Bulls
- Tom Arnold (actor), actor (Roseanne, True Lies) and host of Fox Sports Net's talk show, Best Damn Sports Show Period
- Mildred Benson, writer under penname Carolyn Keene of Nancy Drew books
- Tom Brokaw, NBC News anchorman and managing editor of NBC Nightly News
- Marquis W. Childs, Pulitzer Prize-winning commentator
- John Cochran, broadcast journalist and correspondent
- Norm Coleman, former Democratic mayor of St. Paul, now Junior Republican U.S. Senator of Minnesota.
- Ellen Dolan, soap opera actress in Guiding Light and As the World Turns
- Martha Angle Dorsett, the first woman admitted to the Bar of Minnesota (in 1878)
- Rita Dove, 1993 Poet Laureate of the United States
- Duck's Breath Mystery Theater (Dan Coffey, Bill Allard, Merle Kessler, Leon Martrell, and Jim Turner), touring comedy troup also featured on National Public Radio's All Things Considered
- Tim Dwight, NFL kick returner for the New England Patriots.
- Cal Eldred, retired Major League Baseball pitcher who played for 14 years
- Simon Estes, bass baritone opera singer
- Robert Gallery, Offensive Tackle for the Oakland Raiders
- George Gallup, founder of the Gallup Poll
- Dennis Green, head coach of NFL's Arizona Cardinals
- Merton Hanks, former NFL defensive back (4-time Pro Bowl selection)
- Jay Hilgenberg, former NFL center for Chicago Bears (7-time Pro Bowl selection)
- Lou Holtz, only football coach in NCAA history to lead six different programs to bowl games
- Mary Beth Hurt, actress in The World According to Garp and Interiors
- Toby Huss, actor, creator of Artie, the Strongest Man in the World from The Adventures of Pete and Pete which he created at No Shame Theatre at the university.
- Harvey Ingham, co-owner and editor of the Des Moines Register
- John Irving, writer, A Widow for One Year and The World According to Garp
- Al Jarreau, Grammy Award-winning vocalist
- Denis Johnson, author of Jesus' Son
- John Johnson (basketball), former NBA player on 1978-1979 Seattle SuperSonics championship team
- Alex Karras, actor and football player
- Barry Kemp, producer of television programs Coach and Newhart (Hayden Fox, the title character of Coach, was named after Iowa football coach Hayden Fry)
- Nile Kinnick, Iowa's 1939 Heisman trophy winner with Iowa's Kinnick Stadium named for him in 1972.
- W.P. Kinsella, author of Field of Dreams
- Ashton Kutcher, actor
- E.F. Linquist, co-founder of the ACT examination
- Chuck Long, football player and coach
- J. W. Grant MacEwan, Western Canadian icon
- Richard W. Maibaum, author of over a dozen James Bond scripts
- Nicholas Meyer, director of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan
- Dean Montgomery, mathematician
- Greg Morris, actor played Barney Collier in original Mission Impossible TV Series
- Bharati Mukherjee, Bengali-American writer
- Don Nelson, former NBA player for the Boston Celtics and coach for the Dallas Mavericks
- Flannery O'Connor, author
- Ed Podolak, former NFL star with the Kansas City Chiefs
- Terry O'Quinn, star of movies and television including ABC's hit Lost
- Eddie Robinson (football coach), winningest coach in football history at Grambling State University from 1942 until 1997
- Reggie Roby, former NFL punter (3-time Pro Bowl Selection) for the Miami Dolphins
- Wilbur L. Schramm, founder of the Iowa Writers' Workshop and the Institute of Communications Research at Stanford University
- Jean Seberg, actress
- Jane Smiley, Pulitzer Prize winning American Novelist
- Wallace Stegner, author
- Bob Stoops, football player and coach. Now head coach of the University of Oklahoma
- Andre Tippett, former NFL linebacker for the New England Patriots
- James Van Allen, physicist, discoverer of two radiation belts, the Van Allen Belts
- Oswald Veblen, mathematician
- Gene Wilder, actor
- Tennessee Williams, Pulitzer Prize-winning writer

Notable faculty and adminstrators

Retired and former faculty
- Nancy C. Andreasen, 2000 National Medal of Science Recipient, head: MHCRC
- Philip Greeley Clapp, director of school of music 1919-53
- Walter Jessup, president 1916-34
- Nicholas Johnson, former [http://ftp.fcc.gov/commissioners/commish-list.html FCC commissioner 1966-1973], U.S. Maritime Administrator. Professor, Department of Communication Studies and [http://www.backbonecampaign.org/cabinet/NomineeRate.cfm?ID=210 founding member of the Iowa Progressive Caucus].
- Lester Longman, chairman of the art deparment 1936-58
- Edward C. Mabie, director of theatre arts 1925-56
- Harold McCarty, First chair of Dept. of Geography, pioneered regression analysis within economic geography
- Carl Seashore, dean of the graduate college 1908-37
- James Van Allen, head of physics and astonomy department 1951-85
- Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., faculty for University of Iowa Writers' Workshop, 1965-66
- Grant Wood, famous American painter who painted American Gothic, instructor, and director of WPA art projects Current faculty
- Thomas Rocklin, noted current educational psychologist
- Kimberly Ephgrave, skilled contemporary surgeon David Klemm, Department of Religious Studies

External links


- [http://www.uiowa.edu/ Official University of Iowa website]
- [http://www.hawkeyesports.com/ Official Iowa athletics site]
- [http://www.uiowa.edu/~our/fact.book/student/student.html U of I Enrollment Figures] Category:Universities and colleges in Iowa Category:Association of American Universities

Cape Canaveral

Cape Canaveral is a strip of land in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of that state's Atlantic coast. It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Kennedy Space Center, and the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Most United States spacecraft are launched from either one of these sites. It sits due east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. From 1963 to 1973 it was called Cape Kennedy: President John F. Kennedy was an enthusiastic backer of the space program, and after his assassination in 1963, his widow Jacqueline Kennedy suggested to President Lyndon Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral space facility would be an appropriate memorial. However, Johnson recommended the renaming not just of the facility, but of the entire cape. Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was renamed Cape Kennedy. Although the name change was approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names of the Interior Department in 1964, it was not popular in Florida and in 1973 the state passed a law restoring the former 400-year-old name and the Board went along. The people of the city of Cape Canaveral, Florida, had particularly pressed to change it back. The Kennedy family issued a letter stating they "understood the decision"; Jacqueline Kennedy also stated if she had known that the Canaveral name had existed for 400 years, she never would have supported changing the name of the Cape. The space center retains the name Kennedy. In addition to the Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral is the site of an air force base, a nineteenth-century lighthouse, and the city of Cape Canaveral. The first rocket launch from the Cape was Bumper 8 from Launch Pad 3 on 24 July, 1950. On February 6, 1959 the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished here. All manned US spaceflights have launched from Cape Canaveral. Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the earth's rotation. At the equator, the centrifugal force of earth's rotation is the maximum. The direction of earth's rotation is such that to take advantage of the rotation, rockets should be launched eastward. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, ideally an ocean, in case of accidents. Thus rockets should be launched from a continent's east coast as close to the equator as possible. For the United States, Florida is the most southerly east coast location. The name "Canaveral" (Cañaveral in Spanish) was given to the area by Spanish explorers, and it literally means "canebrake". It can be interpreted as "Cape of Canes."

Seen in

Cape Canaveral has been seen in The Simpsons and in Fur Fighters, known as Cape Canardo.

External links


- [http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory.html History of Cape Canaveral]
- [http://www.myflorida.com/cape/ City of Cape Canaveral, FL]
- [http://www.terraserver-usa.com/image.aspx?T=1&S=16&Z=17&X=42&Y=245&W=1&qs=%7cCape+Canaveral%7c%7c Microsoft Terra Server image of Cape Canaveral and surroundings]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Cape+Canaveral,+FL&ll=28.467636,-80.553474&spn=0.156384,0.225563&t=k Google Maps imagery]
- [http://www.discoverbrevard.com/CapeCanaveral.php/ Discover Cape Canaveral, FL]
- [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_440.html The Straight Dope: Why did they change the name of Cape Kennedy back to Cape Canaveral?] Canaveral th:แหลมแคนาเวอรัล

Kennedy Space Center

The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is the NASA space vehicle launch facility (spaceport) at Cape Canaveral on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. The site is midway between Miami and Jacksonville, Florida. It is 55 km long and around 10 km wide, covering 567 km². Around 17,000 people work at the site. There is a visitor center and public tours and KSC is a major tourist destination for visitors to Florida. Because much of KSC is off limits to development, the site also serves as an important wildlife sanctuary. Operations are currently controlled from Launch complex 39, the location of the Vehicle Assembly Building. 6 km to the east of the assembly building are the two launch pads. 8 km south is the KSC Industrial Area, where many of the Center's support facilities are located and the administrative headquarters. Kennedy Space Center's only launch operations are at Launch Complex 39. All other launch operations take place at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) which is operated by the U.S. Air Force.

History

The area had been used by the government since 1949 when President Harry S. Truman established the Joint Long Range Proving Grounds at Cape Canaveral to test missiles. The location was ideal for this purpose as it allowed for launches out toward the Atlantic Ocean, and it was closer to the equator than most other parts of the United States allowing for rockets to get a boost from the earth's rotation. In 1951 the U.S. Air Force established the Air Force Missile Test Center at nearby Banana River Naval Air Station. The first American sub-orbital rocket flights were achieved at Cape Canaveral in 1949. Following Sputnik, the first Soviet attempt at an orbiting satellite, the U.S. Navy's Vanguard, blew-up on December 6, 1957. NASA was founded in 1958 and the site was transformed into a major launch site. Redstone, Jupiter IRBM, Jupiter-C, Pershing, Polaris, Thor, Atlas, Titan and Minuteman missiles were all tested from the site, the Thor becoming the basis for the expendable launch vehicle (ELV) Delta rocket, which launched Telstar 1 in July 1962. The announcement of the lunar program led to an expansion of operations from the Cape to the adjacent Merritt Island. NASA began acquisition in 1962, taking title to 340 km² by outright purchase and negotiating with the state of Florida for an additional 226 km². In July 1962 the site was named the Launch Operations Center. It was renamed the John F. Kennedy Space Center in November 1963, after the recently assassinated president John F. Kennedy. The surrounding Cape Canaveral was also renamed Cape Kennedy, but this change was unpopular with the local people and the name reverted in 1973. The lunar project had three stages—Mercury, Gemini and Apollo. The objective of Mercury was to orbit and retrieve a manned Earth satellite. The project started in October 1957 using the Atlas ICBM as the base to carry the Mercury payload. but early testing used the Redstone rocket for a series of suborbital flights including the 15-minute flights of Alan Shepard on May 5 and Virgil Grissom on July 21, 1961. The first human carried by an Atlas was John Glenn on February 20, 1962. 1962]] From the knowledge gained through Mercury the more complex two-man capsules of Gemini were prepared as was a new launcher based on the Titan II ICBM. The first manned flight took place on March 23, 1965 with John Young and Virgil Grissom. Gemini 4 featured the first extravehicular activity, by Edward H. White. There were twelve Gemini launches from KSC. The Apollo program had another new launcher—the three-stage Saturn V (111 m high and 10 m in diameter), built by Boeing (first stage), North American Aviation (engines and second stage) and Douglas Aircraft (third stage). North American Aviation also made the command and service modules while Grumman Aircraft Engineering constructed the lunar lander. IBM, MIT and GE provided instrumentation. At KSC a $800 million massive new launch centre was built to take this new launcher—Launch Complex 39. It included a hangar to hold four Saturn V rockets, the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB, 3.68 million m³); a transportation system from the hangar to the launch pad, capable of carrying 5440 tonnes; a 136 meter movable service structure and a control center. construction began in November 1962, the launch pads were completed by October 1965, the VAB was completed in June 1965, and the infrastucure by late 1966. From 1967 through 1973, there were 13 Saturn V launches from Complex 39. Prior to the Saturn V launches there were a series of smaller Saturn I and IB launches to test the men and equipment from Complex 34 on the Cape Canaveral site. The death of three astronauts by fire on Apollo-Saturn 204 (later designated Apollo 1) on January 27, 1967 occurred at Complex 34. The first Saturn V test launch, Apollo 4 (Apollo-Saturn 501) began its 104 hour countdown on October 30, 1967 and, after delays, was launched on November 9. Apollo 7 was the first manned test on October 11, 1968. Apollo 8 made 10 lunar orbits on December 24-25, 1968. Apollo 9 and Apollo 10 tested the lunar lander. Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969 and the Moon was walked on at 10.56 pm, July 20. The Apollo program continued at KSC, through Apollo 14 (1971), the 24th American manned space flight (40th in the world), until Apollo 17 of December 1972. The Air Force chose to expand the capabilites of the Titan launch vehicles for its heavy lift capabilities. It constructed Launch Complexes 40 and 41 to launch Titan III and Titan IV rockets at CCAFS, just south of Kennedy Space Center. A Titan III has about the same payload capacity as a Saturn IB at a considerable cost savings. Launch Complex 40 and 41 has been used to launch defense reconnaissance, communications and weather satellites and NASA planetary missions. The Air Force also planned to launch two Air Force manned space projects from LC 40 and 41. They were the Dyna-Soar, a manned orbital rocket plane (cancelled in 1963) and the Manned Orbiting Laboratory, a manned reconnaissance space station (cancelled in 1969). Manned Orbiting Laboratory ELV rocket development also continued at KSC—prior to Apollo, an Atlas-Centaur launched from Launch Complex 36 had put the first American Surveyor lander softly on the Moon on May 30, 1966. A further five out of seven Surveyor craft were also successfully transferred to the Moon. From 1974-1977 the powerful Titan-Centaur became the new heavy lift vehicle for NASA, launching the Viking and Voyager series of spacecraft from Launch Complex 41, a Air Force site lent to NASA. Complex 41 later became the launch site for the most powerful unmanned U.S. rocket, the Titan IV, developed for the Air Force. The Saturn V was also used to put the Skylab space station in orbit in 1973. Launchpad 39B was slightly modified for Saturn IB use, and launched three manned missions to Skylab in 1973, as well as the Apollo component of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975. KSC was also the launch site for the Space Shuttle, reusing the Complex 39 Apollo infrastructure, as well as the landing site, with a 4.6 km runway built as the Shuttle Landing Facility. The first launch was of Columbia on April 12, 1981. Twenty-five flights had been completed by September 1988, with a large hiatus from January 28, 1986, to September 29, 1988, following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (which was the first shuttle launch from Pad 39B). In September 2004, parts of Kennedy Space Center were damaged by Hurricane Frances. The Vehicle Assembly Building lost 1,000 exterior panels, each 1.2 x 3 meters in size. This exposed 3,700 m² of the building to the elements. Damage occurred to the south and east sides of the VAB. The Space Shuttle tile manufacturing facility suffered extensive damage. The roof was partially torn off and the interior suffered extensive water damage. Tile manufacturing will probably be moved to the Palmdale, California backup facility. Further damage to KSC was caused by Hurricane Wilma on October 2005.

Visitor Complex

2005 The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, operated by Delaware North Companies at no taxpayer expense, is home to a number of museums, two IMAX theatres, and various bus tours allowing visitors a closer look at various restricted areas that would otherwise not be possible. Included in the base admission is tour-bus transportation into the restricted area to an observation gantry on the grounds of Launch complex 39, and to the Apollo-Saturn V Center. The observation gantry provides unobstructed views of both launch pads and all of Kennedy Space Center property. The Apollo-Saturn V Center is a large museum built around its centerpiece exhibit, a restored Saturn V launch vehicle, and features other space related exhibits, including an Apollo capsule. Two theaters allow the visitor to relive parts of the Apollo program. One simulates the environment inside an Apollo-era firing room during an Apollo launch, and another simulates the Apollo 11 landing. The Visitor Complex also includes two facilities run by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation. The most visible of these is the Space Mirror Memorial, a huge black granite mirror through-engraved with the names of all astronauts who died in the line of duty. These names are constantly illuminated from behind, with natural light when possible, and artificial light when necessary. The glowing names seem to float in a reflection of the sky. Supplemental displays nearby give the details of the lives and deaths of the astronauts memorialized. Elsewhere on the Visitor Complex grounds is the Foundation's Center for Space Education, which includes a resource center for teachers, among other facilities.

See also


- List of Merritt Island launch sites

External links


- [http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/ Kennedy Space Center Home Page]
- [http://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/ Visitor Complex Home Page]
- [http://www.amfcse.org/ Astronauts Memorial Foundation Home Page]
- [http://www.astronautix.com/sites/capveral.htm John F. Kennedy Space Center] from Encyclopedia Astronautica
- [https://www.patrick.af.mil/45sw/ccafs/ Cape Canaveral 45th Spacewing Home Page]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=28.608298,-80.603878&spn=0.013458,0.020262&t=k&hl=en Launch Complex 39A] (Google Maps)
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=28.586067,-80.651064&spn=0.006730,0.009693&t=k&hl=en Vehicle Assembly Building] (Google Maps) Category:Big Science Kennedy Space Center Kennedy Space Center Category:Florida landmarks Category:Rocket launch sites Category:Brevard County, Florida ja:ケネディ宇宙センター

Florida

Florida is a Southern state in the United States, situated upon a large peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Straits of Florida. "Florida" is a Spanish adjective which means "flowery." The peninsula was discovered and settled by Juan Ponce de León on Easter Sunday, March 27, 1513, which is known as Pascua Florida in Spanish. Its U.S. Postal abbreviation is FL while its traditional abbreviation is Fla.

History

1513 Archaeological finds indicate that Florida had been inhabited for many thousands of years prior to any European settlements. Of the many indigenous people, the largest tribes were the Calusa, Tequesta, Timucuan, and the Tocobago tribes. Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish navigator, named this new land in honor of his discovery of the land on Easter Sunday, March 27, 1513, which is called by Spaniards Pascua Florida, "Holy Day of Flowers." From that date forward, the land became known as "La Florida." Over the following century, the Spanish and French both established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success. Spanish Pensacola was established by Don Tristan de Luna as the first European settlement in the current United States in 1559 (its settlement was interrupted by a hurricane). Six years later, in 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés established Saint Augustine as the first permanent European settlement. These two cities would come to be the capitals of the British and Spanish colonies of East and West Florida. The area of Florida diminished with the establishment of British colonies to the north and French colonies to the west. Control of parts of Florida passed among Spanish, British, and American control. Spain finally ceded Florida to the United States with the Adams-Onís Treaty in 1819, in exchange for the U.S. renouncing any claims on Texas. On March 3, 1845, Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America. Florida seceded from the Union on January 10, 1861 and was one of the founding members of the Confederate States of America (CSA, also known as the Confederacy). Florida joined the CSA on February 10, 1861. After the fall of the Confederacy in 1865, Florida was readmitted into the Union on June 25, 1868. Until the mid-twentieth century, Florida was the least populous Southern state. However, migration from the Rust Belt combined with Florida's warm climate made it a haven for newcomers. Today, Florida is the second most populous state in the South (behind Texas and the fourth most populous state in the United States. The USS Florida was named in honor of this state.

Law and government

USS Florida The basic structure, duties, function, and operations of the Government of the State of Florida are defined and established by the Florida Constitution, which also establishes the basic law of the state and guarantees various rights and freedoms of the people. The state government consists of three separate branches, the judicial, executive and legislative. The Florida Legislature enacts legislation, such as those in the Florida Statutes, which are signed into law by the Governor of Florida. The Florida Legislature has a Senate of 40 members and a House of 120 members. The current governor is Republican Jeb Bush, brother of President George W. Bush and son of former President George H. W. Bush. Though Florida has traditionally been a Democratic state, in recent years explosive population growth has brought with it many Republicans, leaving the state approximately evenly split between the two parties. Despite this demographic parity, Republicans control the governorship and most other statewide elected offices, both houses of the state legislature, 18 of the state's 25 seats in the House of Representatives, and one of the state's two Senate seats. The 2000 Presidential election in Florida was extremely close. As such, and because of its high population and large number of electoral votes, Florida is considered by political analysts to be a key swing state in Presidential elections. The Tampa area, once a major center of Democratic union support, is now almost evenly split between registered Republicans and Democrats, making it part of the important I-4 Corridor swing region.

Taxation

Florida is one of the nine states which do not impose a personal income tax (list of others). The state sales tax rate is 6 (six) percent. Local governments may levy an additional local option sales tax of up to 1.5 percent. A locale's use tax rate is the same as its sales tax rate, including local options if any. Use taxes are payable for purchases made out of state and brought into Florida within 6 months of the purchase date. Other taxes are mostly levied on businesses. They include the following taxes: Corporate Income, Communication Services, Intangibles, Unemployment, Solid Waste, Documentary Stamps, Insurance Premium, Pollutants, and various fuel taxes. For more information visit the Florida Department of Revenue website at [http://www.myflorida.com/dor].

Geography

Florida consists of the Panhandle extending along the northern Gulf of Mexico and the large Peninsula with the Atlantic Ocean as its eastern border and the Gulf of Mexico as its western border. It is bordered on the north by the states of Georgia and Alabama and on the west, at the end of the panhandle, by Alabama. It is near the countries of the Caribbean, particularly the Bahamas and Cuba. At 345 feet (105 metres) above mean sea level, Britton Hill is the highest point in Florida. This is also the lowest highpoint of any U.S. state. Contrary to popular belief, however, Florida is not an entirely "flat" state. Some places, such as Clearwater, feature relatively high vistas rising 50 to 100 feet above the water. Much of the interior of Florida, typically 25 miles or more away from the coastline, features rolling hills with elevations ranging from 100 to 250 feet in many locations. Lake County holds the highest point of peninsular Florida, Sugarloaf Mountain , at 312 feet. The amount of topographical change will surprise many visitors.

Boundaries

The state line begins at the Atlantic, traveling west, south, and north up the thalweg of the Saint Mary's River. At the origin of that river, it then follows a straight line nearly due-west and slightly north, to the point where the confluence of the Flint River (from Georgia) and the Chattahoochee River (down the Alabama/Georgia line) used to form Florida's Apalachicola River. (This point is now under Lake Seminole since Woodruff Dam was built.) The border with Georgia continues north through the lake for a short distance up the former thalweg of the Chattahoochee, then with Alabama runs due west along latitude 31°N to the Perdido River, then south along its thalweg to the Gulf via Perdido Bay.

Climate

Perdido Bay Perdido Bay.]] The climate of Florida is tempered somewhat by its proximity to water. Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate with the extreme tip of Florida and the Florida Keys bordering on a true tropical climate. However, Florida averages 300 days of full sunshine a year. The seasons in Florida often called "Hot and Hotter" are actually determined more by precipitation than by temperature with warm, relatively dry winters and autumns (the dry season) and hot, wet springs and especially the summers (the wet season). The Gulf Stream has a moderating effect on Florida climate and although it is common for much of Florida to see a high summer temperature over 90 degrees Fahrenheit, it is not common for the mercury to go above 100 degrees Fahrenheit in Florida. The hottest temperature ever recorded in the state was 109 °F set on June 29, 1931 in Monticello. The coldest was 2 °F below zero, on February 13, 1899 just 25 miles away, in Tallahassee. Mean high temperatures for late July are primarily in the low 90's. Mean low temperatures for late January range from the low 40's in North Florida to the mid-50's in South Florida. While Florida's nickname is the "Sunshine State", severe weather is a common occurrence in Florida. Central Florida is known as the Lightning capital of the U.S. as it experiences more lightning strikes than anywhere else in the country. Statewide, Florida has the highest average precipitation of any state, due in large part to afternoon thunderstorms which are common throughout most of the state from late spring until the early autumn. However, a sunny day may be interrupted with a storm only to return to regular gorgeous weather. These thunderstorms, which are caused by airflow from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean colliding over the peninsula, seemingly "pop up" in the early afternoon and can often bring heavy downpours, high winds and sometimes tornadoes. This is frequently due to "onshore flow," or a collision of sea breezes from the east and west coasts. Florida leads the nation in tornadoes per square mile, although the tornadoes in Florida do not get as large as those in the Midwest or Great Plains. Hail is not an uncommon occurrence in some of the more severe thunderstorms. Snow is a rare occurrence in Florida. During the Great Blizzard of 1899, Florida experienced blizzard conditions for possibly the first time since explorers had arrived. During that time, the Tampa Bay area had "Gulf effect" snow, similar to lake effect snowfall. The Great Blizzard of 1899 was also the only time the temperature has fallen below 0 degrees Fahrenheit, registering -2° F in Tallahassee on February 13, 1899. The most widespread snowfall in Florida history happened in February 1978 with snow falling over much of the state in different times of the month, extending as far south as Homestead. Snow flurries fell on Miami Beach for the only time in recorded history. In 1989, there was a severe hard freeze that created lots of ice and also caused minor flurries in sections of the state and resulted in rolling blackouts due to power failures caused by massive demands on the power grid for heating. Although some storms have formed out of season, hurricanes pose a threat during hurricane season, which is from June 1 to November 30. Florida saw a slew of destruction in 2004 when it was hit by a record four hurricanes. Hurricanes Charley (August 13), Frances (September 4-5), Ivan (September 16), and Jeanne (September 25-26) cumulatively cost forty-two billion dollars to the state. In 2005, Hurricane Dennis (July 10) became the fifth storm to strike Florida within 11 months. Later, Hurricane Katrina (August 25) passed through South Florida and Hurricane Rita (September 20) swept through the Florida Keys. Hurricane Wilma made landfall in Florida in the early morning of October 24 as a category 3 hurricane, with storm's eye hitting near Cape Romano, just south of Marco Island, according to National Hurricane Center. Florida was also the site of the second most costly single weather disaster in U.S. history, Hurricane Andrew, which caused more than twenty-five billion dollars ($25,000,000,000) in damage when it struck on August 24, 1992. Among a long list of other infamous hurricane strikes were the 1926 Great Miami Hurricane, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928, the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, Hurricane Donna in 1960, and Hurricane Opal in 1995.

Economy

1995 The gross state product of Florida in 2003 was $550 billion. The per capita personal income was $30,098, ranking 26th in the nation. Florida's economy is heavily based on tourism. Warm weather most of the year and hundreds of miles of beach provide a thriving vacation spot for travelers from around the world. The large Walt Disney World Resort with four theme parks and over twenty hotels plus countless water parks, shopping centers and other facilities, located in Lake Buena Vista drives the economy of that area, along with more recent entries into the theme park arena such as the Universal Orlando Resort. The great amount of sales and tourist tax revenue is what allows the state to be one of the few to not levy a personal income tax. Other major industries include citrus fruit and juice production, banking, and phosphate mining within the Bone Valley region. With the arrival of the space program at Kennedy Space Center in the 1960s, Florida has attracted a large number of aerospace and military industries to the state. Florida did not have any state minimum wage laws until November 2, 2004, when voters passed a Constitutional Amendment requiring inflationary increases to the minimum wage every six months. Historically, Florida's economy was based upon cattle farming and agriculture (especially sugar cane, citrus, tomatoes, and strawberries). As land speculators discovered Florida in the early 1900's, and when Plant and Flagler developed the railway systems, more people moved in, drawn by the usually good weather. From then on, tourism boomed, fueling a cycle of development and tourism that overwhelmed a great deal of farmland. Other key industries, commercial fishing and water-based tourist activities (sports fishing and diving) are threatened by severe Red Tide outbreaks in 2004 and 2005 off the west coast.

Demographics

As of 2004, the state's population was estimated to be 17,397,161.

Race and ancestry

  White65.4%
Hispanic 16.8%
Black14.6%
Asian1.7%
Native American0.3%
Mixed Race2.4%
The largest reported ancestries in the 2000 Census were German (11.8%), Irish (10.3%), English (9.2%), American (8%) and Italian (6.3%). Blacks, who during the cotton and sugar plantation era made up fully 50 percent of the state's population, have a large presence in the deeply southern middle Florida region of North Florida and in the cities of Jacksonville, Gainesville, and Fort Lauderdale. Transplanted Northerners are prominent on the West Coast, particularly in the Tampa suburbs. Floridians of British ancestry are dominant in most coastal cities, while Floridians of white American ancestry dominate the culturally Southern areas of inland North Florida. Florida's large and diverse Hispanic community consists particularly of Cubans in Miami and Tampa, Puerto Ricans in Tampa and Orlando as well as Dominicans in the latter, and Mexican migrant workers in inland West-Central and South Florida. There is also a number of Haitian Americans in Miami and other parts of Florida. Native Floridians, especially those who have descended from long-time Florida families, are affectionately referred to as "Crackers." This is because many early settlers were cattle farmers, and used bullwhips to "crack" over the cattle to move them during the annual cattle drives westward across the central part of the state to the port of Tampa, as well as to kill rattlesnakes economically, thereby preventing the numerous rattlesnakes from killing cattle on the long cattle drives. Florida is one of the only states in which Hispanics predominantly vote Republican. This descrepancy arises because people classified as "Hispanic" come from widely diverse backgrounds. People whose race is identified as "Hispanic" in Florida are mostly of Cuban descent, as opposed to Mexican descent (who live largely in the southwest of the U.S.) or Puerto Rican descent (who live largely in the northeast of the U.S.). Florida's fast-growing Hispanic population is heaviest in Miami, Orlando, and the Gulf Coast. Black Floridians are overwhelmingly Democratic voters. Blacks comprise a large fraction of the populations of North Florida, Fort Lauderdale, and the Tampa Bay Area.

Languages

As of 2000, 76.9% of Florida residents age 5 and older speak English at home and 16.5% speak Spanish. French is the third most spoken language at 2.2%, followed by German at 0.6% and Italian at 0.4%. Article II, Section 9 of the Florida Constitution provides that "English is the official language of the State of Florida." This was adopted in 1988 by a vote following an Initiative Petition.

Religion

Florida is mostly Protestant, but with a growing Roman Catholic community due to immigration. There is also a sizable Jewish community in some parts of Florida which makes Florida unique among Southern states (no other Southern state has a large Jewish community). Florida's current religious affiliations are shown in the table below:
- Christian – 82%
  - Protestant – 54%
    - Baptist – 19%
    - Methodist – 6%
    - Presbyterian – 4%
    - Episcopal – 3%
    - Lutheran – 3%
    - Pentecostal – 3%
    - Other Protestant – 16%
  - Roman Catholic – 26%
  - Other Christian – 2%
- Jewish – 4%
- Other Religions – 1%
- Non-Religious – 13%

Important cities, towns, and communities

Jewish] Jewish] Jewish] Jewish] Jewish] Jewish]
Metropolitan Area Population > 5,000,000
- Miami-Ft.Lauderdale Metropolitan Area Population > 2,500,000
- Tampa-St. Petersburg Metropolitan Area Population > 1,000,000
- Jacksonville
- Orlando
- West Palm Beach Metropolitan Area Population > 400,000
- Cape Coral-Fort Myers
- Daytona Beach
- Lakeland
- Melbourne-Titusville
- Pensacola
- Port Saint Lucie-Fort Pierce-Stuart
- Sarasota-Bradenton City Population > 200,000
- Hialeah
- Jacksonville
- Miami
- Orlando
- St. Petersburg
- Tampa City Population > 100,000
- Cape Coral
- Clearwater
- Coral Springs
- Fort Lauderdale
- Gainesville
- Hollywood
- Miami Gardens
- Pembroke Pines
- Miramar
- Port Saint Lucie
- Pompano Beach
- Tallahassee 		City Population > 75,000
- Boca Raton
- Brandon
- Davie
- Deltona
- Kendall
- Lakeland
- Miami Beach
- Palm Bay
- Plantation
- Sunrise
- West Palm Beach City Population > 50,000
- Boynton Beach
- Bradenton
- Daytona Beach
- Deerfield Beach
- Delray Beach
- Fort Myers
- Fountainbleau
- Kendale Lakes
- Kissimmee
- Largo
- Lauderhill
- Lehigh Acres
- Margate
- Melbourne
- North Miami
- North Miami Beach
- Palm Harbor
- Pensacola
- Sarasota
- Spring Hill
- Tamarac
- Tamiami
- Town 'n' Country
- Weston 		City Population > 25,000
- Altamonte Springs
- Aventura
- Apopka
- Bonita Springs
- Coconut Creek
- Cooper City
- Coral Gables
- Dunedin
- East Lake
- Egypt Lake-Leto
- Fort Pierce
- Greater Carrollwood
- Greenacres
- Hallandale Beach
- Homestead
- Jupiter
- Kendall West
- Lake Magdalene
- Lake Worth
- Lauderdale Lakes
- North Fort Myers
- North Lauderdale
- Ocala
- Ocoee
- Oakland Park
- Ormond Beach
- Oveido
- Palm Beach Gardens
- Panama City
- Pinellas Park
- Plant City
- Port Orange
- Port Charlotte
- Riviera Beach
- Sanford
- Titusville
- University
- Wellington
- Westchester
- Winter Haven
- Winter Park
- Winter Springs

Miscellaneous information

Winter Springs
- Nickname: "The Sunshine State"
- State Bird: Mockingbird
- State Flower: Orange blossom - (Citrus sinensis)
- State Insect: Zebra Longwinged Butterfly
- State Song: "Old folks at home (Suwannee River)" by Stephen C. Foster
- State Tree: Sabal Palm
- State Reptile: American Alligator
- State Animal: The Florida Panther
- State Saltwater Mammal: The Manatee
- State Drink: Orange Juice
- State Fruit: Orange
- State Shell: The Horse Conch (The great band shell)
- State Saltwater Fish: The Sailfish
- State Freshwater Fish: Florida Largemouth Bass
- Highest Point: Britton Hill; 345 feet, 50th
- State Motto: None
- State Wildflower: Tickseed (unofficial)

Transportation

Tickseed

Highways

Florida's interstates, state highways and U.S. Highways are maintained by the Florida Department of Transportation. Florida's interstate highways include:
- I-4, which bisects the state, connecting Tampa, Lakeland, Orlando, and Daytona Beach
- I-10, which traverses the panhandle, connecting Jacksonville, Lake City, Tallahassee, and Pensacola
- I-75, which enters the state near Lake City and continues southward through Gainesville, Ocala, and Tampa's eastern suburbs to Naples, where, as a toll road it crosses the "Alligator Alley" to Ft. Lauderdale
- I-95, which enters the state near Jacksonville and continues along the Atlantic Coast through Daytona Beach, Melbourne, Palm Bay, West Palm Beach, and Ft. Lauderdale before terminating near Miami
- I-110, a spur from I-10 into downtown Pensacola.
- I-175, which connects I-275 to southern downtown St. Petersburg
- I-195
- I-275
- I-295, a beltway in Jacksonville
- I-375, which connects I-275 to northern downtown St. Petersburg
- I-395
- I-595, which connects I-75, I-95, and the Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport
- I-795, proposed near Jacksonville Florida's interstate highway system contains 1,473 miles of highway, and there are 9,934 miles of non-interstate highway in the state, such as Florida state highways and U.S. Highways. Florida has several toll roads. The state has 515 miles of toll roads in the state highway system. The section of Interstate 75 passing through the Everglades is a toll road. The Florida Turnpike, which begins off of Interstate 75 just south of Ocala, continues southeast to Orlando, and down to West Palm Beach is also a toll road. Connecting I-75 to the southwest Tampa area is the Lee Roy Selmon Crosstown Expressway.

Intercity Rail

In 2000, voters approved a constitutional amendment to construct a high speed rail system to interconnect Florida's major cities. A committee was formed by the Florida Legislature to oversee the project. However, Jeb Bush and other lawmakers pushed for an amendment in 2004 to remove the amendment, which succeeded. They stated that the cost would have been too high to construct the system; however, proponents of the system have said the claims regarding high cost were exaggerated and taken out of context, compared with the cost of building roads, maintaining automobiles, and so forth. Amtrak service exists in Florida, but it is considered by many not to be extensive or convenient enough for anything but vacation travel.

Public Transportation

Public transportation systems exist in many major cities. Miami has a monorail system as well as a metro system, and most cities have bus service. Greyhound provides bus service between different cities in Florida.

Airports

Major international airports in Florida, with passenger traffic over 20 million annually, are Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, Miami International Airport, Orlando International Airport and Tampa International Airport. Secondary airports, with annual passenger traffic over 7 million annually include Jacksonville International Airport and Southwest Florida International Airport. There are many other smaller regional airports including those in Daytona Beach, Key West, Sarasota, St. Petersburg, and Naples.

Education and culture

Florida's public school revenue per student and spending per $1000 of personal income usually ranks in the bottom 25% of U.S. states. Average teacher salaries rank near the middle of U.S. states. Florida public schools have consistently ranked in the bottom 25% of many national surveys and average test score rankings. It should be noted that many education surveys are not scientific, but do measure prestige. Governor Jeb Bush has been criticized by many Florida educators for a program that penalizes underperforming schools (as indicated by standardized tests, such as the FCAT) with fewer funding dollars. Major testing organizations frequently discount the use of state average test score rankings, or any average of scaled scores, as a valid metric (see psychometrics for more details on scaled test scores). In 2000, Governor Bush and the state legislature acted to abolish the Board of Regents that governed the State University System of Florida. Instead, each public university is now controlled by its own Board of Trustees who are directly appointed by the governor. As is typical of executive-appointed government boards, the appointees so far have been overwhelmingly Republican. This has not been without controversy. [http://www.sptimes.com/News/050801/State/Bush_s_trustees_mostl.shtml] In 2002, Democratic Senator Bob Graham started a ballot referendum designed to revert to the Board of Regents system.

Colleges and universities

Bob Graham Bob Graham

Sports

Professional sports teams in Florida

Spring training

Florida is the traditional home for Major League Baseball spring training, with teams informally organized into the "Grapefruit League." As of 2004, Florida hosts the following major league teams for spring training:
- Atlanta Braves at Walt Disney World
- Baltimore Orioles in Fort Lauderdale
- Boston Red Sox in Fort Myers
- Cincinnati Reds in Sarasota
- Cleveland Indians in Winter Haven
- Detroit Tigers in Lakeland
- Florida Marlins in Jupiter
- Houston Astros in Kissimmee
- Los Angeles Dodgers in Vero Beach
- Minnesota Twins in Fort Myers
- New York Mets in Port St. Lucie
- New York Yankees in Tampa
- Philadelphia Phillies in Clearwater
- Pittsburgh Pirates in Bradenton
- Saint Louis Cardinals in Jupiter
- Tampa Bay Devil Rays in St. Petersburg
- Toronto Blue Jays in Dunedin
- Washington Nationals in Viera

Minor-league teams

Florida also hosts the following minor league baseball teams:

External links


- [http://www.fla.us/ Discover Florida] Information, Maps, Vacation Planning
- [http://www.myflorida.com The Official Portal of the State of Florida]
- [http://www.floridamemory.com/ Florida Memory Project] Over 300,000 photographs and documents from the State Library & Archives of Florida
- [http://www.magicmomentproductions.com Florida Entertainment]
- [http://www.floridazest.com Florida Information]
- [http://ecofloridamag.com Florida Nature Travel/Ecotourism]
- [http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/northamerica/usa/florida/ Florida Newspapers]
- [http://obit.obitlinkspage.com/fl.htm Florida Obituary Links Page]
- [http://www.floridarivers.org/ Florida Rivers Discussion Forum]
- [http://www.flsouthern.edu Florida Southern College]
- [http://www.fsu.edu Florida State University]
- [http://www.flausa.com Florida Tourism]
- [http://www.floridavisiting.com Florida Visiting]
- [http://www.genealogybuff.com/fl/ GenealogyBuff.com - Florida Library of Files]
- [http://www.iespana.es/Miami la Voie de Miami News]
- [http://roamingfeet.com/id22.htm Palm trees in Florida]
- [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/florida/ Photos of Florida - Terra Galleria]
- [http://www.anhinga.info/florida/index.html Roundtrips with a lot of pictures]
- [http://www.ufl.edu University of Florida]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/12000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
- [http://www.floridacountiesmap.com/index.html Florida Counties Maps]
- [http://www.blinkbits.com/rssfeeds/wikipedia.php?w=Florida Wikipedia Florida RSS Feed - Externally hosted]
- Category:States of the United States ko:플로리다 주 ms:Florida ja:フロリダ州 simple:Florida th:มลรัฐฟลอริดา

January 31

January 31 is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 334 days remaining, (335 in leap years). January 31 is also the last day of January.

Events


- 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon.
- 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes is executed for his plotting against Parliament and James I of England.
- 1747 - The first venereal diseases clinic opens at London Dock Hospital.
- 1814 - Gervasio Antonio de Posadas becomes Supreme Director of Argentina.
- 1849 - Corn Laws abolished i