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February 4

February 4

February 4 is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 330 days remaining, (331 in leap years).

Events


- 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies, leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons, Caracalla and Geta.
- 1454 - In the Thirteen Years' War, the Secret Council of the Prussian Confederacy sends a formal act of disobedience to the Grand Master.
- 1703 - In Edo (now Tokyo), 46 of the Forty-Seven Ronin commit seppuku (ritual suicide) as recompense for avenging their master's death.
- 1783 - American Revolutionary War: The United Kingdom formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the United States of America.
- 1789 - George Washington is unanimously elected to be the first President of the United States by the U.S. Electoral College.
- 1792 - George Washington is unanimously elected to a second term as President of the United States by the U.S. Electoral College.
- 1794 - The French legislature abolishes slavery throughout all territories of the French Republic.
- 1801 - John Marshall is sworn in as Chief Justice of the United States.
- 1810 - British Navy seizes Guadeloupe.
- 1859 - Codex Sinaiticus discovered in Egypt.
- 1861 - American Civil War: In Montgomery, Alabama the Confederate States of America is formed by delegates from six break-away United States.
- 1862 - Bacardi, one of the world's largest spirits company, is founded as a small distillery in Santiago de Cuba in eastern Cuba.
- 1899 - The Philippine-American War begins.
- 1915 - Germany establishes a submarine blockade around the UK and declares any vessel in it a legitimate target.
- 1927 - The first talkie is released - The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson.
- 1932 - World War II: Japan occupies Harbin, China.
- 1932 - 1932 Winter Olympics open in Lake Placid, New York.
- 1932 - Asteroid 1239 Queteleta discovered by Eugène Joseph Delporte.
- 1934 - Asteroid 2824 Franke discovered by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth.
- 1936 - Radium E. becomes the first radioactive element to be made synthetically.
- 1938 - Thornton Wilder's play Our Town opens (New York City).
- 1938 - Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released, and it went on to become a major box-office success, making more money than any other motion picture in 1938.
- 1941 - World War II: The United Service Organization (USO) is created to entertain American troops.
- 1943 - Battle of Stalingrad ends.
- 1945 - World War II: President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin begin the Yalta Conference.
- 1948 - Ceylon (later renamed Sri Lanka) becomes independent within the British Commonwealth.
- 1957 - USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-powered submarine, logs her 60,000th nautical mile, matching the endurance of the fictional Nautilus described in Jules Verne's novel "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea".
- 1960 - Lorraine, Quebec is founded.
- 1962 - Ian Fleming's The Living Daylights first published
- 1966 - All Nippon Airways Boeing 727 jet plunges into Tokyo Bay, killing 133
- 1968 - Bowie Kuhn becomes the fifth commissioner of Major League Baseball, replacing William Eckert
- 1969 - Yasser Arafat takes over as chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization.
- 1974 - The Symbionese Liberation Army kidnaps Patty Hearst in Berkeley, California.
- 1976 - In Guatemala and Honduras an earthquake kills more than 22,000.
- 1976 - 1976 Winter Olympics open in Innsbruck, Austria.
- 1977 - Fleetwood Mac releases one of the biggest-selling albums of all time, Rumours.
- 1980 - Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini names Abolhassan Banisadr as president of Iran.
- 1984 - The Youth of the Left Socialists (VSU) founded in Denmark.
- 1991 - The Baseball Hall of Fame votes to ban Pete Rose.
- 1996 - Major snowstorm paralyzes Midwestern United States, Milwaukee, Wisconsin ties all-time record low temperature at -26°F. (-32°C)
- 1997 - O. J. Simpson is found to be civilly liable for the deaths of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman.
- 1997 - En route to Lebanon, two Israeli Sikorsky CH-53 troop-transport helicopters collide in mid-air over northern Galilee, Israel killing 73.
- 1997 - After at first contesting the results, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević recognizes opposition victories in the November 1996 elections.
- 1998 - An earthquake measuring 6.1 on the Richter Scale in northeast Afghanistan kills more than 5,000.
- 1999 - Hugo Chávez Frías, Venezuelan military and politician, is elected President of Venezuela.
- 1999 - Unarmed West African immigrant Amadou Diallo is shot dead by four plainclothes New York City police officers on an unrelated stake-out, enflaming race-relations in the city.
- 2000 - USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7) launched.
- 2000 - German extortionist Klaus-Peter Sabotta is jailed for life for attempted murder and extortion in connection with sabotage of German railway lines.
- 2003 - The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is officially renamed to Serbia and Montenegro and adopts a new constitution.
- 2007 - Super Bowl XLI will take place from Dolphins Stadium in Miami, Florida.

Births


- 1575 - Pierre de Bérulle, French cardinal and statesman (d. 1629)
- 1620 - Gustaf Bonde, Swedish statesman (d. 1667)
- 1646 - Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz, German statesman and poet (d. 1699)
- 1677 - Johann Ludwig Bach, German composer (d. 1731)
- 1688 - Pierre de Marivaux, French writer (d. 1763)
- 1725 - Dru Drury, English entomologist (d. 1804)
- 1778 - Augustin Pyrame de Candolle, Swiss botanist (d. 1841)
- 1840 - Hiram Stevens Maxim, American weapons inventor (d. 1916)
- 1841 - Clément Ader, French aviation pioneer (d. 1926)
- 1842 - Arrigo Boito, Italian poet and composer (d. 1918)
- 1849 - Jean Richepin, French poet
- 1871 - Friedrich Ebert, president of the Weimar Republic (d. 1925)
- 1873 - Étienne Desmarteau, Canadian athlete (d. 1905)
- 1875 - Ludwig Prandtl, German physicist (d. 1953)
- 1881 - Fernand Léger, French painter (d. 1955)
- 1892 - Prince George I, Duke of Westrogothia (d. 1971)
- 1897 - Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1977)
- 1902 - Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (d. 1974)
- 1902 - Hartley Shawcross, British lawyer and politician (d. 2003)
- 1904 - MacKinlay Kantor, American writer (d. 1977)
- 1906 - Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian (d. 1945)
- 1906 - Clyde Tombaugh, American astronomer (d. 1997)
- 1912 - Erich Leinsdorf, Austrian conductor (d. 1993)
- 1912 - Byron Nelson, American golfer
- 1913 - Rosa Parks, American civil rights activist (d. 2005)
- 1914 - Alfred Andersch, German writer (d. 1980)
- 1915 - William Talman, American actor (1968)
- 1915 - Norman Wisdom, English actor and comedian
- 1917 - Yahya Khan, President of Pakistan (d. 1980)
- 1918 - Janet Waldo, American actress
- 1921 - Betty Friedan, American feminist
- 1921 - K. R. Narayanan, President of India (d. 2005)
- 1923 - Conrad Bain, Canadian-born actor
- 1925 - Russell Hoban, American writer
- 1931 - Isabel Martínez de Perón, third wife of Argentine dictator Juan Perón
- 1935 - Martti Talvela, Finnish bass (d. 1989)
- 1936 - David Brenner, American comedian
- 1936 - Gary Conway, American actor
- 1940 - George Romero, American screenwriter, producer, and director
- 1940 - John Schuck, American actor
- 1943 - Ken Thompson, American computer scientist
- 1947 - Dan Quayle, Vice President of the United States
- 1948 - Alice Cooper, American musician
- 1949 - Michael Beck, American actor
- 1950 - Pamela Franklin, British actress
- 1951 - Patrick Bergin, Irish actor
- 1953 - Kitaro, Japanese composer
- 1957 - Don Davis, American composer
- 1958 - Tomasz Pacyński, Polish writer
- 1959 - Pamelyn Ferdin, American actress
- 1959 - Lawrence Taylor, American football player
- 1960 - Jonathan Larson, American composer (d. 1996)
- 1961 - Stewart O'Nan, American author
- 1962 - Clint Black, American musician
- 1964 - Noodles, American guitarist (The Offspring)
- 1967 - Sergei Grinkov, Russian figure skater (d. 1995)
- 1968 - Marko Matvere, Estonian actor
- 1969 - Duncan Coutts, Canadian bassist (Our Lady Peace)
- 1970 - Gabrielle Anwar, English actress
- 1971 - Rob Corddry, American actor and comedian
- 1972 - Giovanni Silva De Oliveira, Brazilian footballer
- 1973 - Oscar De La Hoya, Mexican-born boxer
- 1975 - Natalie Imbruglia, Australian musician and actress
- 1987 - Lucie Safarová, Czech tennis player
- 1988 - Carly Patterson, American gymnast

Deaths


- 211 - Septimius Severus, Emperor of Rome (b. 146)
- 708 - Pope Sisinnius
- 784 - Hrabanus Maurus, German poet
- 856 - Rabanus Maurus, Bishop of Mainz
- 869 - Saint Cyril, Greek missionary to the Slavs (b. 827)
- 1590 - Gioseffo Zarlino, Italian composer (b. 1517)
- 1615 - Dom Justo Takayama, Japanese warlord (b. 1552)
- 1694 - Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina, Tsaritsa of Russia (b. 1651)
- 1713 - Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, English politican and philosopher (b. 1671)
- 1774 - Charles Marie de La Condamine, French mathematician and geographer (b. 1701)
- 1781 - Josef Mysliveček, Czech composer (b. 1737)
- 1894 - Adolphe Sax, Belgian instrument maker (b. 1814)
- 1905 - Louis-Ernest Barrias, French sculptor (b. 1841)
- 1928 - Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1853)
- 1933 - Archibald Sayce, English educator (b. 1846)
- 1936 - Wilhelm Gustloff, German leader of the Swiss Nazi party (b. 1895)
- 1944 - Yvette Guilbert, French singer and actress (b. 1867)
- 1944 - Arsen Kotsoyev, Russian writer (b. 1872)
- 1958 - Henry Kuttner, American author (b. 1915)
- 1968 - Neal Cassady, American writer (b. 1926)
- 1968 - Gilbert H. Grosvenor, American president of the National Geographic Society (b. 1875)
- 1969 - Thelma Ritter, American actress (b. 1905)
- 1974 - Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian physicist (b. 1894)
- 1975 - Louis Jordan, American musician (b. 1908)
- 1977 - Brett Halliday, American writer (b. 1904)
- 1983 - Karen Carpenter, American singer and musician (Carpenters) (anorexia) (b. 1950)
- 1984 - Anna Anderson, claimant to the throne of Russia
- 1987 - Liberace, American musician (b. 1919)
- 1987 - Carl Rogers, American psychologist (b. 1902)
- 1992 - Lisa Fonssagrives, supermodel (b. 1911)
- 1995 - Godfrey Brown, British athlete and teacher (b. 1915)
- 1995 - Patricia Highsmith, American author (b. 1921)
- 2000 - Carl Albert, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1908)
- 2000 - Doris Coley, American singer Shirelles (b. 1941)
- 2001 - J. J. Johnson, American jazz trombonist and composer (b. 1924)
- 2001 - Iannis Xenakis, Greek-born composer (b. 1922)
- 2005 - Ossie Davis, American actor (b. 1917)

Holidays and observances


- Ancient Latvia - Biezputras Diena observed
- Saint Paul of Tarsus
- Independence Day in Sri Lanka (1948)
- Angolan Anniversary of the Outbreak of Armed Struggle against Portuguese Colonialism

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/4 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050204.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- February 3 - February 5 - January 4 - March 4 -- listing of all days ko:2월 4일 ms:4 Februari ja:2月4日 simple:February 4 th:4 กุมภาพันธ์



Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

211

This article is about the year 211. For the telephone number, see: 2-1-1.

Events


- The city of York becomes the capital of Britannia Inferior, a northern province of the Roman Empire.
- Caracalla and Publius Septimius Geta succeed their father Septimius Severus as Roman Emperors.
- Mark succeeded by Philadelphus as Patriarch of Constantinople.

Births

Deaths


- February 4 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus in York, England
- December - Publius Septimius Geta, Roman Emperor
- Clement of Alexandria (approximate date)
- Serapion of Antioch Category:211 ko:211년

Septimius Severus

__NOTOC__ Lucius Septimius Severus, (April 11 146-February 4 211) was Roman emperor from April 9 193 to 211. 211 Severus was born at Leptis Magna (sixty-two miles southeast of Carthage), on the north coast of Africa, and died at Eboracum (York), Britain. Severus' family was of equestrian rank, and in 172 he seems to have been made a Senator by Marcus Aurelius. In 190 he became consul, and in the following year received from Commodus the command of the legions in Pannonia. On the murder of Pertinax by the troops in 193, they proclaimed Septimius Emperor, whereupon he hurried to Italy and took possession of Rome without opposition. The legionaries of Syria, however, proclaimed Pescennius Niger emperor and those of Britain, Clodius Albinus; it was not until 197 that all competing claimants were eliminated. On 17 February 197, in the Battle of Lugdunum, with an army of 100,000 men, mostly composed of Illyrian, Moesian and Dacian legions, Severus defeated and killed his rival Clodius Albinus, securing full control over the Empire. In the later years of his reign Severus undertook a number of military actions in defence of Roman Britain against barbarian incursions and undertook reconstruction of Hadrian's Wall before dying in York on 4 February 211. 211.]] Severus was at heart a soldier, and sought glory through military exploits. He waged a brief and successful war against the Parthian Empire, which restored the northern half of Mesopotamia to Rome. During that war, his soldiers sacked the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon and sold the survivors into slavery. His relations with the Roman Senate were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of dozens of Senators on charges of corruption and conspiracy against him, replacing them with his own favorites. He also disbanded the Praetorian Guard and replaced it with one of his own, made up of 50,000 loyal soldiers camped in and around Rome. Although his actions turned Rome into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the moral degeneration and rampant corruption of the reign of Commodus. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected a triumphal arch that still stands and bears his name to this day. Upon his death in 211, he was deified by the Senate and succeeded by his two quarrelsome sons, Caracalla and Geta, who were advised by his wife Julia Domna. The stability Severus had provided the Empire was soon gone. Julia Domna by Septimius Severus, to celebrate XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclamed him emperor.]]

Severus and Christianity

The reign of Severus provides an interesting example of the persecution meted out to Christians under the Roman Empire. Septimius made no new laws against Christians, but allowed the enforcement of laws already long-established. There is no evidence of systematic persecution, and there is much evidence that not only was the Emperor not personally hostile to the Christians, but he even protected them against the populace. There were doubtless Christians in his own household, and in his reign the Church at Rome had almost absolute peace. On the other hand, individual officials availed themselves of the laws to proceed with rigor against the Christians. Naturally the emperor, with his strict conception of law, did not hinder such partial persecution, which took place in Egypt and the Thebaid, as well as in Africa proconsularis and the East. Christian martyrs were numerous in Alexandria (cf. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, ii. 20; Eusebius, Church History, V., xxvi., VI., i.). No less severe were the persecutions in Africa, which seem to have begun in 197 or 198 (cf. Tertullian's Ad martyres), and included the Christians known in the Roman martyrology as the martyrs of Madaura. Probably in 202 or 203 Felicitas and Perpetua suffered for their faith. Persecution again raged for a short time under the proconsul Scapula in 211, especially in Numidia and Mauritania. Later accounts of a Gallic persecution, especially at Lyons, are legendary. In general it may thus be said that the position of the Christians under Septimius Severus was the same as under the Antonines; but the law of this Emperor at least shows clearly that the rescript of Trajan had failed to execute its purpose.

See also


- Severan dynasty family tree
- Roman Empire

References


- Septimius Severus: The African Emperor by Anthony R. Birley ISBN 0415165911
- "History of Rome", Cassius Dio, 74-76
- see Historia Augusta, Life of Severus for familial lineage.

External links


- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Septimius_Severus
- .html Life of Septimius Severus] (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/74
- .html Books 74], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/75
- .html 75], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/76
- .html 76], and [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/77
- .html 77] of Dio Cassius, covering the rise to power and reign of Septimius Severus
- [http://www.roman-emperors.org/sepsev.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] Online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Septimius Severus, Lucius Septimius Severus, Lucius Category:Roman emperors Category:History of the Maghreb Category:Severan Dynasty Category:Romans in Britain ko:셉티미우스 세베루스

Caracalla

Caracalla (April 4, 186–April 8, 217) was emperor of the Roman Empire from AD 211–217. Born in Lugdunum in the province of Gaul in 186, he was the son of the future emperor Septimius Severus and Julia Domna. His given name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus but he was later given the nickname Caracalla, which referred to the Gallic hooded tunic he habitually wore and which he made fashionable. Severus, who had taken the imperial throne in 193, died in 211 while visiting Eboracum (York), and Caracalla was proclaimed co-emperor with his brother Publius Septimius Antoninius Geta. Caracalla had Geta assassinated and carried out a vendetta against Geta's supporters, in order to strengthen his own hold on power. When the inhabitants of Alexandria heard Caracalla's claims that he had killed Geta in self-defense, they produced a satire mocking this claim, as well as Caracalla's other pretensions. Caracalla responded to this insult savagely in 215 by slaughtering the deputation of leading citizens who had unsuspectingly assembled before the city to greet his arrival, then unleashed his troops for several days of looting and plunder of Alexandria. According to historian Cassius Dio, over 20,000 people were killed. During his reign as emperor, Caracalla raised the pay of an average legionaire to 675 denarii and lavished many benefits on the army, as instructed by his father Septimius Severus who had told him to always mind the soldiers and ignore everyone else. Cassius Dio Three things stand out from his reign: the edict of 212 (Constitutio Antoniniana) granting Roman citizenship to freemen throughout the Roman Empire in order to increase taxation; debasing the silver content in Roman coinage by 25% in order to pay the legions their bounties; and the construction of a large thermae outside Rome, the remains of which, known as the Baths of Caracalla, can still be seen. Caracalla had effectively become a military dictator, and was consequently very unpopular except with the soldiers. While travelling from Edessa to begin a war with Parthia, he was assassinated while urinating at a roadside near Harran on April 8, 217 by Martialis, one of his attendants, who was immediately killed by an archer. He was succeeded by the Praetorian Prefect of the Guard, Macrinus.

Mythical king of Britain

Geoffrey of Monmouth lists Caracalla, named Bassianus in the Historia Regum Britanniae, as one of the kings of Britain following the death of Geta. This is partially true as Geta was well liked in the west when he was killed, and Caracalla probably exerted his power over the Britons harshly. In this account, Caracalla is listed as a half-brother of Geta through a Briton mother. This claim is highly criticized by historians. The text goes on to say that a general named Carausius was given ships to defend the British coastline and instead he rose up and defeated Caracalla; although it never states that Caracalla was killed in this battle, it does say that Caracalla fled from it. After this, Roman rule weakened considerably in Britain until it was fully restored by the Caesar Constantius Chlorus.

See also


- Severan dynasty family tree

External links


- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Caracalla
- .html Life of Caracalla] (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) ---- Category:Roman emperors Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard Category:Severan Dynasty Category:Romans in Britain Category:British traditional history Category:186 births Category:217 deaths ko:카라칼라 ja:カラカラ

Publius Septimius Geta

Publius Septimius Geta (March 7, 189–December 211), was a Roman Emperor co-ruling with his father Septimius Severus and his older brother Caracalla from 209 to his death. He was the younger son of Septimius Severus by his second wife Julia Domna. Geta was born in Rome, at a time when his father was only a provincial governor at the service of emperor Commodus. Geta was always in a place secondary to his older brother Lucius, the heir known as Caracalla. Perhaps due to this, the relations between the two were difficult from their early years. Conflicts were constant and often required the mediation of their mother. To appease his youngest son, Septimius Severus gave Geta the title of Caesar in 209. During the campaign against the Britons of the early 3rd century, the imperial propaganda publicized a happy family that shared the responsibilities of rule. Caracalla was his father's second in command, Julia Domna the trusted counsellor and Geta had administrative and bureaucratic duties. Truth was that the rivalry and antipathy between the brothers was far from being improved. When Septimius Severus died in York in the beginning of 211, Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors and returned to Rome. Following Geta's assassination, Caracalla damned his memory and ordered his name to be removed from all inscriptions. The now sole emperor also took the opportunity to get rid of his political enemies, on the grounds of conspiracy with the deceased. Contemporary sources refer to numbers of about 20,000 persons of both sexes killed and/or proscribed during this time.

Mythical king of Britain

Geoffrey of Monmouth (a highly un-reliable source for Roman Britain history) claims that Geta was raised to the kingship of the Britons by the Roman legions still occupying York. The Britons, however, rose up Caracalla to the throne because Monmouth states Caracalla was the son of a Briton mother. This contradicts evidence that Geta and Caracalla had the same mother. Regardless, the shared throne was not a success: the brothers argued about every decision, from law to political appointments. Later sources speculate about the desire of the two of splitting the empire in two halves. By the end of the year, the situation was unbearable. Caracalla tried to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia without success. Later in December he arranged a meeting with his brother in his mother's apartments, and had him murdered in her arms by centurions.

External links


- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Geta
- .html Life of Geta] (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)

References


- Dio Cassius lxxvii; Herodian iv. I.

See also


- Severan dynasty family tree Category:189 births Category:211 deaths Category:Roman emperors Category:Murdered Roman emperors Category:Severan Dynasty Category:British traditional history

1454

Events


- February 4 - In the Thirteen Years' War, the Secret Council of the Prussian Confederacy sends a formal act of disobedience to the Grand Master.
- March 6 - Casimir IV of Poland renounces allegiance to the Teutonic Knights
- March 27 - Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York becomes Protector for the insane King Henry VI of England
- April 18 Treaty of Lodi: Francesco Sforza forms a triple alliance between the duchy of Milan, republic of Florence and kingdom of Naples
- September 18 - In the battle of Chojnice, the Polish army is defeated by a smaller but more professional Teutonic army during Thirteen Years' War.
- December - King Henry having regained his sanity, the Duke of York is dismissed as Protector

Births


- March 9 - Amerigo Vespucci, Italian explorer (died 1512)
- July 14 - Poliziano, Italian humanist (d. 1494)
- September 4 - Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English politican (died 1483)
- Catherine Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus (died 1510)
- Jeanne Hachette, French heroine
- Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, Italian astronomer (died 1504)
- Pinturicchio, Italian painter (died 1513)
- Poliziano, Florentine classical scholar and poet (died 1494)

Deaths


- July 20 - King John II of Castile (born 1405)
- John Kemp, Archbishop of Canterbury
- Robert Wingfield, English politician (born 1403) Category:1454 ko:1454년



1703

Events


- February 2 - Earthquake in L'Aquila, Italy
- February 4 - In Japan, the 47 samurai commit seppuku (ritual suicide)
- February 14 - Earthquake in Norcia, Italy
- April 21 - Company of Quenching of Fire (ie. fire brigade) founded in Edinburgh, Scotland
- May 27 - Founding of St Petersburg in Russia. Onlooker throw flowers on him.
- May 26 - Portugal joins Grand Alliance
- July 29-31 - Daniel Defoe is placed in a pillory for the crime of seditious libel after publishing a politically satirical pamphlet
- September 12 - War of the Spanish Succession – Habsburg Archduke Charles proclaimed King of Spain
- October - A whirlwind blows down the tower of the Gan Takal in Gondar, capital of Ethiopia, killing 30.
- November 19 - Unknown masked prisoner dies in Bastille
- November 24 to December 2 - the Great Storm of 1703 ravages southern England and the English Channel, killing thousands
- December 27 - Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty which gives preference to Portuguese imported wines into England.
- A Tale of a Tub, first major satire by Jonathan Swift, published
- George Psalmanazar arrives in London
- Isaac Newton becomes the chairman of Royal Society
- Ahmed III (1703-1730) succeeds Mustafa II (1695-1703) as emperor of the Ottoman Empire.

Births


- February 5 - Gilbert Tennent, Irish-born religious leader (d. 1764)
- March 5 (N. S.) - Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, Russian poet (d. 1768)
- May 14 - David Brearly, delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (d. 1785)
- June 17 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (d. 1791)
- June 26 - Thomas Clap, first president of Yale University (d. 1767)
- June 28 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (d. 1791)
- August 2 - Lorenzo Ricci, Italian Jesuit leader (d. 1775)
- October 5 - Jonathan Edwards, American preacher (d. 1758)
- October 28 - Antoine Deparcieux, French mathematician (d. 1768)
- November 25 - Jean-François Séguier, French astronomer and botanist (d. 1784)
- November 26 - Theophilus Cibber, English actor and writer (d. 1758)
- December 2 - Ferdinand Konščak, Croatian explorer (d. 1759)
- François Boucher, French painter (d. 1770)

Deaths


- Phetracha, king of Ayutthaya
- January 11 - Johann Georg Graevius, German classical scholar and critic (b. 1632)
- March 3 - Robert Hooke, English scientist (b. 1635)
- March 31 - Johann Christoph Bach, German composer (b. 1642)
- April 20 - Lancelot Addison, English royal chaplain (b. 1632)
- May 16 - Charles Perrault, French author (b. 1628)
- May 26 - Samuel Pepys, English civil servant and diarist (b. 1633)
- June 14 - Jean Herauld Gourville, French adventurer (b. 1625)
- September 22 - Vincenzo Viviani, Italian mathematician and scientist (b. 1622)
- September 25 - Archibald Campbell, 1st Duke of Argyll, Scottish privy councillor (b. 1658)
- September 29 - Charles de Saint-Évremond, French soldier (b. 1610)
- October 28 - John Wallis, English mathematician (b. 1616)
- November 30 - Nicolas de Grigny, French organist and composer (b. 1672)
- December 28 - Mustafa II, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1664) Category:1703 ko:1703년 ms:1703 simple:1703

Tokyo

Tokyo (Japanese: 東京, , "eastern capital") is the home to the Japanese government and emperor, and so the Capital of Japan. It is also the nation's most populous urban area (12 million people, or about 10 percent of the country's population, live in Tokyo) and one of the 47 prefectures of Japan.

Structure of Tokyo

Under Japanese law, Tokyo is designated as a to (都, often translated "metropolis"), not a city (although it is often mistaken for one), and its administrative structure is similar to that of Japan's other prefectures. Within Tokyo lie dozens of cities, towns, and villages. It includes 23 special wards (特別区 -ku) which until 1943 comprised the city of Tokyo but are now separate, self-governing municipalities, each with a mayor and a council, and having the status of a city. In addition to these 23 municipalities, Tokyo also encompasses 26 more cities (市 -shi), 5 towns (町 -chō or machi), and 8 villages (村 -son or mura), each of which has a local government. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government is headed by a publicly-elected governor and metropolitan assembly. Its headquarters are located in the ward of Shinjuku. Tokyo includes lakes, rivers, dams, farms, remote islands, and national parks, in addition to its famous neon jungle, skyscrapers and crowded subways.

Location

Tokyo is located in the Kanto region on the island of Honshu. Its center is at 35°41' North, 139°46' East (35.68333, 139.7667) [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html], but its borders extend to outlying islands in the Pacific Ocean, some as far as 1,000 km south of the mainland.

Influence

As the nation's center of politics, business, finance, education, mass media, and pop culture, Tokyo has Japan's highest concentration of corporate headquarters, financial institutions, universities and colleges, museums, theaters, and shopping and entertainment establishments. It boasts a highly-developed public transportation system with numerous train and subway lines. This extreme concentration is both boon and bane, prompting an ongoing debate over moving the nation's capital to another region. There is also great fear of a catastrophic earthquake striking Tokyo, which may in effect cripple the entire nation. Nevertheless, Tokyo continues to draw people from across Japan and other countries; a substantial portion of the population is not native to the region, and Tokyo is still a place to meet people from all over the country and the world.

History

outlying islands Tokyo's rise to prominence can be largely attributed to two men: Tokugawa Ieyasu and Emperor Meiji. In 1603, after unifying the warring states of Japan, Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made Edo (now Tokyo) his base of operations. As a result, the city developed rapidly and grew to become one of the largest cities in the world with a population topping 1 million by the 18th century. It became the de facto capital of Japan even while the emperor resided in Kyoto, the imperial capital. Since the city's early beginnings and even now, Edo/Tokyo has always had a large non-native population. Ieyasu himself was an outsider who brought many outsiders to help build the city and government. The sankin kotai system also required provincial warlords to periodically parade to Edo and keep a residence in the city along with key family members and samurai retainers. The term "Edokko" (child of Edo) was even coined (and still used today) to distinguish the natives from the non-natives. After 250 years, the shogunate was overthrown under the banner of restoring imperial rule. In 1869, the figurehead 17-year-old Emperor Meiji moved to Edo, which was renamed "Tokyo". Tokyo was already the nation's political, economic, and cultural center, and the emperor's residence made it a de facto imperial capital as well with the former Edo Castle becoming the Imperial Palace. Imperial Palace shows the old German name for Tokyo, Jedo.]] Tokyo went on to suffer two major catastrophes and has remarkably recovered from both of them. One was the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923, and the other was World War II. The firebombings in 1945 were almost as devastating as the atomic bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined. Large areas of the city were flattened. Today, hardly a trace of the war is evident to visitors to the city, but many people still carry its emotional scars. After the war, Tokyo was rebuilt with excellent train and subway systems, which were showcased to the world during the city's 1964 Summer Olympics. The 1970s brought new high-rise developments, a new and controversial airport at Narita (1978), and a population increase to about 11 million (in the metropolitan area). In the 1980s, real estate prices skyrocketed during an economic bubble: many got rich quick, but the bubble burst in the early 1990s and many companies, banks, and individuals were caught with real estate shrinking in value. A major recession followed, making the 1990s Japan's "lost decade" which still continues today. Tokyo still sees new or renewed urban centers being developed on large lots of idle land. Recent projects include Ebisu Garden Place, Tennozu Isle, Shiodome, Roppongi Hills, Shinagawa (now also a shinkansen station), and Tokyo Station (Marunouchi side). Land reclamation projects in Tokyo have also been going on for centuries. The most prominent is the Odaiba area, now a major shopping and entertainment center.

Geography and administrative divisions

Odaiba (such as Odaiba) has been omitted for clarity. The islands cannot be shown at this scale. Click on the map to enlarge it.]] Tokyo is northwest of Tokyo Bay, and is about 90 km east-to-west and 25 km north-to-south. It borders Chiba Prefecture to the east, Yamanashi Prefecture to the west, Kanagawa Prefecture to the south, and Saitama Prefecture to the north. It also consists of islands in the Pacific Ocean directly south -- the Izu Islands are closest, while the Ogasawara Islands stretch over 1,000 km away from mainland Japan. Toyko has been hit by powerful earthquakes in 1703, 1782, 1812, 1855 and 1923. The 1923 earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.3 killed 142,000 people. Tokyo is also part of the Greater Tokyo Area, by far the world's most populous metropolitan region, which includes the surrounding prefectures of Kanagawa, Saitama, and Chiba. Tokyo consists of the following 23 special wards, 26 cities, 5 towns, and 8 villages:

The 23 special wards

Each of the 23 special wards (tokubetsu-ku) of Tokyo is a local municipality with its own elected mayor and assembly. It differs from an ordinary city in that certain governmental functions are handled by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. As of September 1, 2003, the official total population of the 23 wards combined was about 8.34 million, with a population density of 13,416 persons per square kilometer.

Cities

municipality.]] West of the 23 wards, Tokyo consists of cities (shi), which enjoy a similar legal status to cities elsewhere in Japan. While serving a role as "bed towns" for those working in central Tokyo, some of these cities also have a local commercial and industrial base. Collectively, these cities are often known as "West Tokyo."

Districts, towns, and villages

The far west is occupied by the district (gun) of Nishitama. Much of this area is mountainous and unsuitable for urbanization. The highest mountain in Tokyo, Mount Kumotori, is 2,017 m high; other mountains in Tokyo include Mount Takasu (1737 m), Mount Odake (1266 m), and Mount Mitake (929 m). Lake Okutama, on the Tama River near Yamanashi Prefecture, is Tokyo's largest lake.
- Hinode
- Mizuho
- Okutama
- Hinohara Village

Islands

Hinohara Tokyo's outlying islands extend as far as 1,850 km from central Tokyo. Because of the islands' distance from the city, they are locally run by branches of the metropolitan government. Most of the islands are classified as villages. Izu Islands
- Oshima—Islands of Kozushima, Niijima, Oshima, and Toshima.
- Miyake—Islands of Mikurajima and Miyakejima (main town: Miyake).
- Hachijo—Islands of Aogashima and Hachijojima (main town: Hachijo). Ogasawara Islands
- Ogasawara—Ogasawara includes, from north to south, Chichi-jima, Nishinoshima, Haha-jima, Kita Iwo Jima, Iwo Jima, and Minami Iwo Jima. Also includes two tiny outlying islands: Minami Torishima, the easternmost point in Japan and at 1 850 km the most distant island from central Tokyo, and Okino Torishima, the southernmost point in Japan. The Iwo chain and the outlying islands are mostly uninhabited, but there are small local populations on the three islands closer to Honshu.

National Parks

There are two national parks in West Tokyo: Chichibu-Tama National Park, located in Nishitama and spilling over into Yamanashi and Saitama Prefectures, and Meiji no Mori Takao Quasi-National Park, located around Mount Takao to the south of Hachioji. South of Tokyo is the Ogasawara National Park.

Major Districts

Ogasawara National Park Ogasawara National Park in front of the Hachikō exit of Shibuya station.]] The center of Tokyo is Kokyo, or the Imperial Palace, the former site of Edo Castle. The term "central Tokyo" today may refer to either the area within the looping Yamanote train line or to Tokyo's 23 special wards (ku) covering about 621 square kilometers, the most densely-populated area of Tokyo. There are a number of major urban centers where business, shopping, and entertainment are concentrated. They are each centered at a major train station where multiple train lines operate.
- Shinjuku — Tokyo's capital where the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building is located. It is best known for Tokyo's early skyscrapers since the early 1970s. Major department stores, camera and computer stores, and hotels can be found. On the east side of Shinjuku Station, Kabuki-cho is notorious for its many bars and nightclubs.
- Marunouchi and Otemachi — The main financial and business district of Tokyo has many headquarters of banks, trading companies, and other major businesses. The area is seeing a major redevelopment with new buildings for shopping and entertainment constructed in front of Tokyo Station's Marunouchi side.
- Ginza and Yurakucho — Major shopping and entertainment district with department stores, upscale shops selling brand-name goods, and movie theaters.
- Shinbashi—By being the gateway to Odaiba and having the new Shiodome Shiosite complex of high-rise buildings, this area has been effectively revitalized.
- Shinagawa — In addition to the major hotels on the west side of Shinagawa Station, the former sleepy east side of the station has been redeveloped as a major center for business.
- Shibuya — A longtime center of shopping, fashion, and entertainment, especially for the younger set.
- Ikebukuro — Anchored by the Sunshine City (which was once Tokyo's tallest building) hotel and shopping complex, this is another area where people gather due to the various train lines shooting out of Ikebukuro Station.
- Ueno — Ueno Station serves areas north of Tokyo from where many people commute. Besides department stores and shops in Ameyoko, Ueno boasts Ueno Park, Ueno Zoo, and major national museums. In spring, Ueno Park and adjacent Shinobazu Pond are prime places to view cherry blossoms.
- Odaiba — A large, reclaimed, waterfront area that has become one of Tokyo's most popular shopping and entertainment districts.
- Kinshicho — Major shopping and entertainment area in eastern Tokyo.
- Kichijoji — Major shopping and entertainment area in western Tokyo.
- Nagatacho - The political heart of Tokyo and the nation. It is the location of the Diet, government ministries, and party headquarters.
- Akasaka - Upscale commercial district next to Roppongi, Nagatacho, and Aoyama.
- Aoyama - An upscale neighborhood of Tokyo with parks, an enormous cemetery, expensive housing, trendy cafes, and international restaurants (includes the subway station Omotesando).

Economy

Omotesando] Tokyo has the largest metropolitan economy in the world: its nominal GDP of around $1.315 trillion is greater than the 8th largest national economy in the world. It is a major international finance center, headquarters to several of the world's largest investment banks and insurance companies, and serves as a hub for Japan's transportation, publishing, and broadcasting industries. During the centralized growth of Japan's economy following World War II, many large firms moved their headquarters from cities such as Osaka (the historical commercial capital) to Tokyo, in an attempt to take advantage of better access to the government. This trend has begun to slow due to ongoing population growth in Tokyo and the high cost of living there.

Demographics

As one of the major cities of the world, Tokyo has over 8 million people living within its 23 wards, and during the daytime, the population swells by over 2.5 million as workers and students commute from adjacent areas. This effect is even more pronounced in the three central wards of Chiyoda, Chuo, and Minato, whose collective population is less than 300,000 at night, but over 2 million during the day. Population By area (as of Oct. 1, 2003)
- All of Tokyo: 12.36 million
- 23 special wards: 8.34 million
- Tama area: 4 million
- Islands: 27,000 By age (As of Jan. 1, 2003):
- Juveniles (0-14): 1.433 million (12%)
- Working population (15-64): 8.507 million (71.4%)
- Aged population (65+): 2.057 million (16.6%) By time (As of 2000)
- Nighttime: 12.017 million
- Daytime: 14.667 million By nationality
- Foreign residents: 353,826 (as of Jan. 1, 2005)
- Top 5 Nationalities of Foreign Residents: Chinese (120,331), Korean (103,191), Philippine (31,505), American (18, 043), British (7,585)

Transportation

Tokyo is Japan's largest domestic and international hub for rail, ground, and air transportation. Public transportation within Tokyo is dominated by an extensive network of clean and efficient, if occasionally very crowded trains and subways run by a variety of operators, with buses, monorails and trams playing a secondary role.

Airports


- Tokyo International Airport in Ota Ward (Haneda) — Mainly for domestic flights.
- Narita International Airport in Narita, Chiba Prefecture — Major gateway for international travelers.
- Chofu Airport in Chofu City — Handles commuter flights to the Izu islands.
- Oshima Airport— Oshima Island
- Hachijojima Airport— Hachijo Island
- Miyakejima Airport— Miyake Island
- Tokyo Heliport— Koto Ward

Railways and subways

Tokyo Heliport Tokyo Heliport Rail is the primary mode of transportation in Tokyo, which has the most extensive underground network in the world and an equally extensive network of surface lines. Most lines in Tokyo are privately owned and operated, with the exception of Toei Subway (run directly by the metropolitan government). Railway and subway lines are highly integrated; commuter trains from the suburbs continue directly into the subway network on many lines, often emerging on the other side of the city to serve another company's surface line. It is estimated some 20 million people take the 70 plus train lines and go through 1000 stations in the metropolitan area daily. Some of the larger stations, like Shinjuku Station and Tokyo station, are miles long and are the busiest in the world. Tokyo station
- JR East—The largest passenger railway company in the world. In addition to the Shinkansen ("bullet train" lines), JR operates Tokyo's largest railway network, including the Yamanote Line loop, the Keihin-Tohoku Line between Saitama and Yokohama, the Chuo Line to West Tokyo, and the Sobu Line to Chiba. It is also the majority stockholder in the Tokyo Monorail, one of the world's most commercially successful monorail lines.
- Keihin Kyuko Electric Railway (Keikyū)—Operates out of Shinagawa Station to Kanagawa and Haneda Airport.
- Keisei Electric Railway—Operates out of Ueno Station to Chiba (including Narita International Airport).
- Keio Electric Railway—Operates out of Shinjuku Station to West Tokyo. Shinjuku Station
- Odakyu Electric Railway—Operates out of Shinjuku Station to Kanagawa, most notably Odawara and Hakone.
- Seibu Railway—Operates out of Shinjuku Station and Ikebukuro Station to West Tokyo.
- Tobu Railway—Operates out of Ikebukuro Station and Asakusa Station to Saitama, Gunma, and Tochigi.
- Tokyo Kyuko Electric Railway (Tokyu)—Operates out of Shibuya Station to West Tokyo and Kanagawa.
- Tokyo Metro (formerly Eidan)—Operates Japan's largest subway network.
- Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation—Operates the Toei subway lines and the Arakawa streetcar line, Tokyo's sole streetcar line.
- Tsukuba Express, linking Akihabara Station with Tsukuba since its opening in August 2005.

Buses

Tsukuba The metropolitan government operates Toei buses mainly within the 23 special wards while private bus companies operate other bus routes. Bus transportation is convenient for places far from the train or subway stations. Most bus routes stop or terminate at a train or subway station, and they can be quite complicated with no signs in English. The Toei buses charge 200 yen per ride which the customer pays while boarding. Buses run by other companies may charge according to distance, and the customer pays when leaving the bus.

Others


- Taxis—Available along most major streets. Starting fare is about 650 yen.
- Streetcars—Once a common sight before subways and buses came to fore, streetcar lines have shrunk to only one route called the Toden Arakawa Line plying the route between Waseda and Minowabashi.
- Ferries/Boats—Long-distance ferries operated by Tokai Kisen go to outlying islands such as the Ogasawara Islands and Izu Islands. River boats on the Sumida River operate between Asakusa and Kasai Rinkai Park, mainly for tourists.
- Expressways—Many expressways converge at Tokyo including the Tomei Expressway, Chuo Expressway, Kan'etsu National Expressway, Ken-ō Expressway, Tokyo Gaikan Expressway, Daisan Keihin Highway, and Keiyo Highway. The Shuto Expressway network covers central Tokyo, linking the intercity expressways together.

Tourism

Chuo Expressway) and Tokyo Tower.]] Tokyo has many tourist attractions. It would take weeks to see all the major ones. Thanks to a very convenient train and subway system (with signs in English), it is easy to visit most of these attractions. Here are only some of them (random order).

Shrines, temples, and castles

Tokyo Tower] The Imperial Palace, Meiji Shrine, and Sensoji Temple are the three most popular ones in Tokyo.
- Kokyo, or the Imperial Palace — Home of the Emperor and Crown Prince and their families.
- Sensoji — Asakusa
- Meiji Shrine — Dedicated to Emperor Meiji
- State Guest-House
- Yasukuni Shrine
- Zojoji — Main headquarters of the Pure Land Buddhism (浄土宗）sect.
- Tsukiji Honganji Temple — Tokyo headquarters of the Jodo Shinshu Nishi Honganji Buddhist sect.
- Gokokuji Temple Gokokuji Temple in Asakusa]]

Festivals and events

Tokyo holds many festivals large and small throughout the year.

Spring (March-May)

Gokokuji Temple.]]
- Bunkyo Tsutsuji Matsuri (azalea festival) at Nezu Shrine in Bunkyo-ku.
- Fuji Matsuri (wisteria festival) at Kameido Tenjin Shrine in Koto-ku.
- Hinode Matsuri (sunrise festival) at Mitake Shrine in Ome.
- Kachiya Festival at Katori Shrine in Koto-ku.
- Kanda Myojin Omikoshi Togyo at Kanda Myojin Shrine in Chiyoda-ku.
- Kappa Matsuri at Ebara Shrine in Shinagawa-ku.
- Kifune Matsuri at Kifune Shrine in Ota-ku.
- Kurayami Matsuri (black night festival) at Okunitama Shrine in Fuchu.
- Meiji Shrine Spring Festival at Meiji Shrine in Shibuya-ku.
- Osunafumi Taisai (walking-on-sand ritual) at Tamagawa Daishi Temple in Setagaya-ku.
- Sanja Matsuri at Asakusa Shrine in Taito-ku.
- Shishi Matsuri (lion dance festival) at Nagasaki Shrine in Toshima-ku.
- Takigi Noh (open-air torchlight Noh performance) at Zojoji Temple in Minato-ku.
- Yayoi Matsuri ceremony by the Edo Shobo Kinen-kai (Edo Civilian Fire Fighters' Association) in the vicinity of Sensoji Temple in Taito-ku.

Summer (June-Aug.)


- Koenji Awa Odori
- Asakusa Samba Matsuri
- Sumida Fireworks in Asakusa and Sumida Ward
- Tokyo Bay Fireworks
- Jingu Fireworks
- Fukagawa Hachiman Matsuri

Fall (Sept.-Nov.)


- Tokyo Jidai Matsuri in Asakusa

Winter (Dec.-Feb.)


- Hatsumode New Year's Prayers at Meiji Shrine, Sensoji, and other major shrines and temples
- Dezome-shiki Fireman's Parade at Tokyo Big Sight
- Setsubun at Sensoji and other major temples

Others


- Grand Sumo Tournaments in Jan., May, and Sept. at the Ryogoku Kokugikan
- Tsukiji fish market

Parks and gardens

Tsukiji fish market.]]

Flowers

Tsukiji fish market
- Plum blossoms (Feb.-March)—Yoshino Baigo in Ome, Mukojima Hyakkaen Garden, Hanegi Park in Umegaoka
- Cherry blossoms (Late March-early April)—Ueno Park and Shinobazu Pond, Yoyogi Park, Shinjuku Gyoen, Inokashira Park in Kichijoji, Chidorigafuchi Imperial Palace moat near the Budokan, Aoyama Cemetery, Sumida Park and River near Asakusa, International Christian University
- Wisteria (Late April-early May)—Kameido Tenjin Shrine in Koto Ward
- Azaleas (Late April-early May)—Nezu Shrine, East Garden of the Imperial Palace, Shiofune Kannon Temple in Ome
- Roses (mid-late May)—Jindai Botanical Garden in Chofu
- Irises (early-mid June)—Meiji Shrine, Horikiri Iris Garden
- Hydrangeas (June-July)—Takahata Fudo Temple, Hino

Scenic views