:: wikimiki.org ::
The biggest cities are (with population figures for 1999):
- in Polish Pomerania
- Tricity metropolitan area (population(2001): 1035,000 area 1,332,51 km² ) including
- Gdańsk (458,988) (1905 - 159,685)
- Gdynia (253,521)
- Sopot (46,000)
- Szczecin (416,988) (1905 - 224,078)
- Toruń (206,158)
- Koszalin (112,375)
- Słupsk (102,370)
- Stargard Szczeciński (72,000) and Kołobrzeg (Kolberg), Szczecinek Świnoujście
- in German Pomerania
- Greifswald (52,984)
- Stralsund (63,000)
- Wolgast
- Barth

Geography

Pomerania is the area along the Baltic Sea between the Vistula, Noteć, Warta and Oder rivers. The islands of Uznam, Wolin and Rügen lie along the Pomeranian coast, while the Hel peninsula and the Vistula peninsula jut out into the Baltic. The Baltic forms the Bay of Pomerania, Szczecin Bay, Gdańsk Bay with Bay of Puck, and Vistula Bay along the coast. Lakes Lebsko, Jamno and Gardno were formerly bays but have been cut off from the sea.

Prehistoric times

In prehistoric times Pomerania was settled by migrants from Scandinavia, called the Rugians. Later, they moved on to Central Europe and were replaced by Slavic tribes. The Pomeranians are first mentioned around the year 1000 AD. The territory of northern Germania, as it was recorded 2000 years ago was covered with ice, which did not start to recede until the late period of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic some 10,000 years BC, when the Scandinavian glacier receded to the north. Various archeological cultures developed in the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

History of Pomerania

History of Pomerania The Mediaeval Period Throughout the early mediaeval period Pomerania was claimed by Mecklenburg, Brandenburg and Poland, and occasionally by the Teutonic Knights. In 1420 the Wendish nobles of Brandenburg were supported by the Wends of Pomerania in an uprising against the Margrave of Brandenburg, Frederick von Hohenzollern ("Irontooth"), but were decively defeated at Angermünde. Frederick believed that the key to the complicated politics of his region was to forge close ties with Poland, which could now control the Teutonic order and was therefore in a position to confirm Brandenburg’s claims to Pomerania. He therefore arranged for his second son, Frederick, to get engaged to King Vladislav of Poland’s daughter. This enraged Sigismund of Bohemia, who now threw his support behind the Dukes of Pomerania, granting them the Uckermark. In 1425 it came to war, with Brandenburg facing Pomerania, Mecklenburg, the Teutonic Order and even Poland. Frederick’s plans had come badly unstuck. In the war which followed, Frederick was able to keep the Uckermark, but Hohenzollern pretensions to rule Pomerania were thwarted. The 16th-17th Centuries Disputes with Brandenburg continued. These were partially agreed at the Conference of Juterbog (1527) between Joachim I of Brandenburg and the Duke of Pomerania. As the Reformation gathered pace, Pomerania also went Protestant, but the process was slower than in Brandenburg. In 1637 the last of the Wendish Dukes of Pomerania, Bogislaw XIV, died out. During the Thirty Years War Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden occupied Pomerania. In the negotiations between France Brandenburg and Sweden following the Northern War the Brandenburgish diplomats Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal and his son Christoph Caspar obtained the rights of succession for Brandenburg, though the argument with Sweden, especially over Hither Pomerania, continued to the end of the 17th century and beyond, until the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720, by which time Brandenburg had become Prussia. The 18th-19th centuries Prussian noblemen began to acquire estates in Pomerania, while Pomeranian noblemen were integrated into Prussian society. Thus originally Wendish families such as the von Lettows, von Zitzewitzes and von Krockows intermarried with German families from Brandenburg such as the von Blumenthals, who possessed great estates at Quackenburg, Varzin, Dubberzin, Schlönwitz and elsewhere. By the nineteenth century Pomerania was fully Germanised, and was a popular place of retirement for the well-to-do such as Bismarck, who bought Varzin. The 20th Century During the Nazi period Pomerania was a hotbed of opposition to the Nazis, where the network of aristocratic estates and the loyalties they generated were ideal for conspiracy. Dietrich Bonhoeffer ran his illegal seminary at Schlönwitz in 1938. It was therefore ironic that Pomerania should have been given to Poland to compensate her for losses of territory elsewhere, and the German speaking population was unceremoniously expelled. A popular account of this period can be found in Christian von Krockow's book The Hour of the Women.

Modern 20th Century divisions of Pomerania

The eastern part of Pomerania, Pomorze, is a geographical and historical region in Poland that encompasses three Polish voivodships: the West Pomeranian Voivodship (Zachodniopomorskie), Pomeranian Voivodship (Pomorskie) and the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship (Kujawsko-Pomorskie). The most western part of Pomerania (Vorpommern, in Polish Zapomorze) is part of the German state (Bundesland) of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern).

External links

Internet directories

- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Poland/Voivodships/Western_Pomerania/ Open Directory Project - Western Pomerania - internet directory]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Poland/Voivodships/Pomerania-Kashubia/ Open Directory Project - Kashubian Pomerania - internet directory]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Poland/Voivodships/Kuyavia_and_Pomerania/ Open Directory Project - Kuyavia and Pomerania - internet directory]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Germany/States/Mecklenburg-Western_Pomerania/ Open Directory Project - Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania - internet directory]

Culture and history

- [http://www.zamek.szczecin.pl/ Pomeranian Dukes Castle in Szczecin (Polish, German, English)]
- [http://www.archiv-vegelahn.de/pommern.html Pomeranian (German)]

Maps of Pomerania

- [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Frombork-foto/Sd687_i.jpg Woiewództwa Pomorskie i Małborskie oraz Pomerania Elektorska, G.B.A.Rizzi-Zannoni 1772]
- [http://feefhs.org/maps/GERE/ge-pomer.html FEEFHS Map Room: German Empire - East (1882) - Pommern (Pomerania), Prussia] Category:Regions of Poland
- ja:ポモージェ

Santiago, Chile

Santiago (officially in Spanish, Santiago de Chile) is Chile's capital and largest city. It is situated in the country's central valley, and administratively is a part of the Santiago Metropolitan Region. While Santiago is the capital, legislative bodies meet in nearby Valparaiso. Geographical coordinates, .

Climate

Valparaiso Santiago has a mild Mediterranean climate: relatively hot dry summers (November to March) with temperatures reaching up to 35 degrees Celsius on the hottest days; winters (June to August) are more humid, with typical maximum daily temperatures of 15 degrees Celsius, and minimums of a few degrees above freezing. Mean rainfall is 360 mm per year. Thermal inversion (a meteorological phenomenon whereby a stable layer of warm air holds down colder air close to the ground) causes high levels of smog and air pollution to be trapped and concentrate within the Central Valley during winter months. The government has attempted to reduce pollution by giving incentives for heavy industry to move out of the valley but such measures have seen limited results. The Mapocho river, which crosses the city from the north-east to the south-west of the Central Valley, is contaminated by industrial and household sewage, dumped unfiltered into the river, and by upstream copper-mining waste (there are a number of copper mines in the Andes east of Santiago). The central government recently passed a law that forces industry and local governments to process all their wastewater by 2006. There are now a number of large wastewater processing and recycling plants under construction. Sound levels on the main streets are high, mostly because of noisy diesel buses. Diesel trucks and buses are also major contributors to winter smog. air pollution

The people

The population of Santiago's urban agglomeration grew from 1.33 million in 1950 to 2.84 million in 1970 and 4.56 million in 1990. It had 35.2% of the total population of Chile. The urban agglomeration of Santiago now contains a population of 5.96 million according to mongabay.com and will reach up to 6.33 in 2010 and 6.61 in 2015. It is now one of the largest cities in Latin America, and it concentrates over 40 percent of the country's population. The government has made great efforts to encourage people to resettle out of Santiago, to relieve the pressure on the city's infrastructure.

Economy

Latin America, is the country's tallest building (143 m)]] Santiago is the most important industrial and financial center of Chile. It generates 45 percent of the country's GDP. Also, the city is, along with Buenos Aires and São Paulo, one of the biggest financial centers of South America. Some international institutions, such as ECLAC (Economic comission for Latin America and the Caribbean), have their offices in Santiago. In recent years, due to the strong growth and stability of the Chilean economy, many multinational companies have chosen Santiago as the place for their headquarters in the region, like HP, Reuters, JP Morgan, Intel, Coca Cola, Unilever, Nestlé, Kodak, BHP Billiton, IBM, Motorola, and many more.

Transportation

Motorola Motorola Santiago's national and international airport is Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport and ranks high regionally in terms of quality. Trains connect Santiago to Puerto Montt, in the central-southern part of the country. All such trains arrive and depart from the Estación Central ("Central Station"). Private inter-urban bus companies provide excellent and cheap transportation from Santiago to virtually any part of the country. There are also several new inter-urban toll highways connecting the city's extremes; some of these are still under construction. Santiago's urban passenger transportation system include an extensive, if chaotic, privately-run bus service as well as a subway. The buses are known as micros (for microbus) and are typically colored yellow. This bus system is in the process of being completely replaced by late 2006 by a new system which includes new routes and larger, newer buses, with a better payment system, compatible with the subway. (SeeTransantiago.) The subway is clean and safe and has three operating lines but their coverage is still somewhat limited. The Government is building an additional subway line (Line 4), and extensions to Lines 1 and 2. (SeeSantiago Metro.) Taxicabs can usually be found on the streets and are painted black with yellow roofs; unmarked taxis may be called up by telephone (Radiotaxis). Colectivos are shared taxicabs that carry passengers along a specific route, for a fixed fee.

Political divisions

Taxicab The city of Santiago lies within the larger province of Santiago, which is divided into 32 municipalities (comunas in Spanish). Each municipality is headed by a mayor (alcalde) elected by voters every four years. The members of the municipal council (concejales) are elected in the same election on a separate ballot.

Cultural life

Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish

Music

There are two symphonic orchestras:
- Orquesta Filarmónica de Santiago, which performs in the Teatro Municipal
- Orquesta Sinfónica de Chile, dependent of the Universidad de Chile, performs in its theater. There are also various jazz establishments, the most notable being the [http://www.clubdejazz.cl Club de Jazz] in Ñuñoa.

Museums

Museums include:
- [http://www.mavi.cl/arqueologico/ Museo Arqueológico de Santiago]
- [http://www.munistgo.cl/colorada/p1.htm Museo de Santiago Casa Colorada]
- Museo Catedral Metropolitana
- [http://www.museosanfrancisco.cl/ Museo Colonial San Francisco]
- [http://www.precolombino.cl/ Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino]
- [http://www.dibam.cl/historico_nacional/ Museo Histórico Nacional]
- [http://www.dibam.cl/bellas_artes/home.asp Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes]
- Museo de Arte Contemporáneo
- [http://www.mim.cl/index0.htm Museo Interactivo Mirador]
- [http://www.artequin.cl Museo Artequín]
- Museo de Ciencia y Tecnología
- [http://www.corpdicyt.cl/homeferroviario.htm Museo Ferroviario]
- Museo de la Solidaridad "Salvador Allende"
- [http://www.palaciocousino.cl Palacio Cousiño]
- La Chascona, Pablo Neruda's house, now a museum

Universities

The city has the largest concentration of higher-education institutions in the country. Traditional (Public):
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (PUC)
- Universidad de Chile (U, UCh)
- Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH)
- Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación (UMCE)
- Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana (UTEM) Non-Traditional (Private):
- Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano
- Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez (UAI)
- Universidad Alberto Hurtado
- Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins
- Universidad Bolivariana
- Universidad Católica Raúl Silva Henríquez
- Universidad Central de Chile
- Universidad de Artes y Ciencias Sociales (ARCIS)
- Universidad de Artes, Ciencias y Comunicación (UNIACC)
- Universidad de Ciencias de la Informática
- Universidad de las Américas
- Universidad de Los Andes
- Universidad del Desarrollo
- Universidad del Pacífico
- Universidad Diego Portales
- Universidad Europea de Negocios
- Universidad Finis Terrae
- Universidad Gabriela Mistral
- Universidad Iberoamericana de Ciencias y Tecnología
- Universidad Internacional SEK
- Universidad La República
- Universidad Mariano Egaña
- Universidad Mayor
- Universidad Miguel de Cervantes
- Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello
- Universidad Santo Tomás
- Universidad Tecnológica Vicente Pérez Rosales

Recreation

Universidad Tecnológica Vicente Pérez Rosales] Santiago is a densely inhabited city with only 2.5 m² of green space per inhabitant; less than a third of what the WHO recommends. The city's main parks are:
- San Cristóbal Hill, which includes the Santiago Metropolitan Park Zoo
- O'Higgins Park
- Forestal Park, park located at the city centre alongside Mapocho river
- Cerro Santa Lucía Modern ski resorts within an hour's drive east from the city include:
- [http://www.farellones.cl/ Farellones]
- [http://www.vallenevado.com/ Valle Nevado]
- [http://www.laparva.cl/ La Parva]
- [http://www.skiportillo.com Portillo] is some three hours away. One of the country's most important winegrowing areas lie in the near Maipo Valley. Several vineyards are located in this area:
- [http://www.conchaytoro.cl/ Concha y Toro]
- [http://www.santarita.cl/ Santa Rita]
- [http://www.santacarolina.cl/ Santa Carolina]
- [http://www.cousinomacul.cl/home.html Cousiño Macul] Cultural places to visit include:
- Barrio Bellavista, cultural and bohemian neighborhood
- Central Station, railway station designed by Gustave Eiffel
- Víctor Jara Stadium
- Ex National Congress
- Plaza de Armas, downtown square
- Palacio de La Moneda, presidential palace Main soccer stadiums:
- National Stadium
- Estadio David Arellano (Monumental)
- Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo

History

National Stadium)]] Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia on February 12, 1541 with the name Santiago de Nueva Extremadura. The founding ceremony was held on Huelén Hill (later renamed Cerro Santa Lucía). Valdivia chose the location of Santiago because of its moderate climate and the ease with which it could be defended—the Mapocho River split the area in two, and rejoined further downstream, forming an island. The first buildings were erected with the help of the native Picunche Indians. The south bank of the Mapocho River was later drained and converted into a public promenade, known as the Alameda (now Avenida Alameda Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins). The city was slightly damaged during the War of Independence (1810–18), in the Battle of Maipú, which was fought south-west of the city. Santiago was named capital in 1818. During the early 19th century, Santiago remained a small town with few buildings excepting Palacio de La Moneda, the building used as the Chilean mint during the Spanish period, and a few churches and other civic buildings. In the 1880s extraction of nitrate fertilizer in Northern Chile brought prosperity to the country, and promoted the capital city's development. Important landmarks were built in 1910 during the Centennial celebrations of independence from Spain, such as the National Library and the Museum of Fine Arts. Santiago began its transformation to a modern city in the 1930s, with the building of the Barrio Cívico, surrounding El Palacio de La Moneda. The city also grew in population, due to migration from the north and south of Chile. In 1985 an earthquake destroyed some historically significant buildings in the downtown area. Santiago is now often considered an important financial center in Latin America.

External links

- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=santiago&spn=.173189,.241030&t=k Satellite images of Santiago, Chile] (Google Maps)
- [http://www.flickr.com/groups/santiagodechile/ Images of Santiago]
- [http://www.misantiago.cl/ Interactive map of downtown Santiago] Category:Capitals in South America Category:Cities in Chile ko:산티아고 (칠레)ja:サンティアゴ (チリ)

Pedro de Valdivia

Pedro de Valdivia (c. 1500 - January 1, 1554) was a conquistador of Chile. He was the founder of various cities within the territory, including Santiago, Concepcion, and Valdivia.

Early years

Pedro de Valdivia is believed to have been born in Badajoz, Spain in 1500 (some sources put his date of birth as early as 1497) from a family of nobles. In 1520 he enlisted with the army of Charles V and fought in Flanders in 1521 and Italy between 1522 and 1525. He married Marina Ortiz de Gaete. In 1535 he left her to embark for a voyage to Venezuela. In 1537, he went to Peru to help Francisco Pizarro in the struggle against Diego de Almagro and won. Afterwards, he went with Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro to conquer both the provinces of Collao and las Charcas in High Peru (currently Bolivia). As compensation for conquering these lands, Valdivia was awarded a silver mine.

The expedition

After the failure of the expedition of Diego de Almagro, Valdivia asked the governor of Peru permission to complete the conquest of the lands south of Peru (known as Nuevo Toledo). He got the permission and was named lieutenant of the Governor, and not Governor as he wanted. He was an original Spanish conquistador. The expedition was fraught with problems from the beginning. Valdivia had to sell the lands that where assigned to him to finance the expedition. A shortage of soldiers and adventurers was also problematic since they were not interested in conquering what they were sure were extremely poor lands. The expedition left Cuzco, Peru in January of 1540 with almost a thousand native Indians and only a few Spanish. En route more Spanish joined the expedition. These conquistadores had formed part of the failed campaigns to the highlands of Bolivia. All in all around 150 Spanish joined the expedition of Valdivia. He followed the desert route of Atacama, the same route that Almagro had followed back to Peru. When they arrived at the valley of Copiapo, Chile Valdivia took possession of the land in the name of the king. Soon thereafter they continued south and in December of the same year they arrived in the valley of the Mapocho River, where they finally decided to establish a permanent settlement.

Foundation of Santiago

silver On February 12, 1541 Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago, Chile. The ceremony was held at the foot of Huelén hill (now known as Cerro Santa Lucía, Santa Lucía Hill). One of the first orders Valdivia gave was to search for gold in the Marga Marga mines and developing a courier service to Peru. He knew about this gold mines by the word of a captured chief called Michima Lonco.

Destruction of Santiago

After a peaceful period of coexistence, local Indians led by Michimalonco attacked the new village of Santiago, on 11th of September 1541. Valdivia was not in the village at the time, and the defense of the city was led by Inés Suárez. This event meant a substantial setback for the conquest of the Chilean territory, since rebuilding could only start in 1543 with the arrival of new supplies.

New Initiatives

In September of 1543 new arms, clothes and other equipment arrived from Peru on the ship Santiaguillo. Valdivia then sent an expedition north, led by Juan Bohén. This expedition, founded La Serena halfway between Santiago and the northern Atacama desert, in the valley of Coquimbo. In February of 1546 Valdivia, accompanied by 70 men, traveled south. He got to the Bío-Bío River where he planned to found another town. However, the hostility of the indigenous people forced him to return to Santiago in March of 1547. In 1547 and 1548 Valdivia was in Peru to gather more resources and men. While he was there he fought in the battle of Xaquixahuana. As recognition for his services the then Viceroy of Peru gave Valdivia the title of Governor. Between 1549 and 1553, Valdivia again undertook the conquest of southern Chile, but faced heavy resistance from the indigenous Indians. In spite of the resistance, in 1550 he got to the Bío-Bío zone, where after winning a battle against the local natives, he founded Concepción, Chile. He later founded the more southern villages of La Imperial, Valdivia, Chile and Villarica, Chile among others.

The uprising of 1553

After a brief stay in Santiago, Valdivia returned to the south again in December of 1552. To keep the connection open between Concepción and the southern settlements Valdivia had a number of forts built in the coastal mountain range. One of the first signs that a big rebellion was building was in the attack on the fort of Tucapel. Valdivia decided to personally inspect the fort, but the indigenous forces attacked when the party was near the fort and Valdivia was captured. The Battle of Tucapel would be Valdivia's last: while it may be the exaggeration of legend that he was beaten to death, impaled on a stake, and his heart was cut into pieces and eaten, it is certain that he did not survive his captivity. His career and death are part of the epic poem La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla.

England

:For an explanation of often-confusing terms like England, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology). England is a nation and the largest and most populous constituent country of the United Kingdom accounting for more than 83% of the total UK population. It occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and shares land borders with fellow home nations Scotland, to the north, and Wales, to the west. Elsewhere, it is bordered by the sea. England is named after the Angles, one of a number of Germanic tribes believed to have originated in Angeln in Northern Germany, who settled in England in the 5th and 6th centuries. It has not had a distinct political identity since 1707, when Great Britain was established as a unified political entity; however, it has a legal identity separate from those of Scotland and Northern Ireland, as part of the entity "England and Wales;". England's largest city, London, is also the capital of the United Kingdom.

History

Main article: History of England England has been inhabited for at least 500,000 years, although the repeated Ice Ages made much of Britain uninhabitable for extended periods until as recently as 20,000 years ago. Stone Age hunter-gatherers eventually gave way to farmers and permanent settlements, with a spectacular and sophisticated megalithic civilisation arising in western England some 4,000 years ago. It was replaced around 1,500 years later by Celtic tribes migrating from Western and continental Europe, mainly from France. These tribes were known collectively as "Britons", a name bestowed by Phoenician traders — an indication of how, even at this early date, the island was part of a Europe-wide trading network. The Britons were significant players in continental politics and supported their allies in Gaul militarily during the Gallic Wars with the Roman Republic. This prompted the Romans to invade and subdue the island, first with Julius Caesar's raid in 55 BC, and then the Emperor Claudius' conquest in the following century. The whole southern part of the island — roughly corresponding to modern day England and Wales — became a prosperous part of the Roman Empire. It was finally abandoned early in the 5th century when a weakening Empire pulled back its legions to defend borders on the Continent. Unaided by the Roman army, Roman Britannia could not long resist the Germanic tribes who arrived in the 5th and 6th centuries, enveloping the majority of modern day England in a new culture and language and pushing Romano-British rule back into modern-day Wales and western extremities of England, notably Cornwall and Cumbria. Others emigrated across the channel to modern-day Brittany, thus giving it its name and language (Breton). But many of the Romano-British remained in and were assimilated into the newly "English" areas. The invaders fell into three main groups: the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles. As they became more civilised, recognisable states formed and began to merge with one another. (The most well-known state of affairs being the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy.) From time to time throughout this period, one Anglo-Saxon king, recognised as the "Bretwalda" by other rulers, had effective control of all or most of the English; so it is impossible to identify the precise moment when the Kingdom of England was unified. In some sense, real unity came as a response to the Danish Viking incursions which occupied the eastern half of "England" in the 8th century. Egbert, King of Wessex (d. 839) is often regarded as the first king of all the English, although the title "King of England" was first adopted, two generations later, by Alfred the Great (ruled 871–899). The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the language of the Britons were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived from celtic British names, including London, Dumbarton, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly bre-, bal-, and -dun for hills, carr for a high rocky place, coomb for a small deep valley. Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, genetic studies show that the British were not pushed out to the Celtic fringes – many tribes remained in what was to become England (see C. Capelli et al. A Y chromosome census of the British Isles. Current Biology 13, 979–984, (2003)). Capelli's findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of the University of Birmingham; his work during the 1990s suggests that much of the West Midlands was only very lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements.

This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
This other Eden, demi-paradise,
This fortress built by Nature for herself
Against infection and the hand of war,
This happy breed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea,
Which serves it in the office of a wall
Or as a moat defensive to a house,
Against the envy of less happier lands,—
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.

William Shakespeare
Richard II (Act 2, Scene 1)

The English are great lovers of themselves, and of everything belonging to them; they think that there are no other men than themselves, and no other world but England; and whenever they see a handsome foreigner, they say that 'he looks like an Englishman', and that 'it is a great pity that he should not be an Englishmen'.

Venetian ambassador to England
Early 16th century
Charlotte Augusta Sneyd
Italian Relations of England (p. 20)

Richard II] Richard II] In 1066, William the Conqueror and the Normans conquered the existing Kingdom of England and instituted an Anglo-Norman administration and nobility who, retaining proto-French as their language for the next three hundred years, ruled as custodians over English commoners. Although the language and racial distinctions faded rapidly during the middle ages, the class system born in the Norman/Saxon divide persisted longer — arguably with traces lasting to the modern day. While Old English continued to be spoken by common folk, Norman feudal lords significantly influenced the language with French words and customs being adopted over the succeeding centuries evolving to a Romance-Germanic hybrid of Middle English widely spoken in Chaucer's time. England came repeatedly into conflict with Wales and Scotland, at the time an independent principality and an independent kingdom respectively, as its rulers sought to expand Norman power across the entire island of Britain. The conquest of Wales was achieved in the 13th century, when it was annexed to England and gradually came to be a part of that kingdom for most legal purposes, although in the modern era it is more usually thought of as a separate nation (fielding, for example, its own athletic teams). Norman power in Scotland waxed and waned over the years, with the Scots managing to maintain a varying degree of independence despite repeated wars with the English. Although it was on the whole only a moderately successful power in military terms, England became one of the wealthiest states in medieval Europe, due chiefly to its dominance in the lucrative wool market. The failure of English territorial ambitions in continental Europe prompted the kingdom's rulers to look further afield, creating the foundations of the mercantile and colonial network that was to become the British Empire. The turmoil of the Reformation embroiled England in religious wars with Europe's Catholic powers, notably Spain, but the kingdom preserved its independence as much through luck as through the skill of charismatic rulers such as Elizabeth I. Elizabeth's successor, James I was already king of Scotland (as James VI); and this personal union of the two crowns into the crown of Great Brittaine was followed a century later by the Act of Union 1707, which formally unified England, Scotland and Wales into the Kingdom of Great Britain. This later became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801 to 1927) and then the modern state of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1927 to present) For post-unification history, see history of the United Kingdom.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the United Kingdom, Government of England Since the promulgation of the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan and the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542, Wales has shared a legal identity with England as the joint entity of England and Wales. The Act of Union with the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707 created the Kingdom of Great Britain, subsuming England, Wales and Scotland into a single political entity. Scotland, along with Northern Ireland, retain separate legal systems. The duchy of Cornwall also retains some unique rights. All of Great Britain has been ruled by the government of the United Kingdom since that date, although in 1999 the first elections to the newly created Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales left England as the only part of the Union with no devolved assembly or parliament. As all legislation for England is passed by Parliament at Westminster there are some complaints about the ability of non-English Members of Parliament to influence purely English affairs. This apparent anomaly has been highlighted by both English and non-English politicians, often those opposed to devolution, and has become popularly known as the West Lothian question. Administratively, England is something of an anomaly within the UK. Unlike the other three nations, it has no local parliament or government and its administrative affairs are dealt with by a combination of the UK government, the UK parliament and a number of England-specific quangos, such as English Heritage. There are calls from some for a devolved English Parliament and from others for the dissolution of the UK and an independent England. The current Labour government favoured the establishment of regional administration, claiming that England was too large to be governed as a sub-state entity. A referendum on this issue in North East England on 4 November 2004 decisively rejected the proposal. Some criticised the English regional proposals for not decentralising enough, saying that they amounted not to devolution, but to little more than local government reorganisation, with no real power being removed from central government. The English regions would not even have had the limited powers of the Welsh Assembly, much less the tax-varying and legislative powers of the Scottish Parliament. Rather, power was simply re-allocated within the region, with little new resource allocation and no real prospects of Assemblies being able to change the pattern of regional aid. Responsibility for regional transport was added to the proposals late in the process. This was perhaps crucial in the North East, where resentment at the Barnett Formula, which delivers greater regional aid to adjacent Scotland, was a significant impetus for the North East devolution campaign. There has also been a campaign for a Cornish assembly along Welsh lines by groups such as Mebyon Kernow, which recently collected 50,000 signatures in support. Some eurosceptics believe that the establishment of English regions as administrative entities is designed to undermine the concept of English nationhood and more easily fit England into a European federal model. Conventionally the national capital of England is London, although technically it would be more exact to call London the capital of "England and Wales" given England's lack of a distinctive political identity separate from the Principality. Winchester served as the country's first national capital until some time in the late 11th century after the Norman Conquest. The City of London became England's commercial capital, while the City of Westminster (where the Royal court was located) became the political capital. These roles have, broadly speaking, been maintained to the present day.

Subdivisions

Main article: Subdivisions of England Historically, the highest level of local government in England was the county. These divisions had emerged from a range of units of old, pre-unification England, whether they were Kingdoms, such as Essex and Sussex; Duchies, such as Yorkshire, Cornwall and Lancashire or simply tracts of land given to some noble, as is the case with Berkshire. Until 1867, they were subdivided into smaller divisions called hundreds. These counties all still exist in, or near to, their original form as the traditional counties. In many places, however, they have been heavily modified or abolished outright as administrative counties. This came about due to a number of factors. The fact that the counties were so small meant, and still means, that there was no regional government able to coordinate an overarching plan for the area. This was especially true in the metropolitan areas surrounding the cities, as the county lines were usually drawn up before the industrial revolution and the mass urbanisation of England. The solution was the creation of large metropolitan counties centred on cities. These were later broken up, with several other counties, into unitary authorities, unifying the county and district/borough levels of government. London is a special case, and is the one region which currently has a representative authority as well as a directly elected mayor. The 32 London boroughs and the Corporation of London remain the local form of government in the city. Other than Greater London, the official regions are:
- North East England
- North West England
- Yorkshire and the Humber
- West Midlands
- East Midlands
- East of England
- South West England
- South East England Outside London the regions have very little power and are not accountable to elected representatives; regional authority is placed in the hands of unelected assemblies. If, as now seems unlikely, regions opt to replace these bodies with elected assemblies, local government in England will remain as variable and, some might say, as confusing as ever

Geography

Main articles: Geography of the United Kingdom, Geography of EnglandGeography of England England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus offshore islands of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. It is bordered to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of Britain, divided from France only by a 38 km (24 statute mile or 21 nautical mile) sea gap. Most of England consists of rolling hills, but it is more mountainous in the north with a chain of low mountains, the Pennines, dividing east and west. The dividing line between terrain types is usually indicated by the Tees-Exe line. There is also an area of flat, low-lying marshland in the east, much of which has been drained for agricultural use. The list of England's largest cities is much debated because in British English the normal meaning of city is "a continuously built-up urban area"; these are hard to define and various other definitions are preferred by some people to boost the ranking of their own city. London is by far the largest English city. Manchester and Birmingham vie for second place. A number of other cities, mainly in the north of England, are of substantial size and influence. These include: Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Nottingham, Bristol and Sheffield Using the standard U.S. city limits definition of a city the top six are: Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool and Manchester. Note that London is not on this list (Greater London is a region and the City of London is tiny), and that one of the two candidates for the status of England's "second city", Manchester, is down in sixth. In the UK, this method of ranking cities is generally used only by people whose own city is promoted by it. The Channel Tunnel, near Folkestone, links England to the European mainland. The English/French border is halfway along the tunnel. The largest harbour in England is at Poole, on the south-central coast. Internationally, it is the second largest harbour in the world, although this fact is disputed (See harbors for a list of other potential second largest harbours) The highest temperature ever recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on August 10, 2003 in Kent. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3153532.stm]. The lowest temperature ever recorded in England is -26.1 °C (-15.0 °F) on January 10, 1982 at Newport in Shropshire. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature]

Major rivers

Shropshire.]]
- Thames
- Severn
- Trent
- Humber
- Yorkshire Ouse
- Tyne
- Mersey
- Dee
- AvonMain article: Waterways in the United Kingdom

Major Conurbations

:See main article: List of towns in England The largest cities in England are much debated but according to the urban area populations (continuous built up areas) these would be the 15 largest conurbations. (Population figures taken from 2001 census) #Greater London (8,278,251) #West Midlands (2,284,093) #Greater Manchester (2,244,931) #Leeds/Bradford (1,499,465) #Tyneside (879,996) #Liverpool (816,216) #Nottingham (666,358) #Sheffield (640,720) #Bristol (551,066) #Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton (461,181) #Portsmouth (442,252) #Leicester (441,213) #Bournemouth/Poole (383,713) #Reading (369,804) #Teesside (365,323)

Economy

Main article: Economy of England

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of England, Population of England England is both the most populous and the most ethnically diverse nation in the United Kingdom with around 49 million inhabitants, of which roughly a tenth are from non-White ethnic groups. It is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, second only to the Netherlands. This population is made up of, and descended from, immigrants who have arrived over millennia. The principal waves of migration have been in c. 600 BC (Celts), the Roman period (garrison soldiers from throughout the Empire), 350–550 (Angles, Saxons, Jutes), 800–900 (Vikings, Danes), 1066 (Normans), 1650–1750 (European refugees and Huguenots), 1840–1850 (Irish), 1880–1940 (Irish, Jews), 1950— (Irish, Caribbeans, Africans, South Asians), 1985— (citizens of European Community member states especially Ireland, East Europeans, Iranians, Kurds, refugees). The general prosperity of England as the largest partner of the UK, has also made it a destination for economic migrants particularly from Ireland and Scotland. This segment of English homogeneous society continues to create a diverse and dynamic language that is widely used internationally. The other image of foreign ethnic components in England is still mostly seen as a legacy of the British Empire; especially the Commonwealth of Nations.

English identity

The simplest view is that an English person is someone who is from England and holds British nationality, regardless of his or her racial origin. However, inhabitants of England quite commonly refer to themselves as "British" rather than "English"; centuries of English dominance within the United Kingdom has created a situation where to be English is, as a linguist would put it, an "unmarked" state (i.e. a British person, institution, custom, city, etc. is assumed English unless specified otherwise). The English frequently include their neighbours in the general term "British" while the Scots and Welsh, proud of their separate identities, tend to be more forward about referring to themselves by one of those more specific terms. Although currently a part of England, a notable percentage of those living in Cornwall feel similarly, considering themselves Cornish first. One significant exception is in Northern Ireland, where the Unionist community tend to identify very strongly as "British" (Republicans living in the province are more likely to consider themselves "Irish"), and there is not a "Northern Ireland" or "Northern Irish" identity to the same extent as there is (e.g.) a Scottish one. A person, therefore, using the term "English" to describe him or herself (regardless of personal history) may be going out of his or her way to do so; hence he or she may also be seen (rightly or wrongly, and not necessarily pejoratively) as nationalistic. While Scottish, Welsh, Irish and Cornish patriotism are widely exhibited, specifically English patriotism has often been viewed with suspicion, and most English people feel more comfortable identifying themselves with Britain as a whole. However, this may be to avoid being seen as bullies by their neighbours. The extent to which specifically English patriotism is linked to a right-wing xenophobic agenda has also generated discomfort. The appropriation of English symbols by racist far-right organisations such as the National Front made many people uncomfortable with expressions of Englishness. In recent years, English identity has recently been a topic of debate in the national press, with many English people trying to "reclaim" the term and the flag from the far-right. See English nationalism. One notable exception to t

February 12

February 12

February 12 is the 43rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 322 days remaining, 323 in leap years.

Events

- 1354 - Treaty of Stralsund settles border disputes between the duchies of Mecklenburg and Pomerania.
- 1541 - Santiago, Chile is founded by Pedro de Valdivia.
- 1554 - A year after claiming the throne of England for nine days, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason.
- 1689 - The Convention Parliament convenes and declares that the flight to France in 1688 by James II, the last Catholic British monarch, constitutes an abdication.
- 1719 - The Onderlinge van 1719 u.a., the oldest existing life insurance company in the Netherlands is founded
- 1733 - Englishman James Oglethorpe founds the 13^th and final American colony of Georgia, and its first city at Savannah.
- 1737 - The San Carlo, the oldest working opera house in Europe, is inaugurated.
- 1771 - Gustav III becomes the King of Sweden when his father Adolf Frederick "[eats] himself to death".
- 1809 - British naturalist Charles Darwin and American president Abraham Lincoln are born.
- 1817 - Chilean patriotic army, after crossing the Andes, defeat Spanish troops on the battle of Chacabuco
- 1818 - Bernardo O'Higgins signs the Independence of Chile near Concepción.
- 1825 - The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west.
- 1832 - Ecuador annexes the Galápagos Islands.
- 1870 - Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory.
- 1879 - At New York City's Madison Square Garden the first artificial ice rink in North America opens.
- 1892 - Former President Abraham Lincoln's birthday is declared a national holiday in the United States.
- 1894 - Anarchist Emile Henry hurls a bomb into Paris's Cafe Terminus, killing one and wounding 20.
- 1909 - The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is founded.
- 1912 - Xuantong Emperor of the Manchu Qing dynasty, the last Emperor of China, abdicates.
- 1912 - China adopts the Gregorian calendar.
- 1915 - In Washington, DC, the first stone of the Lincoln Memorial is put into place.
- 1924 - Premiere of George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue with Paul Whiteman's Palais Royal Orchestra in Aeolian Hall in New York City
- 1924 - Calvin Coolidge becomes the first President of the United States to deliver a political speech on radio.
- 1934 - The Austrian Civil War begins
- 1934 - The Export-Import Bank of the United States is incorporated.
- 1934 - In Spain the national council of Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista is inaugurated. The council decides to merge the movement with the Falange Española.
- 1938 - Anschluss: German troops enter Austria.
- 1946 - Operation Deadlight ends after scuttling 121 of 154 captured U-boats.
- 1951 - Soraya Esfandiary Bakhtiari marries the Shah of Iran Reza Pahlavi at Golestan Palace in Teheran at age of 17.
- 1973 - Ohio becomes the first U.S. state to post distance in SI units on signs.
- 1973 - Vietnam War: The first American prisoners of war are released by the Viet Cong.
- 1994 - 1994 Winter Olympics open in Lillehammer, Norway.
- 1998 - The presidential line-item veto is declared unconstitutional by United States federal judge.
- 1999 - President Bill Clinton is acquitted by the United States Senate in his impeachment trial.
- 2001 - NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft touchdown in the "saddle" region of 433 Eros becoming the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid.
- 2001 - Google obtains Usenet, creating [http://groups.google.com Google Groups] ([http://www.google.com/press/pressrel/pressrelease48.html press release])
- 2002 - The trial of former President of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Slobodan Milošević begins at the United Nations war crimes tribunal in The Hague.
- 2002 - Nuclear waste: US Secretary of Energy makes the decision that Yucca Mountain is suitable to be the United States' nuclear repository.
- 2002 - An Iran Air Tupolev Tu-154 crashes prior to landing in Khorramabad, Iran, killing 119
- 2004 - Mayor Gavin Newsom of San Francisco, California, on National Freedom to Marry Day, orders his county clerk to revise marriage licenses to allow gay and lesbian couples to legally wed.
- 2004 - Mattel Inc. announces the split of Barbara Millicent Roberts and Ken Carson (aka Barbie and Ken) after 43 years of dating.
- 2005 - Former Vermont governor and presidential candidate Howard Dean becomes chairman of the Democratic National Committee.

Births

- 1074 - Conrad, King of Germany and Italy (d. 1101)
- 1218 - Kujo Yoritsune, Japanese shogun (d. 1256)
- 1567 - Thomas Campion, English composer and poet (d. 1620)
- 1606 - John Winthrop, the Younger, Governor of Connecticut (d. 1676)
- 1637 - Jan Swammerdam, Dutch scientist (d. 1680)
- 1663 - Cotton Mather, New England minister (d. 1728)
- 1665 - Rudolf Jakob Camerarius, German botanist and physician (d. 1721)
- 1704 - Charles Pinot Duclos, French writer (d. 1772)
- 1728 - Étienne-Louis Boullée, French architect (d. 1799)
- 1753 - François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers, French admiral (d. 1798)
- 1768 - Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1835)
- 1775 - Louisa Adams, First Lady of the United States, wife of John Quincy Adams (d. 1852)
- 1777 - Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, French poet (d. 1843)
- 1788 - Carl Reichenbach, German chemist and philosopher (d. 1869)
- 1794 - Alexander Petrov, Russian cess player (d. 1867)
- 1804 - Heinrich Lenz, German physicist (d. 1865)
- 1809 - Charles Darwin, English naturalist (d. 1882)
- 1809 - Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States (d. 1865)
- 1818 - Otto Ludwig, German writer
- 1828 - George Meredith, English writer (d. 1909)
- 1857 - Bobby Peel, English cricketer (d. 1943).
- 1861 - Lou Andreas-Salome, Russian-born author (d. 1937)
- 1865 - Kazimierz Tetmajer, Polish poet and writer (d. 1940)
- 1880 - John L. Lewis, American labor union leader (d. 1969)
- 1881 - Anna Pavlova, Russian ballerina (d. 1931)
- 1884 - Max Beckmann, painter and graphic artist (d. 1950)
- 1884 - Marie Vassilieff, Russian artist (d. 1957)
- 1893 - Omar Bradley, American general (d. 1981)
- 1898 - Wallace Ford, actor (d. 1966)
- 1900 - Roger J. Traynor, American judge (d. 1980)
- 1904 - Ted Mack, American television host (d. 1976)
- 1911 - Stephen H. Sholes, American recording executive (d. 1968)
- 1912 - R. F. Delderfield, English author (d. 1972)
- 1914 - Tex Beneke, American musician and band leader (d. 2000)
- 1915 - Lorne Greene, American actor (d. 1987)
- 1916 - Joseph Alioto, Mayor of San Francisco (d. 1998)
- 1918 - Julian Schwinger, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
- 1919 - Forrest Tucker, American actor (d. 1986)
- 1920 - William Roscoe Estep, Baptist historian and professor (d. 2000)
- 1923 - Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film and opera director and designer
- 1925 - Sir Anthony Berry, British politician (d. 1984)
- 1926 - Joe Garagiola, baseball player
- 1926 - Paul Kurtz, American philosopher
- 1926 - Charles Van Doren, American quiz show contestant
- 1930 - Arlen Specter, U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania
- 1931 - Janwillem van de Wetering, Dutch author
- 1932 - Axel Jensen, Norwegian author (d. 2003)
- 1932 - Julian Lincoln Simon, American economist and author (d. 1998)
- 1933 - Costa-Gavras, Greek-born director and writer
- 1934 - Bill Russell, American basketball player
- 1936 - Joe Don Baker, American actor
- 1936 - Paul Shenar, American actor
- 1937 - Charles Dumas, American athlete
- 1938 - Judy Blume, American author
- 1938 - Johnny Rutherford, American race car driver
- 1939 - Ray Manzarek, American keyboardist (The Doors)
- 1940 - Richard Lynch, American actor
- 1942 - Ehud Barak, Prime Minister of Israel
- 1945 - Maud Adams, Swedish actress
- 1950 - Michael Ironside, Canadian actor
- 1953 - Nabil Shaban, British actor
- 1953 - Robin Thomas, American actor
- 1954 - Philip Zimmermann, cryptographer
- 1955 - Arsenio Hall, American actor and talk show host
- 1962 - Jimmy Kirkwood, Irish-born field hockey player
- 1967 - Chris McKinstry, Canadian computer scientist
- 1968 - Josh Brolin, American actor
- 1968 - Chynna Phillips, American singer
- 1969 - Darren Aronofsky, American director and writer
- 1969 - Meja, Swedish singer
- 1969 - Hong Myung-Bo, Korean footballer
- 1970 - Jim Creeggan, Canadian bassist (Barenaked Ladies)
- 1976 - Silvia Saint, Czech actress
- 1980 - Juan Carlos Ferrero, Spanish tennis player
- 1980 - Christina Ricci, American actress

Deaths

- 1538 - Albrecht Altdorfer, German painter
- 1554 - Lord Guilford Dudley, consort of Lady Jane Grey (executed) (b. 1536)
- 1554 - Lady Jane Grey, claimant to the throne of England (executed) (b. 1537)
- 1571 - Nicholas Throckmorton, English diplomat and politician (b. 1515)
- 1590 - François Hotman, French lawyer and writer (b. 1524)
- 1595 - Archduke Ernest of Austria, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (b. 1553)
- 1612 - Christopher Clavius, German astronomer (b. 1538)
- 1624 - George Heriot, Scottish goldsmith and philanthropist (b. 1563)
- 1630 - Fynes Moryson, English traveler and writer (b. 1566)
- 1700 - Aleksei Shein, Russian general and statesman (b. 1662)
- 1724 - Elkanah Settle, English writer (b. 1648)
- 1728 - Agostino Steffani, Italian diplomat and composer (b. 1653)
- 1762 - Laurent Belissen, French composer (b. 1693)
- 1763 - Pierre de Marivaux, French writer (b. 1688)
- 1771 - King Adolf Frederick of Sweden (b. 1710)
- 1789 - Ethan Allen, American patriot (b. 1738)
- 1799 - Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian biologist (b. 1729)
- 1804 - Immanuel Kant, German philosopher (b. 1724)
- 1916 - Richard Dedekind, German mathematician (b. 1831)
- 1929 - Lillie Langtry, British singer and actress (b. 1853)
- 1933 - Henri Duparc, French composer (b. 1848)
- 1935 - Auguste Escoffier, French chef (b. 1846)
- 1949 - Imam Hassan al Banna, Egyptian founder of the Muslim Brotherhood (b. 1906)
- 1951 - Choudhary Rahmat Ali, founder of Pakistan (b. 1895)
- 1954 - Dziga Vertov, Russian filmmaker (b. 1896)
- 1957 - Eric Alfred Knudsen, American author, folklorist (b. 1872)
- 1971 - James C. Penney, American department store founder (b. 1875)
- 1976 - Sal Mineo, American actor (b. 1939)
- 1979 - Jean Renoir, French director (b. 1894)
- 1982 - Victor Jory, Canadian actor (b. 1902)
- 1983 - Eubie Blake, American musician and songwriter
- 1984 - Julio Cortázar, Argentine writer (b. 1914)
- 1985 - Nicholas Colasanto, American actor (b. 1924)
- 1992 - Bep van Klaveren, Dutch boxer (b. 1907)
- 1992 - María Elena Moyano, Peruvian activist (b. 1960)
- 1993 - James Bulger, English murder victim (b. 1990)
- 1995 - Robert Bolt, English writer (b. 1924)
- 1995 - Philip Taylor Kramer, American musician (Iron Butterfly)
- 1996 - Bob Shaw, Irish author (b. 1931)
- 2000 - Screamin' Jay Hawkins, American musician (b. 1929)
- 2000 - Tom Landry, American football coach (b. 1924)
- 2000 - Charles Schulz, American comics author (b. 1922)
- 2001 - Kristina Söderbaum, German actress and photographer (b. 1912)
- 2005 - Brian Kelly, American actor (b. 1932)
- 2005 - Rafael Vidal, Venezuelan athlete (b. 1964)

Holidays and observances

- United States - Lincoln's Birthday (traditionally)
- 1991, 2002, 2013 Shrove Tuesday (Mardi Gras)
- Georgia Day in the U.S. state of Georgia
- National Freedom to Marry Day (unofficial)
- Darwin Day
- 1947 - Union Day of Burma

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/12 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050212.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- February 11 - February 13 - January 12 - March 12 – listing of all days ko:2월 12일 ms:12 Februari ja:2月12日 simple:February 12 th:12 กุมภาพันธ์

1354

Events

- October 8 - Cola di Rienzo, self-proclaimed "tribune" of Rome, is killed by an angry mob
- End of reign of John VI Cantacuzenus, as Byzantine emperor.
- The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang is established.

Births

- Constance of Castile, wife of John of Gaunt (died 1394)
- Beyazid I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire (died 1403)

Deaths

- Cola di Rienzi, Roman tribune Category:1354 ko:1354년

Treaty of Stralsund

The Treaty of Stralsund (May 24, 1370) ended the war between the Hanseatic League and the kingdom of Denmark. The Hanseatic League reached the peak of its power by the conditions of that treaty. The war began in 1361 with the capture of Visby, a hanseatic town on the island of Gotland, today belonging to Sweden. King Valdemar IV of Denmark took the town and declared it to be Danish. The Hanseatic League, which used to be rather a trade league than a political union, raised a fleet and blockaded the harbour of Copenhagen (1368). Denmark surrendered in 1369. In the treaty the freedom of Visby was reestablished. Furthermore Denmark had to assure the Hanseatic League of free trade in the entire Baltic Sea. This gave the Hanseatic League a monopoly on Baltic fish trade. The league also gained the right of participation in deciding the future heirs to the Danish throne. See also: Stralsund ---- There is another (less important) treaty known as Treaty of Stralsund: It was arranged on February 12, 1354, and settled border disputes between the duchies of Mecklenburg and Pomerania. Stralsund, Treaty of Stralsund, Treaty of

Pomerania

10-field Pomeranian coats of arms in 15th–17th centuries

10-field Pomeranian coats of arms in 15th–17th centuries Pomerania (, , Pomeranian (Kashubian): Pòmòrze and Pòmòrskô, Latin: Pomerania, Pomorania) is a geographical and historical region in northern Poland and Germany on the south coasts of the Baltic Sea between and on both sides of the Vistula and Oder (Odra) rivers, reaching the Recknitz river in the west. Polish Pomerania is currently divided into 3 voivodships: the West Pomeranian Voivodship (Zachodniopomorskie, ZP), Pomeranian Voivodship (Pomorskie, PM) and the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship (Kujawsko-Pomorskie, KP). German Pomerania (Vorpommern) is part of the German Bundesland (federal state) of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania). The history of the region is rich and varied, perhaps due to its having been under the rule of many different powers through the centuries, as all of Europe. A Polish province since 962, from 1181 until 1806, Pomerania was a part of the Holy Roman Empire and was ruled as imperial fiefs by the Dukes of Pomerania and the kings of Poland, Denmark, Saxony, Brandenburg, Prussia, and Sweden. With the split of the Holy Roman Empire into Austrian and German Empire, Pomerania was a part of Germany.

Origin and meaning of the name

The name is a Pomeranian translation of 'longum mare' and means 'country by/next to/along the sea' The name was probably first mentioned as Latin words 'longum mare' (=along the sea) in an obscure church record of around 1080), called the Dagome Iudex, but supposedly dealing with 992. It names Oda von Haldensleben and her husband as Dagome, which is assumed to refer to Mieszko I, referring to territory Dagome gave as gift to the pope. In an imperial record of 1046 there is an actual first mention of Pomerania as Zemuzil dux Bomeranorum (Siemomysl, Duke of Pomeranians). From then on Pomerania is mentioned many times in the chronicles by Adam of Bremen (ca. 1070) and Gallus Anonymous (ca. 1113).

Subdivisions of Pomerania

In the German tradition Pomerania is often divided into Vorpommern (on the left bank of the Oder river) and Hinterpommern (on its right bank). The easternmost part is known in German as Pommerellen, bordering and overlapping with West Prussia. Polish terminology divides Pomerania into: Pomorze Zachodnie (Western Pomerania) and Pomorze Wschodnie or Pomorze Gdańskie (Gdańsk Pomerania). The former covers roughly the teritorries referred to in German as Vorpommern and Hinterpommern, the latter corresponds to Pommerellen. Under Polish administration a number of several different voivodships all using the name Pomerania have been established. Kashubian geographic terminology with regard to Pomerania is similar to Polish, and distinguishes between Zôpadnô Pòmòrskô (Western Pomerania) and Pòrénkòwô Pòmòrskô (Eastern Pomerania).

Demographics

Voivodship	Capitals	Registration plates	Area w km²	Population Polish(Dec 31st of 1999) German 2001	territorial code
Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship	Bydgoszcz¹ Toruń²	C	17.969,72	2.100.771	04
Pomeranian Voivodship	Gdańsk	G	18.292,88	2.192.268	22
West Pomeranian Voivodship	Szczecin	Z	22.901,48	1.732.838	32
(¹) - the site of the Voivod office, (²) - the site of the Voivod council
Polish Pomerania total			59.164,08	6.025.877
Nordvorpommern	Grimmen	NPV	2.168	117.722
Ostvorpommern	Anklam	OVP	1.910	113.623
Rügen	Bergen		974	74.400
Uecker-Randow	Pasewalk	UER	1.624	83.459
Demmin (district)	Demmin	DM	1.921	93.700
Greifswald		HGW	52,2	52.984
Stralsund		HST	est. 52,2	60.000
German Pomerania total			8.701	595.888

February 12

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

1354

Events

Births

Deaths

Treaty of Stralsund

Pomerania

Origin and meaning of the name

Subdivisions of Pomerania

Demographics

Geography

Prehistoric times

History of Pomerania

Modern 20th Century divisions of Pomerania

See also

Further reading

Publications in English

Publications in Polish

Publications in German

External links

Internet directories

Culture and history

Maps of Pomerania

Santiago, Chile

Climate

The people

Economy

Transportation

Political divisions

Cultural life

Music

Museums

Universities

Recreation

History

External links

Pedro de Valdivia

Early years

The expedition

Foundation of Santiago

Destruction of Santiago

New Initiatives

The uprising of 1553

See also

England

History

Politics

Subdivisions

Geography

Major rivers

Major Conurbations

Economy

Demographics

English identity