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February 23

February 23

February 23 is the 54th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 311 days remaining, 312 in leap years.

Events

- 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western book printed from movable type.
- 1574 - The 5th holy war against the Huguenots begins in France.
- 1660 - Charles XI becomes King of Sweden.
- 1732 - First performance of George Frideric Handel's Orlando, in London.
- 1778 - American Revolution: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania to help to train the Continental Army.
- 1820 - Cato Street Conspiracy: A plot to murder all the British cabinet ministers is exposed.
- 1836 - The Siege of the Alamo begins in San Antonio, Texas.
- 1847 - Mexican-American War: Battle of Buena Vista - In Mexico, American troops defeat Mexican general Antonio López de Santa Anna.
- 1861 - President-elect Abraham Lincoln arrives secretly in Washington, DC after an assassination attempt in Baltimore, Maryland.
- 1870 - Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union.
- 1874 - Walter Winfield patents a game called "sphairistike", now more commonly called lawn tennis.
- 1883 - Alabama becomes the first U.S. state to enact an antitrust law.
- 1887 - The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, killing around 2,000.
- 1893 - Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine.
- 1898 - Émile Zola is imprisoned in France after writing "J'accuse", a letter accusing the French government of anti-Semitism and wrongfully placing Captain Alfred Dreyfus in jail.
- 1900 - In South Africa the Boers and British troops fight in the Battle of Hart's Hill.
- 1903 - Cuba leases Guantanamo Bay to the United States "in perpetuity".
- 1904 - For $10 million the United States gains control of the Panama Canal Zone.
- 1905 - Chicago, Illinois attorney Paul Harris and three other businessmen meet for lunch to form the Rotary Club, the world's first service club.
- 1909 - The Silver Dart makes the first powered flight in Canada and the British Empire.
- 1919 - Benito Mussolini forms the Fascist Party in Italy.
- 1927 - The Federal Radio Commission (later renamed the Federal Communications Commission) begins to regulate the use of radio frequencies.
- 1934 - Léopold III becomes King of Belgium.
- 1940 - World War II: Soviet Union troops conquer Lasi Island.
- 1940 - The animated movie Pinocchio is released.
- 1945 - World War II: During the Battle of Iwo Jima, a group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Surabachi on the island and are photographed raising the American flag. The photo would later win a Pulitzer Prize.
- 1945 - World War II: The capital of the Philippines, Manila, is liberated by American forces.
- 1945 - World War II: Capitulation of German garrison in Poznan, city is liberated by Soviet and Polish forces.
- 1945 - World War II: The German town of Pforzheim is completely destroyed by a raid of 379 British bombers.
- 1947 - International Organization for Standardization(ISO) is founded.
- 1954 - The first mass vaccination of children against polio begins in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
- 1955 - First meeting of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).
- 1955 - Edgar Faure becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1956 - Nikita Khrushchev attacks the veneration of Joseph Stalin as a "cult of personality".
- 1957 - The founding congress of the Senegalese Popular Bloc is opened in Dakar.
- 1958 - Cuban rebels kidnap 5-time world driving champion Juan Manuel Fangio.
- 1966 - A military coup in Syria replaces the previous government.
- 1974 - The Symbionese Liberation Army demands $4 million more to release kidnap victim Patty Hearst.
- 1975 - In response to the energy crisis, daylight saving time commences nearly two months early in the United States.
- 1980 - Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini states that Iran's parliament would decide the fate of the American embassy hostages.
- 1981 - 23-F, Antonio Tejero attempts a coup d'état by capturing the Spanish Congress of Deputies.
- 1983 - The Spanish Socialist government of Felipe González and Miguel Boyer nationalizes Rumasa, a holding of José María Ruiz Mateos.
- 1983 - The Environmental Protection Agency announces its intent to buy out and evacuate the dioxin-contaminated community of Times Beach, Missouri.
- 1987 - A supernova is seen in the Large Magellanic Cloud (see Supernova 1987a).
- 1991 - Gulf War: Ground troops cross the Saudi Arabia border and enter Iraq, thus starting the ground-phase of the war.
- 1991 - In Thailand, General Sunthorn Kongsompong leads a bloodless coup d'état, deposing Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan.
- 1992 - The Socialist Labour Party is founded in Georgia.
- 1993 - Gary Coleman wins a $1,280,000 lawsuit against his parents.
- 1995 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average gains 30.28 to close at 4,003.33, closing above 4,000 for the first time.
- 1997 - A large fire occurs in the Russian Space station, Mir.
- 1998 - Tornadoes in central Florida destroy or damage 2,600 structures and kill 42.
- 1998 - Osama bin Laden publishes a fatwa declaring jihad against all Jews and Crusaders.
- 1998 - Netscape Communications Corporation announces the foundation of mozilla.org, to co-ordinate the development of the open source Mozilla web browser.
- 1999 - Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey.
- 1999 - White supremacist John William King is found guilty of kidnapping and killing African American James Byrd Jr by dragging him behind a truck for two miles.
- 1999 - An avalanche destroys the Austrian village of Galtür, killing 31.
- 2005 - Slovakia Summit 2005 begins, marking the first occasion when a sitting American President visits Slovakia; Bush and Putin are in attendance.

Births

- 1417 - Pope Paul II (d. 1471)
- 1633 - Samuel Pepys, English diarist (d. 1703)
- 1646 - Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Japanese shogun (d. 1709)
- 1648 - Arabella Churchill, English mistress of James II of England (d. 1730)
- 1680 - Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, French colonizer and Governor of Louisiana (d. 1767)
- 1685 - Georg Friederich Händel, German composer (d. 1759)
- 1688 - Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden (d. 1741)
- 1723 - Richard Price, Welsh philosopher (d. 1791)
- 1743 - Mayer Amschel Rothschild, German-born banker (d. 1812)
- 1840 - Carl Menger, Austrian economist (d. 1921)
- 1868 - W.E.B. DuBois, American civil rights leader (d. 1963)
- 1873 - Liang Qichao, Chinese scholar (d. 1929)
- 1878 - Kazimir Malevich, Ukrainian painter and art theorist (d. 1935)
- 1883 - Victor Fleming, American director (d. 1949)
- 1883 - Karl Jaspers, German philosopher (d. 1969)
- 1889 - Musidora, French actress and director (d. 1957)
- 1899 - Erich Kästner, German writer (d. 1974)
- 1904 - William L. Shirer, American historian (d. 1993)
- 1904 - Leopold Trepper, Soviet spy (d. 1982)
- 1908 - William McMahon, twentieth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1988)
- 1914 - Theofiel Middelkamp, Dutch cyclist (d. 2005)
- 1915 - Jon Hall, American actor (d. 1979)
- 1915 - Paul Tibbets, American pilot
- 1918 - Richard G. Butler, American fascist (d. 2004)
- 1924 - Allan McLeod Cormack, South-African born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1998)
- 1928 - Vasili Lazarev, cosmonaut (d. 1990)
- 1932 - Majel Barrett, American actress
- 1937 - Tom Osborne, American football coach and politician
- 1939 - Peter Fonda, American actor
- 1943 - Fred Biletnikoff, American football player and coach
- 1944 - Johnny Winter, American musician
- 1945 - Allan Boesak, South African activist
- 1951 - Ed Jones, American football player
- 1951 - Patricia Richardson, American actress
- 1952 - Brad Whitford, American musician (Aerosmith)
- 1954 - Viktor Yushchenko, President of Ukraine
- 1958 - Tony Barrell, English writer and journalist
- 1958 - David Sylvian, English musician
- 1959 - Richard Dodds, British field hockey player
- 1965 - Michael Dell, American computer manufacturer
- 1973 - Bryan Manchi, English songwriter
- 1973 - André Tanneberger, German DJ
- 1974 - Jaime Villarreal, Mexican musician
- 1978 - Dan Snyder, Canadian hockey player (d. 2003)
- 1981 - Gareth Barry, English footballer
- 1994 - Dakota Fanning, American actress

Deaths

- 1100 - Emperor Zhezong of China (b. 1077)
- 1270 - Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France (b. 1225)
- 1447 - Pope Eugenius IV (b. 1383)
- 1447 - Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1390)
- 1464 - Zhengtong, Emperor of China (b. 1427)
- 1526 - Diego Colón, Spanish Viceroy of the Indies
- 1554 - Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English poltician (executed)
- 1572 - Pierre Certon, French composer
- 1603 - Andrea Cesalpino, Italian philosopher, physician, and botanist (b. 1519)
- 1669 - Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian and statesman (b. 1600)
- 1704 - Georg Muffat, French composer (b. 1653)
- 1730 - Pope Benedict XIII (b. 1649)
- 1766 - Stanislaw Leszczynski, King of Poland (b. 1677)
- 1781 - George Taylor, American signer of the Declaration of Independence
- 1792 - Joshua Reynolds, English painter (b. 1723)
- 1800 - Joseph Warton, English literary critic (b. 1722)
- 1821 - John Keats, English poet (b. 1795)
- 1848 - John Quincy Adams, 6th President of the United States (b. 1767)
- 1855 - Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (b. 1777)
- 1897 - Woldemar Bargiel, German composer (b. 1828)
- 1908 - Johannes Friedrich August von Esmarch, German surgeon (b. 1823)
- 1923 - Théophile Delcassé, French statesman (b. 1852)
- 1930 - Horst Wessel, Nazi ideologue and composer (b. 1907)
- 1934 - Edward Elgar, English composer (b. 1857)
- 1948 - John Robert Gregg, Irish-born publisher and inventor (b. 1866)
- 1965 - Stan Laurel, American actor and comedian (b. 1890)
- 1969 - King Saud of Saudi Arabia (b. 1902)
- 1973 - Dickinson W. Richards, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1895)
- 1974 - Harry Ruby, American composer and writer (b. 1895)
- 1979 - W.A.C. Bennett, Canadian politician (b. 1900)
- 1990 - José Napoleón Duarte, President of El Salvador (b. 1925)
- 1995 - Melvin Franklin, American singer (The Temptations) (b. 1942)
- 1995 - James Herriot, English writer (b. 1916)
- 1997 - Tony Williams, American jazz drummer (b. 1945)
- 2000 - Ofra Haza, Israeli singer (b. 1957)
- 2003 - Robert K. Merton, American sociologist (b. 1910)
- 2004 - Vijay Anand, Indian film director (b. 1934)
- 2004 - Carl Anderson, American actor (b. 1945)
- 2004 - Sikander Bakht, Governor of Kerala (b. 1918)
- 2004 - Don Cornell, American singer (b. 1919)
- 2004 - Carl Liscombe, Canadian hockey player (b. 1915)

Holidays and observances

- Roman Empire - Terminalia held in honor of Terminus
- Catholicism - Feast day of St Polycarp.
- Guyana - National Day
- Russia - Day of Motherland's Defender (formerly Red Army Day or Day of Soviet Army and Navy)
- Brunei - National Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/23 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050223.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- February 22 - February 24 - January 23 - March 23 -- listing of all days ko:2월 23일 ms:23 Februari ja:2月23日 simple:February 23 th:23 กุมภาพันธ์

1455

Events

- February 9 - Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector
- February 23 - Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press
- May 22 - Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans - Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed. York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England.
- May 25 - Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St Paul's Cathedral

Year in topics

- 1455 in art

Births

- February 2 - King John of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (died 1513)
- March 3 - King John II of Portugal (died 1495)
- March 15 - Pietro Accolti, Italian Catholic cardinal (died 1532)
- Johann Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (died 1499)
- Peter Vischer the Elder, German sculptor (died 1529)

Deaths

- March 24 - Pope Nicholas V (born 1397)
- May 22 - Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland, English politician (killed in battle)
- May 22 - Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, English commander (killed in battle) (born 1406)
- September 3 - Alonso Tostado, Spanish Catholic bishop
- October 22 - Johannes Brassart, Flemish composer
- December 1 - Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian sculptor and metal smith (born 1378)
- Fra Angelico, Italian painter (born 1395)
- Zbigniew Olesnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (born 1389)
- Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Stafford Category:1455 ko:1455년

Gutenberg Bible

] The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, and as the Mazarin Bible) is a print of the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that was printed by its namesake, Johann Gutenberg, in Mainz, Germany. The print-run started on February 23, 1455, using moveable type. This Bible is the most famous incunabulum and its production marked the beginning of the mass production of books in the West. It was printed in Textura / Schwabacher. A very complete copy comprises 1282 pages; most were bound in two volumes. Schwabacher It is believed that about 180 copies of the Bible were produced, 40 on vellum and 140 on hemp paper, a number which boggled minds in societies which, from time immemorial, had to produce copies of written works labouriously by hand. Gutenberg produced these Bibles (which were printed, then rubricated and illuminated by hand), over a period of three years, the time it would have taken to produce one copy in a Scriptorium. Because of the hand illumination, each copy is unique. Two-color printing techniques, which would have eliminated the need for rubrication, were developed later. As of 2003, the number of known extant Gutenberg Bibles includes eleven complete copies on vellum, one copy of the New Testament only on vellum, and 48 substantially complete integral copies on paper, with another divided copy on paper. The country with the most copies is Germany, which has twelve. Four cities have two copies: Paris, New York, Leipzig, and Moscow; London has three copies plus the Bagford Fragment.

Known locations of Gutenberg Bibles

Austria (3)
- Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna Belgium (3)
- Bibliotheque Universitaire in Mons Mons France (3)
- Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (one of three "perfect vellum" copies)
- Bibliotheque Mazarine in Paris
- Bibliotheque Municipale in Saint-Omer Germany (12)
- Gutenberg Museum in Mainz
- Landesbibliothek in Fulda
- Universitätsbibliothek in Leipzig
- Deutsches Buch- und Schriftmuseum der Deutschen Bücherei in Leipzig
- Universitatsbibliothek in Göttingen
- Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz in Berlin
- Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich
- Stadt- und Universitätsbibliothek in Frankfurt-am-Main
- Hofbibliothek in Aschaffenburg
- Wurttembergische Landesbibliothek in Stuttgart
- Stadtbibliothek in Trier
- Landesbibliothek in Kassel Italy/Vatican City (1)
- Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana] Japan (1)
- Keio University Library in Tokyo Poland (1)
- Biblioteka Seminarium Duchownego in Pelpin Portugal (1)
- Biblioteca Nacional in Lisbon Russia (2)
- Russian State Library in Moscow
- Lomonosow University Library in Moscow Spain (2)
- Biblioteca Universitaria y Provincial in Seville
- Biblioteca Pública Provincial in Burgos Burgos Switzerland (1)
- Bibliotheca Bodmeriana in Cologny United Kingdom (8)
- British Library in London (one of three "perfect vellum" copies, one paper copy and the Bagford Fragment)
- Lambeth Palace Library in London (decorated in England)
- Bodleian Library in Oxford
- University Library in Cambridge
- Eton College Library in Eton
- John Rylands Library in Manchester
- National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh United States of America (9)
- Library of Congress in Washington, DC (one of three "perfect vellum" copies)
- New York Public Library in New York City
- Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City
- Widener Library at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut
- The Scheide Library at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey
- Indiana University Library at Indiana University Bloomington in Bloomington, Indiana
- Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin in Austin, Texas
- Henry E. Huntington Library in San Marino, California

External links

- [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/gutenberg/homepage.html Treasures in Full: Gutenberg Bible] Complete digitized texts of the two Gutenberg bibles in the British Library
- [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/gutenberg/ The University of Texas Ransom Center's Gutenberg Bible website including detailed images]
- [http://www.gutenbergdigital.de/gudi/eframes/texte/inhalt.htm Online digital edition] Category:Bible versions and translations Category:Incunabulum

Book

:This page is about bound sheets of paper. For the graph theory concept, see Book (graph theory). For the musical theater meaning, see Book (musical theater). A book is a collection of leaves of paper, parchment or other material, bound together along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an e-book. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph to distinguish it from serial publications such as magazines, journals or newspapers. Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-proof editions known as galleys for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale. A lover of books is usually referred to as a bibliophile, a bibliophilist, or a philobiblist, or, more informally, a bookworm. A book may be studied by students in the form of a book report. It may also be covered by a professional writer as a book review to introduce a new book.
History
book review.]] The oral account (word of mouth, tradition, hearsay) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories. When writing systems were invented in ancient civilizations, clay tablets or parchment scrolls were used as, for example, in the library of Alexandria. Scrolls were later phased out in favor of the codex, a bound book with pages and a spine, the form of most books today. The codex was invented in the first few centuries A.D. or earlier. Some have said that Julius Caesar invented the first codex during the Gallic Wars. He would issue scrolls folded up accordion style and use the "pages" as reference points. Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books comparatively expensive and rare. During the early Middle Ages, when only churches, universities, and rich noblemen could typically afford books, they were often chained to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft. The first books used parchment or vellum (calf skin) for the pages, which was later replaced with paper. In the mid 15th century books began to be produced by block printing in western Europe (the technique had been known in the East centuries earlier). In block printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved out of wood. It could then be inked and used to reproduce many copies of that page. Creating an entire book, however, was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page. Also, the wood blocks were not terribly durable and could easily wear out or crack. The oldest dated book printed by the method of block printing is The Diamond Sutra. There is a wood block printed copy in the British Library which, although not the earliest example of block printing, is the earliest example which bears an actual date. It was found in 1907 by the archaeologist Sir Marc Aurel Stein in a walled-up cave near Dunhuang, in northwest China. The colophon, at the inner end, reads: Reverently [caused to be] made for universal free distribution by Wang Jie on behalf of his two parents on the 13th of the 4th moon of the 9th year of Xiantong [i.e. 11th May, CE 868 ]. The Chinese inventor Pi Sheng made moveable type of earthenware circa 1045, but we have no surviving examples of his printing. He embedded the characters, face up, in a shallow tray lined with warm wax. He laid a board across them and pressed it down until all the characters were at exactly the same level. When the wax cooled he used his letter tray to print whole pages. It was not until Johann Gutenberg popularized the printing press with metal moveable type in the 15th century that books started to be affordable and widely available. This upset the status quo, leading to remarks such as "The printing press will allow books to get into the hands of people who have no business reading books." It is estimated that in Europe about 1,000 various books were created per year before the invention of the printing press. With the rise of printing in the fifteenth century, books were published in limited numbers and were quite valuable. The need to protect these precious commodities was evident. One of the earliest references to the use of bookmarks was in 1584 when the Queen's Printer, Christopher Barker, presented Queen Elizabeth I with a fringed silk bookmark. Common bookmarks in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound into the book at the top of the spine and extended below the lower edge of the page. The first detachable bookmarks began appearing in the 1850's and were made from silk or embroidered fabrics. Not until the 1880's, did paper and other materials become more common. The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also intellectual property, public domain, copyright. In mid-20th century, Europe book production has risen to over 200,000 titles per year.
Structure of book
Depending of book's purpose or type (i.e. Encyclopedia , Dictionary, Textbook, Monograph) structure could vary, but some common (traditional) structural parts of the book usually are: #Book cover (hard or soft, fancy-looking, with illustration) #Title page (shows title and author, often with small illustration or icon) #Metrics page #(sometimes - dedication page) #Table of contents #Preface #Text of contents of that book #Index (publishing) #Back cover (hard or soft, fancy-looking, with illustration)
Conservation issues
In the mid-19th century, papers made from pulp (cellulose, wood) were introduced because it was cheaper than cloth-based papers (i.e. vellum or parchment). Pulp based paper made cheap novels, cheap school text books and cheap books of all kinds available to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations and eased the spread of information during the Second Industrial Revolution. However, this pulp paper contained acid that causes a sort of slow fires that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Libraries today have to consider mass deacidification of their older collections. Books printed from 1850-1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or alkaline paper. The proper care of books takes into account the possibility of chemical changes to the cover and text. Books are best stored in reduced lighting, definitely out of direct sunlight, at cool temperatures, and at moderate humidity. Books, especially heavy ones, need the support of surrounding volumes to maintain their shape. It is desirable for that reason to group books by size.
Collections of books
alkaline Maintaining a library used to be the privilege of princes, the wealthy, monasteries and other religious institutions, and universities. The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to share most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a private library built into their homes. The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich. While a small collection of books, or one to be used by a small number of people, can be stored in any way convenient to the owners, a large or public collection requires a catalogue and some means of consulting it. Often codes or other marks have to be added to the books to speed the process of relating them to the catalogue and their correct shelf position. Where these identify a volume uniquely, they are referred to as "call numbers". In large libraries this call number is usually based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed inside the book and on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, in accordance with institutional or national standards such as ANSI/NISO Z39.41 - 1997. This short (7 pages) standard also establishes the correct way to place information (such as the title or the name of the author) on book spines and on "shelvable" book-like objects such as containers for DVDs, video tapes and software. In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the paper size from which the book is made. When rows of books are lined on a bookshelf, bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.
Keeping track of books
One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the Dewey Decimal System. This system has fallen out of use in some places, mainly because of a Eurocentric bias and other difficulties applying the system to modern libraries. However, it is still used by most public libraries in America. Another popular classification system is the Library of Congress system, which is more popular in university libraries. All books of the world are said to constitute the Gutenberg Galaxy, or, to use a term coined by eBook author Rick Sutcliffe in the early 1980s, the Metalibrary. For the entire 20th century most librarians concerned with offering proper library services to the public (or a smaller subset such as students) worried about keeping track of the books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) they devised a series of tools such as the International Standard Book Description or ISBD. Besides, each book is specified by a International Standard Book Number, or ISBN, which is unique to every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. It has four parts. The first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a checksum or a check digit and can take values from 0-9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland and calculating a new check digit. Many government publishers, in industrial countries as well as in developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system. They often produce books which do not have ISBNs. In certain industrialized countries large classes of commercial books, such as novels, textbooks and other non-fiction books, are nearly always given ISBNs by publishers, thus giving the illusion to many customers that the ISBN is an international and complete system, with no exceptions.
Transition to digital format
The term e-book (electronic book) in the broad sense is an amount of information like a conventional book, but in digital form. It is made available through internet, CD-ROM, etc. In the popular press the term eBook sometimes refers to a device such as the Sony Librie EBR-1000EP, which is meant to read the digital form and present it to a human being. Throughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an information explosion. The advent of electronic publishing and the Internet means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online e.g. through a digital library, on CD-ROM, or in the form of e-books. On the other hand, though books are nowadays produced using a digital version of the content, for most books such a version is not available to the public (i.e. neither in the library nor on internet), and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing. There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the public domain into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. The effort is spearheaded by Project Gutenberg combined with Distributed Proofreaders. There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as print on demand have made it easier for less known authors to make their work available to a larger audience.
Related articles and lists

- Author
- Bookbinding
- Bookselling
- List of books by title
- List of books by author
- List of books by genre or type
- List of books by award or notoriety
- List of books by year of publication
- List of banned books
- List of fictional books
- Metasearch engine sites search multiple online bookstore sites. Some require separate searches for new or used books.
- Addall.com
- BookFinder.com
- Online bookstores
- Abebooks
- Alibris
- Amazon.com
- Biblio.com
- BibliOZ
- Barnes & Noble
- Borders
- Powell's City of Books
- Book Sense
- Thriftbooks
Online book databases and lists

- The Internet Book Database of Fiction
- Internet Book List
- ISBNdb.com, books database built from libraries data
External links

- [http://headlesschicken.ca/eng204/ The History & Future of the Book - course syllabus & extensive bibliography]
- [http://www.thebookstandard.com/bookstandard/search/books_authors/index.jsp The Book Standard Books & Authors Database]
- Category:Documents ja:本 simple:Book tokipona:lipu toki

1574

Events

- April 14 - Battle of Mookerheyde. Spanish forces under Sancho de Avila defeat the rebel forces of Louis of Nassau. Louis is killed.
- May 30 - On the death of King Charles IX of France, he is succeeded by his brother King Henry of Poland, who becomes King Henry III. His mother, Catherine de Medici, acts as Regent until Henry arrives from Poland.
- October 3 - The city of Leiden, besieged by the Spanish, is relieved by a Sea Beggar fleet under Louis Boisot.
- Murad III succeeds Selim II as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

Births

- March 7 - John Wilbye, English composer (date of baptism)
- May 6 - Pope Innocent X (died 1655)
- July 1 - Joseph Hall, English bishop and satirist (died 1656)
- August 7 - Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick, English explorer and geographer (died 1649)
- October 14 - Anne of Denmark, queen of James VI of Scotland (died 1619)
- Richard Barnfield, English poet (died 1627)
- John Day, English dramatist (died 1640)
- Robert Fludd, English Rosicrucian and Paracelsian physicist (died 1637)
- Thomas Gataker, English clergyman and theologian (died 1654)
- Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm, Swedish soldier and politician (died 1650)
- Wilhelm Kinsky, Bohemian nobleman (died 1634)
- Claudio Pari, Sicilian composer
- Luis Sotelo, Franciscan friar See also :Category: 1574 births.

Deaths

- January 30 - Damião de Góis, Portuguese philosopher (b. 1502)
- April 14 - Louis of Nassau, Dutch general (born 1538)
- April 17 - Joachim Camerarius, German classical scholar (born 1500)
- April 21 - Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (born 1519)
- May 30 - King Charles IX of France (born 1550)
- June 27 - Giorgio Vasari, Italian painter and architect (born 1511)
- September 1 - Guru Amar Das, third Sikh Guru (born 1479)
- September 17 - Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, first Spanish Governor of Florida (b. 1519)
- October 1 - Marten Jacobszoon Heemskerk van Veen, Dutch painter (b. 1498)
- November 28 - Georg Major, German protestant theologian (born 1502)
- December 12 - Selim II, Ottoman Sultan (born 1524)
- December 26 - Charles of Guise, French cardinal (born 1527)
- Hans Eworth, Flemish painter (born 1520)
- Martin Heilwig, Silesian cartographer (born 1516)
- Solomon Luria, Palestinian-born Kabbalist (born 1510)
- Joseph Boniface de La Molle, Provençale lover of Marguerite de Valois (born 1530)
- Gabriel Montgomery, captain of the Scottish Guard of Henry II of France (born 1530)
- Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury (born 1504)
- Georg Joachim Rheticus, Hungarian cartographer and instrument maker (born 1514)
- Martín de Goiti, Spanish conquistador See also :Category: 1574 deaths. Category:1574 ko:1574년 simple:1574

Holy war

Holy war may refer to:
- A war led by or authorized by God, see religious war.
- Holy War (college football), a football rivalry between Boston College and Notre Dame
- The traditional rivalry between Kraków's two major football clubs, Cracovia and Wisła.
- In the hacker slang, a flame war over a religious (i.e. particularly controversial) issue.

Huguenot

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the name of Huguenots came to apply to members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France, or historically as the French Calvinists.

Origin of the name

Used originally as a term of derision, the derivation of the name Huguenot remains uncertain. It may have been based on the name Besançon Hugues, or a French corruption of the German word Eidgenosse, meaning a Swiss person - Geneva, Switzerland was John Calvin's adopted home and the center of the Calvinist movement. In Geneva, Hugues was the leader of the "Confederate Party", so called because it favored an alliance between the city-state of Geneva and the Swiss Confederation. This theory of origin has support from the fact that the label Huguenot was first applied in France to those conspirators (all of them aristocratic members of the Reformed Church) involved in the Amboise plot of 1560: a foiled attempt to usurp power in France from the influential House of Guise, a move which would have had the side-effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus eidgenot becomes Huguenot, with the intention of associating the Protestant cause with some very unpopular politics. Another theory is offered by O.I.A. Roche, who writes in his book The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots that "Huguenot" is :"a combination of a Flemish and a German word. In the Flemish corner of France, Bible students who gathered in each other's houses to study secretly were called Huis Genooten, or 'house fellows', while on the Swiss and German borders they were termed Eid Genossen, or 'oath fellows', that is, persons bound to each other by an oath. Gallicized into 'Huguenot', often used deprecatingly, the word became, during two and a half centuries of terror and triumph, a badge of enduring honor and courage."

Religious beliefs

Huguenot predecessors included the pro-reform and Gallican Roman Catholics, like Jacques Lefevre. Later, Huguenots followed the Lutheran movement, and finally, Calvinism. They shared John Calvin's fierce reformation beliefs which decried the priesthood, sacraments and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. They believed in salvation as an act of God as much as in creation as an act of God, and thus that only God's predestined mercy toward the elect made them fit for salvation. Some see this dual emphasis on creation and on salvation, and God's sovereignty over both, as a cornerstone principle for Huguenot developments in architecture, textiles and other merchandise. Above all, Huguenots became known for their fiery criticisms of worship as performed in the Roman Catholic Church, in particular the focus on ritual and what seemed an obsession with death and the dead. They believed the ritual, images, saints, pilgrimages, prayers, and hierarchy of the Catholic Church did not help anyone toward redemption. They saw Christian faith as something to be expressed in a strict and godly life, in obedience to Biblical laws, out of gratitude for God's mercy. Like other Protestants of the time, they felt that the Roman church needed radical cleansing of its impurities, and that the Pope represented a worldly kingdom, which sat in mocking tyranny over the things of God, and was ultimately doomed. Rhetoric like this became more fierce as events unfolded, and stirred up the hostility of the Catholic establishment. Huguenots faced periodic persecution from the outset of the Reformation; but Francis I (reigned 1515–1547) initially protected them from Parlementary measures designed for their extermination. The Affair of the Placards of 1534 changed the king's posture toward them: he stepped away from restraining persecution of the movement. Still, Huguenot numbers grew rapidly between 1555 and 1562, chiefly amongst the nobles and city-dwellers. During this time, their opponents first dubbed the Protestants Huguenots; but they called themselves reformés, "Reformed". They organized their first national synod in 1558, in Paris. By 1562, they had a total membership estimated at at least a million, especially numerous in the southern and central parts of the country. The Huguenots in France likely peaked in number at approximately two million, compared to approximately sixteen million Catholics during the same period. Violently opposed to the Catholic Church, the Huguenots attacked images, monasticism, and church buildings. Most of the cities in which the Huguenots gained a hold saw iconoclast attacks, in which altars and images in churches, and sometimes the buildings themselves were torn down. Bourges, Montauban and Orleans suffered particularly.

Wars of Religion

In reaction to the growing Huguenot influence, and the aforementioned excesses of Protestant zeal, Catholic violence against them grew, at the same time that concessions and edicts of toleration became more liberal. In 1561, the Edict of Orléans, for example, declared an end to the persecution; and the Edict of Saint-Germain recognized them for the first time (January 17, 1562); but these measures disguised the growing strain of relations between Protestant and Catholic. These bonds of peace became the knots of war; when violence unleashed them, the divisions became all the more irreconcilable. Tensions led to eight civil wars, interrupted by periods of relative calm, between 1562 and 1598. With each break in peace, the Huguenots' trust in the Catholic throne diminished, and the violence became more severe, and Protestant demands became more grand, until a lasting cessation of open hostility finally occurred in 1598. The wars gradually took on a dynastic character, developing into an extended feud between the Houses of Bourbon and Guise, which — in addition to holding rival religious views — both staked a claim to the French throne. The crown, occupied by the House of Valois, generally supported the Catholic side, but on occasion switched over to the Protestant cause when politically expedient. The French Wars of Religion began with a massacre at Wassy on March 1, 1562, in which at least 30 (some sympathetic sources say 1000 or more) Huguenots were killed, and about 200 were wounded. The Huguenots transformed themselves into a definitive political movement thereafter. Protestant preachers rallied a considerable army and a formidable cavalry, which came under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. Henry of Navarre and the House of Bourbon allied themselves to the Huguenots, adding wealth and holdings to the Protestant strength, which at its height grew to sixty fortified cities, and posed a serious threat to the Catholic crown and Paris over the next three decades. In what became known as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 24 August – 17 September, 1572, Catholics killed many Huguenots in Paris; similar massacres took place in other towns in the weeks following, with an estimated total death toll of 70,000. An amnesty granted in 1573 protected the perpetrators. The fifth holy war against the Huguenots began on February 23, 1574, and conflict continued periodically until 1598, when Henry of Navarre, having converted to Catholicism and become King of France as Henry IV, issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Protestants equality with Catholics under the throne, and a degree of religious and political freedom within their domains. The Edict simultaneously protected Catholic interests by discouraging the founding of new Protestant churches in the Catholic-controlled regions. Note the difficulty of the French vocabulary of the day, depending on the point of view. Protestants considered themselves to practice a "reformed" religion (religion réformée) — which of course implied that the Catholic religion was in need of reforms. In opposition, Catholics, when talking in polite terms, called the Protestant religion the "allegedly reformed religion" (religion prétendue réformée, or RPR) — with an obvious pejorative undertone of "pretense".

Flight

Under King Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715), chief minister Cardinal Mazarin, who held real power during the king's minority up to his death in 1661, resumed persecution of the Protestants using soldiers to inflict dragonnades that made life so intolerable that many fled. The king revoked the "irrevocable" Edict of Nantes in 1685 and declared Protestantism illegal with the Edict of Fontainebleau. After this, huge numbers of Huguenots (with estimates ranging from 200,000 to 500,000) fled to surrounding Protestant countries: England, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark and Prussia — whose Calvinist Great Elector Frederick William welcomed them to help rebuild his war-ravaged and underpopulated country. On December 31, 1687 a band of Huguenots set sail from France to the colony at the Cape of Good Hope. Barred from settling in New France, many Huguenots moved instead to the 13 colonies of Great Britain in North America, the first in 1624 (in 1924 a commemorative half dollar, known as the Huguenot-Walloon Half Dollar, was coined in the United States to celebrate the 300th anniversary of this settlement), among them a silversmith called Apollos Rivoire, who would later anglicize his name to Paul Revere. He would, still later, give his name and his profession to his son, Paul Revere, the famous United States revolutionary. Huguenot immigrants founded New Paltz, New York, where is now located the oldest street in America with the original stone houses, New Rochelle, New York (named after the town of La Rochelle in France), and a neighborhood in New York City's borough of Staten Island was named "Huguenot" after them. Some of the settlers chose the Virginia Colony, and formed communities in present-day Chesterfield County and Powhatan County just west of Richmond, Virginia, where their descendents continue to reside. The Huguenot Memorial Bridge across the James River was named in their honor, as were many local features including several schools. Many Huguenots also settled in the area around the current site of Charleston, South Carolina. In 1865, Rev. Elie Prioleau from the town of Pons in France settled in what was then called Charlestown. He became pastor of the first Huguenot church in North America in that city. That church is the oldest continuously active Huguenot congregation in the United States today. A leading Huguenot theologian and writer who led the exiled Huguenot community in London, Andre Lortie (or Andrew Lortie), became known for articulating Huguenot criticism of the Holy See and transubstantiation. Huguenot refugees flocked to Shoreditch, London in large numbers. They established a major weaving industry in and around Spitalfields (see Petticoat Lane and the Tenterground), and in Wandsworth. The Old Truman Brewery, then known as the Black Eagle Brewery, appeared in 1724. Huguenot refugees fled Tours, France virtually wiping out the great silk mills they had built. Some of them took their skills to Northern Ireland and assisted in the founding of the Irish linen industry. The exodus of Huguenots from France created a kind of brain drain from which the kingdom would not fully recover for years. The French crown's refusal to allow Protestants to settle in New France was a factor behind that colony's slow population growth, which ultimately led to its conquest by the British. By the time of the French and Indian War, there may have been more people of French ancestry living in Britain's American colonies than there were in New France. A third of American Presidents have some proven Huguenot ancestry, as do Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and other leading statesmen, and (according to an oft-repeated belief) one quarter or more of all Englishmen. Frederick the Great of Prussia, a strong believer in the separation of church and state, invited Huguenots to settle in his realms, and a number of their descendents rose to positions of prominance in Prussia. The last Prime Minister of the (East) German Democratic Republic, Lothar de Maiziere, was a scion of a Huguenot family. Persecution of Protestants ended in 1764, and the French Revolution of 1789 finally made them full-fledged citizens.

External link

- [http://www.huguenotsocietyofamerica.org Huguenot Society of America]
- [http://www.huguenotsociety.org.uk Huguenot Society of London(Now Huguenot Society of Great Britain & Ireland)]
- [http://www.huguenotsociety.org.uk Huguenot Society of Great Britain & Ireland]
- [http://www.huguenotsociety.org Huguenot Society of South Carolina]
- [http://pages.prodigy.com/VRHZ10A/ressegui.htm History Of The French Huguenots In America] Category:Protestantism Category:Religion in France ja:ユグノー

1660

Events

- Expulsion of the Carib indigenous people from Martinique by French occupying forces.
- January 1 - colonel George Monck with his regiment crosses from Scotland to England at the village of Coldstream and begins advance towards London in support of English Restoration. Samuel Pepys began his diary.
- February 2 – George Monck and his regiment arrive in London
- February 23 - Charles XI becomes king of Sweden.
- February 27 – John Thurloe reinstated as England's secretary of State for a short time
- March 16 - The Long Parliament disbands
- May 8 - The Parliament of England declares Prince Charles Stuart King Charles II of England
- May 15 - John Thurloe arrested for high treason after English Restoration
- May 23 - King Charles II of England reaches the shores of his Kingdom. On May 29 he arrives in London and assumes the throne, marking the beginning of the English Restoration
- May 25 – Charles II of England crowned
- June 29 - John Thurloe released
- November 28 - At Gresham College, 12 men, including Christopher Wren, Robert Boyle, John Wilkins, and Sir Robert Moray meet after a lecture by Wren and decide to found "a College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning

Charles XI of Sweden

Charles XI (Karl XI) (November 24, 1655 – April 5, 1697) was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death. He was the only son of Charles X of Sweden and Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp.

Under guardian rule

Charles was born in the palace at Stockholm. His father, who died when the child was in his fourth year, left the care of his education to the regents whom he had appointed. So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when, at the age of seventeen, Charles XI attained his majority, he was ignorant of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost illiterate. Yet those nearest to him had great hopes of him. He was known to be truthful, upright and God-fearing; if he had neglected his studies it was to devote himself to manly sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his favourite pastime, bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most splendid courage.

Foreign affairs

It was the general disaster produced by the speculative policy of his former guardians which first called forth his sterling qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood. With indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle with sloth, corruption and incompetence. Amidst universal anarchy, the young king, barely twenty years of age, inexperienced, ill-served, snatching at every expedient, worked day and night in his newly-formed camp in Scania to arm the nation for its mortal struggle, in the Scanian War. The victory of Halmstad (August 17, 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief Simon Grundel-Helmfelt defeated a Danish division, was the first gleam of good luck, and on December 4, on the tableland of Helgonabäck, near Lund, the young Swedish monarch defeated Christian V of Denmark, who also commanded his army in person. After a ferocious contest, the Danes were practically annihilated. The Battle of Lund was, relatively to the number engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times. More than half the combatants (8,357, of whom 3,000 were Swedes) actually perished on the battle-field. All the Swedish commanders showed remarkable ability, but the chief glory of the day indisputably belongs to Charles XI. This great victory restored to the Swedes their self-confidence and prestige. In the following year, Charles with 9,000 men routed 12,000 Danes at the Battle of Landskrona. This proved to be the last pitched battle of the war, in September 1678 Christian V evacuated his army back to Zealand. In 1679 Louis XIV of France dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI, who bitterly resented "the insufferable tutelage" of the French king, was forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least left his empire practically intact. Sweden's weak economy didn't favour wars, even if Sweden was very successful in conflicts, conscriptions were hated by the peasants and especially mercenaries costed the government very much money. Therefore, Charles made up the Dividing system; one area of citizens should together hold one soldier for the state, and supply him under peace time.

Domestic affairs

Charles devoted the rest of his life to the gigantic task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a reduction, or recovery of alienated crown lands, a process which involved the examination of every title deed in the kingdom, and resulted in the complete readjustment of the finances. But vast as it was, the reduction represents only a tithe of Charles XI's immense activity. The constructive part of his administration was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial. Here, too, everything was due to his personal initiative. Finance, commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial procedure, church government, education, even art and science emerged recast from his shaping hand. Charles XI died on April 5, 1697, in his forty-first year. On May 6, 1680, he had married Ulrike Eleonora (1656 - 1693), daughter of King Frederick III of Denmark (1609-1670) and whose death in July 1693 produced a shock from which Charles would never recover. After Gustav Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus Charles XI was perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden. His modest, homespun figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by the brilliant and colossal shapes of his heroic father and his meteoric son; yet in reality Charles XI is far worthier of admiration than either Charles X or Charles XII. He was in an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden in ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid foundations of a new order of things which, in its essential features, has endured to the present day.

Children

He had seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son Charles, and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp and grandmother of Tsar Peter III, and Ulrike Eleonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the Swedish throne. #Hedwig Sophia (1681-1708) #King Charles XII (1682-1718) #Gustav (1683-1685) #Ulrich (1684-1685) #Friedrich (1685-1685) #Carl Gustav (1686-1687) #Queen Ulrika Eleonora (1688-1741)

References

- ja:カール11世 (スウェーデン王)

Monarch of Sweden

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with a representative democracy based on a parliamentary system. The Head of State is the highest public office in Sweden. According to the Act of Succession of 1810 that office is inherited within the House of Bernadotte.

The line of succession

Main article: Line of succession to the Swedish Throne Present monarch: His Majesty King Carl XVI Gustaf (since September 19, 1973), born 1946 # HRH Crown Princess Victoria, Duchess of Westrogothia, daughter of the King, born 1977 # HRH Prince Carl Philip, Duke of Wermelandia, son of the King, born 1979 # HRH Princess Madeleine, Duchess of Helsingia and Gestricia, daughter of the King, born 1982

History

Sweden has been a kingdom since prehistoric times. As early as the 1st century, Tacitus wrote that the Suiones had a king, but the order of succession to the later historic kings of Sweden is not known, except for what is accounted for in the historically controversial Norse sagas (see Mythological kings of Sweden and Semi-legendary kings of Sweden). Originally, the Swedish king had little power, and it was restricted to the functions of a warchief, judge and priest at the Temple at Uppsala (see Germanic king). It is a testimony to this lack of influence that there are thousands of runestones commemorating commoners, but no chronicle about the Swedish kings, prior to the 14th century, and only one runestone that mentions a king (Haakon the Red). The power of the king was however, greatly strengthened by the introduction of Christianity during the 11th century, and the following centuries saw a process of consolidation of power in the hands of the king. The king was traditionally elected at the Stone of Mora, and the people had the right to both elect king and to depose him. The stones were, however, destroyed ca 1515. The office is hereditary since 1541. The present Bernadotte dynasty was established during the Napoleonic Wars through the Constitution of 1809 and the Act of Succession of 1810, in a bloodless Revolution after present day Finland, then the eastern half of the Realm, was lost to Russia. The Constitution divided the powers of government between the Riksdag and the Monarch. However, since the break-through of Parliamentarism in 1917 the king has in practice given up political power.

Head of state

In 1974 a new Instrument of Government became part of the Constitution which abolished the Privy Council as the government institution and stripped the Monarch of virtually all formal powers, while still retaining him as Head of State. Many of the king's previous politicial functions were transferred to the Speaker of the Riksdag. The monarch leads the Privy Council in a session that establishes the new government following a general election or cabinet reshuffle. The king also chairs the Committee for Foreign Affairs (Utrikesnämnden), a body which serves to officially inform the head of state and the leaders of the opposition of government affairs. Bills passed in the Swedish parliament become law without having to acquire royal assent. A more recent constitutional reform changed the rules for succession to equal primogeniture. This allowed for female succession to the throne and created Princess Victoria heir apparent over her younger brother. Princess Victoria

External links

- [http://www.royalcourt.se/net/Royal+Court The Royal Court of Sweden] - Official site
- [http://www.riksdagen.se/english/work/succession.asp The Act of Succession] - At the Riksdag

1732

Events

- February 23 - First performance of Handel's Orlando, in London
- June 9 - James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of Georgia. [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/states/ga01.htm]
- December 7 - The original Covent Garden Theatre Royal (now the Royal Opera House) is opened
- Genoa regains Corsica
- 139 members of the Paris Parlement are exiled by order of the King, but are eventually triumphant over the Crown, and secure their recall in December
- Cobalt discovered

Births

- January 24 - Pierre de Beaumarchais, French writer (d. 1799)
- February 22 - George Washington, 1st President of the United States (d. 1799)
- March 31 - Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer (d. 1809)
- April 5 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter (d. 1806)
- September 30 - Jacques Necker, French politician (d. 1804)
- October 6 - Nevil Maskelyne, English Astronomer Royal (died 1811)
- November 13 - John Dickinson, American lawyer and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (d. 1808)
- December 6 - Warren Hastings, British administrator (d. 1818)
- December 23 - Richard Arkwright, English inventor (d. 1792)
- Abbas III, Shah of Persia

Deaths

- January 12 - John Horsley, British archaeologist
- February 13 - Charles-René d'Hozier, French historian (b. 1640)
- February 17 - Louis Marchand, French organist and harpsichordist (b. 1669)
- February 22 - Francis Atterbury, English bishop and man of letters (b. 1663)