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Ferdinand IV Of Castile

Ferdinand IV of Castile

Ferdinand IV, El Emplazado or "the Summoned," (December 6, 1285 – September 7, 1312) was a king of Castile (1295 - 1312). He was a son of Sancho El Bravo and his wife Maria de Molina. Maria de Molina]] His strange title is given him in the chronicles on the strength of a story that he put two brothers of the name of Carvajal to death tyrannically, and was given a time (plazo) by them in which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told of Jacques de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe Le Bel. His minority was a time of anarchy. He owed his escape from the violence of competitors and nobles, partly to the tact and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina, and partly to the loyalty of the citizens of Ávila, who gave him refuge within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his mother, and weak as a ruler. In 1302 he married Constance, daughter of King Denis of Portugal. Their children were: # Leonor (1307-1359), married King Alfonso IV of Aragon # Constanza (1308-1310) # Alfonso XI of Castile (1311-1350) He captured Gibraltar in 1309, with the help of Aragón. He died suddenly in his tent at Jaén when preparing for a raid into the Moorish territory of Granada, on September 7, 1312.

References


- Category:Castilian monarchs Category:1285 births Category:1312 deaths

December 6

December 6 is the 340th day (341st on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 25 days remaining.

Events


- 963 - Leo VIII is elected Pope.
- 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev under Danylo of Halych and Voivode Dmytro falls to the Mongols under Batu Khan.
- 1534 - The city of Quito in Ecuador is founded by Spanish settlers led by Sebastián de Belalcázar.
- 1768 - The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica is published.
- 1790 - The U.S. Congress moves from New York City to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- 1845 - Alpha Sigma Phi Fraternity was founded at Yale College by Louis Manigault, Horace Spangler Weiser, and Stephen Ornsby Rhea.
- 1849 - American abolitionist Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery.
- 1865 - The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, banning slavery.
- 1877 - The Washington Post newspaper is first published.
- 1884 - The Washington Monument in Washington D.C. is completed.
- 1907 - A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia kills 362 workers.
- 1917 - Finland declares its independence from Russia.
- 1917 - Halifax Explosion: In Canada, a munitions explosion kills more than 1900 people and destroys part of the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia.
- 1921 - The Anglo-Irish Treaty is signed in London by British and Irish representatives
- 1922 - One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the Irish Free State comes into existence.
- 1933 - U.S. federal judge John M. Woolsey rules that the James Joyce novel Ulysses is not obscene.
- 1947 - The Everglades National Park in Florida is dedicated.
- 1957 - Project Vanguard: A launchpad explosion thwarts the first United States attempt to launch a satellite.
- 1965 - Pakistan's Islamic Ideology Advisory Committee recommended that Islamic Studies be made a compulsory subject for Muslim students from primary to graduation level.
- 1969 - Meredith Hunter is killed by Hell's Angels during The Rolling Stones's concert at the Altamont speedway in California.
- 1971 - Pakistan snaps diplomatic ties with India following New Delhi's recognition of Bangladesh.
- 1971 - King Faisal of Saudi Arabia condemns Indian aggression on Pakistan.
- 1973 - The United States House of Representatives votes 387 to 35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States (on November 27, the Senate confirmed him 92 to 3).
- 1975 - Balcombe Street Siege: An IRA Active Service Unit takes a couple hostage in Balcombe Street, London.
- 1977 - South Africa grants independence to Bophuthatswana, although it is not recognized by any other country
- 1978 - Spain approves its latest constitution in a referendum.
- 1989 - École Polytechnique Massacre: Marc Lépine kills 14 young women in Montreal, Quebec.
- 1991 - In Croatia, forces of the Yugoslav People's Army bombard Dubrovnik after laying siege there since May.
- 1992 - In Ayodhya, India, Hindus belonging to the nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party demolish the Babri Masjid, a 16th century mosque.
- 1997 - A Russian Antonov AN-124 transport cargo plane crashes into an apartment complex near Irkutsk, Siberia, killing 67.
- 2005 - David Cameron becomes leader of the Conservative Party, defeating David Davis.

Births


- 846 - Hasan al-Askari, Shia Imam (d. 874)
- 1285 - King Ferdinand IV of Castile (d. 1312)
- 1421 - King Henry VI of England (d. 1471)
- 1478 - Baldassare Castiglione, Italian diplomat and author (d. 1529)
- 1550 - Orazio Vecchi, Italian composer (baptism) (d. 1605)
- 1586 - Niccolo Zucchi, Italian astronomer (d. 1670)
- 1608 - George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, English soldier (d. 1670)
- 1637 - Sir Edmund Andros, English governor in North America (d. 1714)
- 1640 - Claude Fleury, French historian (d. 1723)
- 1642 - Johann Christoph Bach, German composer (d. 1703)
- 1721 - James Elphinston, British philologist (d. 1809)
- 1721 - Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French statesman (d. 1794)
- 1778 - Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850)
- 1792 - King William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849)
- 1805 - Adolf Reubke, German organ builder (d. 1875)
- 1805 - Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, French magician (d. 1861)
- 1823 - Friedrich Max Müller, German orientalist (d. 1900)
- 1833 - John Singleton Mosby, American Confederate guerrilla leader (d. 1916)
- 1841 - Frédéric Bazille, French painter (d. 1870)
- 1849 - August von Mackensen, German Field Marshal (d. 1945)
- 1863 - Charles Martin Hall, American chemist (d. 1914)
- 1872 - William S. Hart, American actor (d. 1946)
- 1875 - Evelyn Underhill, British poet (d. 1941)
- 1886 - Joyce Kilmer, American poet (d. 1918)
- 1890 - Rudolf Schlichter, German artist and writer (d. 1955)
- 1892 - Sir Osbert Sitwell, British author (d. 1969)
- 1896 - Ira Gershwin, American lyricist (d. 1983)
- 1898 - Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-born American photojournalist (d. 1995)
- 1898 - Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish economist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)
- 1900 - Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974)
- 1903 - Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player (d. 1946)
- 1905 - James J. Braddock, American boxer and World Heavyweight Champion (d. 1974)
- 1908 - Pierre Graber, Swiss Federal Councilor (d. 2003)
- 1913 - Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and Olympic gold medalist (d. 2004)
- 1917 - Kamal Jumblatt, leader of the Lebanese Druze (d. 1977)
- 1919 - Paul de Man, Belgian-born literary critic (d. 1983)
- 1920 - Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer
- 1920 - George Porter, British chemist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- 1921 - Otto Graham, American football player (d. 2003)
- 1928 - Bobby Van, American singer (d. 1980)
- 1929 - Alain Tanner, Swiss filmmaker
- 1929 - Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German conductor
- 1930 - Daniel Lisulo, Zambian Prime Minister
- 1933 - Henryk Górecki, Polish composer
- 1936 - David Ossman, American comedian
- 1942 - Peter Handke, Austrian writer
- 1945 - Larry Bowa, American baseball player
- 1948 - JoBeth Williams, American actress
- 1948 - Keke Rosberg, Finnish race car driver and Formula 1 World Champion
- 1950 - Joe Hisaishi, Japanese composer
- 1952 - Rick Charlesworth, Australian cricketer, politician, hockey player, and coach
- 1953 - Tom Hulce, American actor
- 1953 - Gary Ward, American baseball player
- 1955 - Steven Wright, American comedian
- 1955 - Rick Buckler, British drummer (The Jam)
- 1956 - Peter Buck, American guitarist (R.E.M.)
- 1956 - Randy Rhoads, American guitarist (d. 1982)
- 1958 - Xander Berkeley, American actor
- 1958 - Nick Park, British filmmaker and animator
- 1961 - David Lovering, American drummer (The Pixies)
- 1962 - Janine Turner, American actress
- 1967 - Hacken Lee, cantopop singer
- 1971 - Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player
- 1971 - Ryan White, American AIDS activist (d. 1990)
- 1976 - Colleen Haskell, American reality TV contestant
- 1977 - Kevin Cash, American baseball player
- 1977 - Andrew Flintoff, English test cricketer
- 1979 - Tim Cahill, Australian international footballer
- 1980 - Steve Lovell, British footballer
- 1993 - Elian Gonzalez, Cuban subject of child custody battle

Deaths


- 1185 - King Afonso I of Portugal (b. 1109)
- 1352 - Pope Clement VI (b. 1291)
- 1562 - Jan van Scorel Dutch painter and architect
- 1618 - Jacques-Davy Duperron, French cardinal (b. 1556)
- 1658 - Baltasar Gracián y Morales, Spanish writer (b. 1601)
- 1672 - King John II Casimir of Poland (b. 1609)
- 1675 - John Lightfoot, English churchman (b. 1602)
- 1718 - Nicholas Rowe, English poet and dramatist (b. 1674)
- 1746 - Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish songwriter (b. 1665)
- 1771 - Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist (b. 1682)
- 1779 - Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, French painter (b. 1699)
- 1788 - Jonathan Shipley, British bishop and politician (b. 1714)
- 1867 - Jean Pierre Flourens, French physician (b. 1794)
- 1868 - August Schleicher, German linguist (b. 1821)
- 1882 - Anthony Trollope, British author (b. 1815)
- 1882 - Alfred Escher, Swiss politician and railroad entrepreneur (b. 1819)
- 1889 - Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America (b. 1808)
- 1892 - Ernst Werner von Siemens, German inventor and industrialist (b. 1816)
- 1949 - Leadbelly (Huddie William Ledbetter), American blues musician (b. 1885)
- 1951 - Harold Ross, American magazine editor (b. 1892)
- 1955 - Honus Wagner, American baseball player (b. 1874)
- 1956 - Dr. Bhimji Ramji Ambedkar, Indian Minister of Law (b. 1891)
- 1961 - Frantz Fanon, West Indian psychiatrist and writer (b. 1925)
- 1976 - João Goulart, President of Brazil (b. 1918)
- 1985 - Burr Tillstrom, American puppeteer (b. 1917)
- 1988 - Roy Orbison, American singer, guitarist and songwriter (b. 1936)
- 1989 - Frances Bavier, American actress (b. 1902)
- 1990 - Pakistani broadcaster Syed Nasir Jahan died in Karachi
- 1991 - Sir Richard Stone, British economist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)
- 1993 - Don Ameche, American actor (b. 1908)
- 1997 - Billy Bremner, Scottish international footballer (b. 1942)
- 2001 - Sir Peter Blake, New Zealand sailor and environmentalist (b. 1948)
- 2002 - Philip Berrigan, American civil rights activist (b. 1923)
- 2003 - Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, President of Guatemala (b. 1918)
- 2003 - Jerry Tuite, American professional wrestler (b. 1966)
- 2004 - Raymond Goethals, Belgian international football coach (b. 1921)
- 2005 - Charly Gaul, Luxembourgian cyclist

Undated deaths


- Saint Nicholas of Myra

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - optional memorial of Saint Nicholas
- Also see December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Canada - National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women
- Finland - Finland Independence Day (from Russia, 1917)
- Spain - Constitution Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/6 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 5 - December 7 - November 6 - January 6 — listing of all days ko:12월 6일 ms:6 Disember ja:12月6日 simple:December 6 th:6 ธันวาคม

1285

For broader historical context, see 1280s and 13th century.

Events


- January 6 - Archbishop Jakub Świnka orders all priests subject to his bishopry in Poland to deliver sermons in Polish rather than German, thus further unifying the Catholic Church in Poland and fostering a national identity.
- April 25 - Mamluk sultan Qalawun begins a siege of the Crusader fortress of Margat (in present-day Syria), a major stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller thought to be impregnable; he captures the fortress a month later.
- September 4 - Roger of Lauria defeats King Philip III of France in a naval battle off of Barcelona.
- The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King Edward I of England, defines the jurisdictions of church and state in England, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
- The Second statute of Westminster is passed in England, reforming various laws; it includes the famous clause de donis conditionalibus, considered one of the fundamental institutes of medieval law in England.
- The English romantic poem The Lay of Havelok the Dane is written (approximate date).
- Tran Hung Dao leads Vietnamese forces in victory over an invading Yuan dynasty Mongol army.

Births


- March 9 - Emperor Go-Nijo of Japan (died 1308)
- May 1 - Edmund FitzAlan, 9th Earl of Arundel, English politician (died 1326)
- December 6 - King Ferdinand IV of Castile (died 1312)
- Patrick Dunbar, 9th Earl of Dunbar (died 1369)

Deaths


- March 28 - Pope Martin IV
- May 13 - Robert de Ros, 1st Baron de Ros
- May 20 - John II of Jerusalem, King of Cyprus (born 1259)
- October 5 - King Philip III of France (born 1245)
- November 11 - King Peter III of Aragon (born 1239)
- Daumantas, Grand Prince of Lithuania
- Tile Kolup, German imposter
- Philip I of Savoy (born 1207)
- Rutebeuf, French troubadour
- King Charles I of Sicily (born 1227) Category:1285 ko:1285년

1312

Events


- June 15 : Battle near Rozgoni
- Battle near Thebes
- Siege of Rostock begins
- Lancelotto Malocello, a Genoese navigator, sails to the island of Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands, and remains there for almost two decades.

Births


- November 13 - King Edward III of England (died 1377)
- Uzbeg Khan, Khan of the Golden Horde (died 1341)
- William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster (died 1333)

Deaths


- May 13 - Theobald II, Duke of Lorraine (born 1263)
- June 19 - Piers Gaveston, favourite of Edward II of England
- August 27 - Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (born 1262)
- September 7 - King Ferdinand IV of Castile (born 1285)
- October 27 - John II, Duke of Brabant (born 1275) Category:1312 ko:1312년

Castile

A former kingdom of Spain, Castile comprises the two regions of Old Castile in north-western Spain, and New Castile in the centre of the country.

History

Historically, the Castilian Kingdom and people were the architects of the Spanish State by a process of expansion to the South against the Muslims and of marriages, wars, assimilation, and annexation of its smaller Eastern and Western neighbours. Until the arrival of parliamentary democracy in 1977 the Castilian language alone had an official status in the Spanish State. Previously an eastern county of the kingdom of León, Castile in the 11th century became an independent realm with its capital at Burgos and later Valladolid, and the leading force in the northern Christian states' 400-year Reconquista ("reconquest") of central and southern Spain from the Muslim rulers who had dominated the peninsula since the 8th century. The capture of Toledo in 1085 added New Castile to the crown's territories, and the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) heralded the Muslim loss of most of the south. León was finally reunited with Castile in 1230, and the following decades saw the capture of Córdoba (1236), Murcia (1243) and Seville (1248). By the Treaty of Alcaçovas with Portugal on March 6, 1460, the ownership of the Canary Islands was transferred to Castile. The dynastic union of Castile and Aragon in 1469, when Ferdinand II of Aragon wed Isabella of Castile, would eventually lead to the formal creation of Spain as a single entity in 1516 when their grandson Charles V assumed both thrones. See List of Spanish monarchs and Kings of Spain family tree. The territory traditionally regarded as Castilian is now divided into the Spanish autonomous communities of Cantabria, Euskadi, Castile and Leon, Castile-La Mancha, Madrid and La Rioja.

Language

The language of Castile emerged as the primary language of Spain — known to many of its speakers as castellano and in English as Castilian or Spanish. See Names given to the Spanish language.

See also


- Early history of the Kingdom of León
- Later history of Spain
- List of Castile Kings ---- Two places in the United States of America have been named after this kingdom: Village of Castile and Town of Castile. Both are located in the state of New York. Asturias, Kingdom of Category:Former countries in Europe

1295

Events


- Mongol leader Ghazan Khan is converted to Islam, ending a line of Tantric Buddhist leaders.
- Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII begin having disagreements.
- Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire in Cambodia abdicates.
- Marco Polo returns to Italy from his travels to China.
- Edward I summons the Model Parliament.

Births


- September 16 - Elizabeth de Clare, English noblemwoman (died 1360)
- John IV, Duke of Brittany (died 1345)
- Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy (died 1350)
- Reginald de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (died 1361)
- Joanna of Flanders, military leader in the Breton War of Succession (approximate date; died 1374)
- Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine historian (approximate date; died 1360)
- Al-Nasr Muhammad, sultan of Egypt (died 1341)
- Saint Roch (approximate date; died 1327)

Deaths


- April 25 - King Sancho IV of Castile (born 1257)
- August 12 - Charles Martel d'Anjou (born 1271)
- December 7 - Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford, English politician (b. 1243)
- December 21 - Marguerite Berenger of Provence, queen of Louis IX of France (born c. 1221)
- Meinhard II of Gorizia-Tyrol (born 1238) Category:1295 ko:1295년

1312

Events


- June 15 : Battle near Rozgoni
- Battle near Thebes
- Siege of Rostock begins
- Lancelotto Malocello, a Genoese navigator, sails to the island of Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands, and remains there for almost two decades.

Births


- November 13 - King Edward III of England (died 1377)
- Uzbeg Khan, Khan of the Golden Horde (died 1341)
- William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster (died 1333)

Deaths


- May 13 - Theobald II, Duke of Lorraine (born 1263)
- June 19 - Piers Gaveston, favourite of Edward II of England
- August 27 - Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (born 1262)
- September 7 - King Ferdinand IV of Castile (born 1285)
- October 27 - John II, Duke of Brabant (born 1275) Category:1312 ko:1312년

Sancho IV of Castile

Sancho IV "the Brave" (1257/58 – April 25, 1295) was a king of Castile and León (1284 - 1295). He was the second son of Alfonso X and Violant of Aragon princess of Aragon and daughter of James I of Aragon the Conqueror. His elder brother, Ferdinand de la Cerda, died in November 1275, and in 1282 Sancho assembled a coalition of nobles to declare for him against Ferdinand's son Alfonso, then took control of the kingdom when Alfonso X died in 1284. Sancho IV married Maria de Molina in 1282 and they had the following children:
- Isabella (1283-1328). Married and divorced James II of Aragon.
- Ferdinand IV (1285-1312).
- Alfonso (1286-1291)
- Enrique (1288-1299)
- Pedro (1290-1319).
- Felipe (1292-1327). Married his cousin Margarita de la Cerda, daughter of Alfonso de la Cerda.
- Beatrice (1293-1359). Married Afonso IV of Portugal In 1291, Sancho led an expedition that captured the port of Tarifa from the Moors and his uncle don Juan. Just before succumbing to a fatal illness , he appointed his queen Maria de Molina to act as regent for his 9 year old son Ferdinand IV of Castile and Leon. He died in 1295 in Toledo. Category:Castilian monarchs Sancho IV of Castile Sancho IV of Castile ja:サンチョ4世 (カスティーリャ王)

Knights Templar

:For other uses of the term, see Templar (disambiguation). Templar (disambiguation) The largest, and most powerful of the Christian military orders, the Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon, originally named The Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple which is in Jerusalem is widely known as the Knights Templar. It was founded in 1118, in the aftermath of the First Crusade of 1096, to help the new Kingdom of Jerusalem maintain itself against its hostile Muslim neighbors, and to ensure the safety of the large numbers of European pilgrims who flowed towards Jerusalem after its conquest.

Organization

Jerusalem The Templars were organized as a monastic order, following a rule created for them by Bernard of Clairvaux, a member of the Cistercian Order. The Templars were well connected and quickly became embroiled in the politics of the Crusades period. In time, they were endowed with several extraordinary Papal bulls (see Omne Datum Optimum) that permitted them, among other things, to levy taxes and accept tithing in the areas under their direct control, facilitating their quick rise to institutional power. There were four divisions of brothers in the Templars:
- the knights, equipped as heavy cavalry;
- the sergeants, equipped as light cavalry and drawn from a lower social class than the knights;
- farmers, who administered the property of the Order;
- the chaplains, who were ordained priests and saw to the spiritual needs of the Order. At any time, each knight had some ten people in support positions. Some brothers were devoted solely to banking, as the Order was often trusted with precious goods by participants in the Crusades. But the majority of the Knights Templar were dedicated to warfare. It was primarily a military order directly responsible only to the Pope. Some consider the Knights Templar to be the forerunner of the modern professional army and elite special forces units. The Templars used their wealth to construct numerous fortifications throughout the Holy Land and were probably the best trained and disciplined fighting units of their day.

History

Their popular name alludes to their historical headquarters in what they supposed to be the Temple of Jerusalem on the Temple Mount. What the Templars thought was the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem, was in fact the Dome of the Rock [Arabic: Qubbat As-Sakhrah], an Islamic shrine on the summit of Mount Moriah which they renamed Templum Domini (Temple of the Lord). The summit is sacred to Jews and Christians as the Temple Mount as well as to Muslims as the Noble Sanctuary. The Templum Domini became the model for many subsequent Templar churches in Europe, such as the Temple Church in London, and is represented on several Templar seals. In addition to Palestine, the order fought in the Spanish and Portuguese Reconquista. The headquarters of the Templars in Tomar, Portugal, was in the Convento de Cristo. They were given extensive possessions and castles in frontier land. At one point, they were to inherit the kingdom of Aragon, jointly with other military orders. The Templar Knights were identifiable by their white surcoat with distinct red cross emblazoned above the heart or on the chest, as seen in many portrayals of crusading knights.

Banking

The Templars got into banking almost by accident. When members joined the order, they often donated large amounts of cash or property to the order since all had to take oaths of poverty. Combined with massive grants from the Pope, their financial power was assured from the beginning. Since the Templars kept cash in all their chapter houses and temples, it was natural that in 1135 the Order started lending money to Spanish pilgrims who wanted to travel to the Holy Land. The Knights' involvement in banking grew over time into a new basis for money, as Templars became increasingly involved in banking activities. One indication of their powerful political connections is that the Templars' involvement in usury did not lead to more controversy within the Order and the church at large. The charge was typically sidestepped, by a stipulation that the Templars retained the rights to the production of mortgaged property. The Templars' political connections and awareness of the essentially urban and commercial nature of the Outremer communities naturally led the Order to a position of significant power, both in Europe and the Holy Land. Their success attracted the concern of many other orders and eventually that of the nobility and monarchs of Europe as well, who were at this time seeking to monopolize control of money and banking after a long chaotic period in which civil society, especially the Church and its lay orders, had dominated financial activities. The Templars' holdings were extensive both in Europe and the Middle East, including for a time the entire island of Cyprus.

Ruin

Cyprus The fall of the Templars may have started over the matter of a loan. Philip IV, King of France needed cash for his wars and asked the Templars for money, who refused. The King tried to get the Pope to excommunicate the Templars for this but Pope Boniface VIII refused. Philip sent his councillor, Guillaume de Nogaret, in a plot to kidnap the Pope. Boniface VIII died only a month later from shock due to the attempt and ill treatment. The next Pope, Benedict XI, lifted the excommunication of Philip IV but refused to absolve de Nogaret. It is suspected that the Pope's death was from poisoning through an agent of Nogaret. The next Pope, Clement V, agreed to Philip IV's demands about the Templars, and later moved the papacy to Avignon. On October 13 (the unlucky Friday the 13th), 1307, what may have been all the Knights Templar in France were simultaneously arrested by agents of Philip the Fair, later to be tortured into admitting heresy in the Order. The dominant view is that Philip, who seized the treasury and broke up the monastic banking system, was jealous of the Templars' wealth and power, and sought to control it for himself. These events, and the Templars' original banking of assets for suddenly mobile depositors, were two of many shifts towards a system of military fiat to back European money, removing this power from Church orders. Seeing the fate of the Templars, the Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem and of Rhodes and of Malta were also convinced to give up banking at this time. Much of the Templar property outside of France was transferred by the Pope to the Knights Hospitaller, and many surviving Templars were also accepted into the Hospitallers. Many kings and nobles supported the Knights at that time, and only dissolved the order in their fiefs when so commanded by Pope Clement V. Robert the Bruce, the King of Scots, had already been excommunicated for other reasons, and was therefore not disposed to pay heed to Papal commands. In Portugal the order's name was changed to the Order of Christ, and was believed to have contributed to the first naval discoveries of the Portuguese. Prince Henry the Navigator led the Portuguese order for 20 years until the time of his death. In Spain, where the king of Aragon was also against giving the heritage of the Templars to Hospitallers (as commanded by Clement V), the Order of Montesa took Templar assets.

Claims of heresy

Order of MontesaDebate continues as to whether the accusation of religious heresy had merit by the standards of the time. Under torture, some Templars admitted to homosexual acts, and to the worship of heads and a mystery known as Baphomet. Their leaders later denied these admissions, and for that were executed. Some scholars discount these as forced admissions, typical during the Inquisition. Others argue that these accusations were in reality due to a misunderstanding of arcane rituals held behind closed doors which had their origins in the Crusaders' bitter struggle against the Saracens. These included denying Christ and spitting on the Cross three times, as well as kissing other men's buttocks. According to some scholars, and recently recovered Vatican documents, these acts were intended to simulate the kind of humiliation and torture that a Crusader might be subjected to if captured by the Saracens. According to this line of reasoning, they were taught how to commit apostasy with the mind only and not with the heart. As for the accusations of head-worship and Templars trying to syncretize Christianity with Islam, some scholars argue that the former referred to rituals involving the alleged relics of Saint Euphemia, one of Saint Ursula's eleven maidens, Hughes de Payens, and John the Baptist rather than pagan idols. The latter they ascribe to the chaplains creating the term Baphomet through the Atbash cipher to mystify the term Sophia (Greek for "wisdom"). Although gaining currency, this is a controversial interpretation since the more accepted interpretation is that Baphomet was an Old French bastardization of the word Mohammed. Conspiracy theories related to the suppression of the Knights Templar often go far beyond the suggested motive of seizing property and consolidating theopolitical power. At the same time, it is the Catholic Church's position that the persecution was unjust, that there was nothing wrong with the Templars, and that the Pope at the time was manipulated into suppressing them. The church's response at the time corroborates this position. The papal process started by Pope Clement V, to investigate both the Order as a whole and its members individually found virtually no knights guilty of heresy outside of France. Fifty-four knights were executed in France by French authorities as relapsed heretics after denying their original testimonies before the papal commission; these executions were motivated by Philip's desire to prevent any more Templars from having similar courageous ideas. It failed miserably, as many others testified against the charges of heresy in the ensuing papal investigation. In the end, the only three accused of heresy directly by the papal commission were Jacques de Molay and his two immediate subordinates; they were to renounce their heresy publicly, when de Molay regained his courage and proclaimed the order's and his innocence, along with one of his companions. The two were arrested by French authorities as relapsed heretics and burned at the stake in 1314. The papal commission found that the Order as a whole was not heretical, despite evidence of isolated incidences of heresy; and in fact were in support of the maintenance of the Order. Clement V, however, facing growing public opinion against the order, felt that the only choice was to suppress (ie, withdraw papal approval for) the order. An obvious point in favour of indicating Clement V by no means co-operated willingly with Philip was the passing of the majority of the Order's wealth and lands to the Hospitaller order (although some Templar lands were held by Philip and other European nobility for many years) in contradiction to Philip's wishes that their wealth in France be appropriated by him. A widely-known legend has it that as he burned at the stake Jacques de Molay, Grand Master of the Knights Templar, cursed King Philip and Pope Clement V to meet eternal justice within the year. Pope Clement V died only one month later and Philip IV seven months after that. Commentators were extremely pleased with such a development and often featured this story in their chronicles.

Self-styled orders and claims of descent

The Templars play strongly in both the ritual and foundation of various branches of modern Freemasonry. The Scottish Rite, which was formed in France in the 18th Century, includes references to the Templars in many of its ritual degrees — primarily the section known as "Council of Kadosh" (degrees 19–30) and the final two degrees (31 and 32), known as the "Consistory". Frank S. Land was serving in the DeMolay Council of Kadosh in post-World War I Kansas City, Missouri when he developed the idea for a fraternity for boys. Thus was born another modern Masonic organization related to the Templars in 1919 — the Order of DeMolay. While the organization was not directly descended from the Templars, its namesake Jacques de Molay, the last of the Grand Masters, is firmly entrenched in many of its rituals. The Commandery of Knights Templar is the third major branch of the York Rite and open only to Christians. York Rite and Chivalric Masonry claim to be inspired by the Templars, but are not direct descendants of them. Here also, the Templars are firmly enshrined in the orders and rituals. Some historians and authors have tried to draw a link from Freemasonry and its many branches to the Templars, with some Masonic organizations claiming a direct descent from them. This alleged link remains a point of debate. John J. Robinson makes a case for the Templar/Freemason connection in his book "Born in Blood: The Lost Secrets of Freemasonry." The Order of the Solar Temple was an example of a "neo-Templar" group, founded by Luc Jouret and Joseph Di Mambro in 1984, that fraudulently claimed descent from the original Knights Templar. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Masons Carl Kellner and Franz Hartmann based their Ordo Templi Orientis, or "Oriental Templar Order" (often abbreviated "OTO") drawing upon Templar lore and from the highest degrees of Freemasonry. They borrowed symbolism extensively from Rosicrucianism, Illuminism, and Eastern mysticism. Kellner and Hartmann were later joined by high ranking Mason Theodor Reuss and occultist Aleister Crowley, who jointly drew the movement away from Masonic and Templar rites and deeply into the occult. Although there are several self-styled orders that claim to be descended from, or revivals of, the Templar Order, an ecumenical Christian society based on the principles of chivalry, which styles itself as the Sovereign Military Order of the Temple of Jerusalem, (SMOTJ) was founded in 1804, with the support of Napoleon. It is dedicated to charitable works and antiquarian research. This "order," though not a genuine Order of Chivalry, operates on the basis of the traditions of the medieval Knights Templar. In 2001, the United Nations appointed the SMOTJ group as a non-governmental organization (NGO), which does not necessarily contribute to recognition as an Order of Chivalry. To be an Order of Chivalry in reality, an organization must be established as an Order by the country in which it is headquartered, with the head of State as its sovereign. SMOTJ has neither qualification. It is also important to note that SMOTJ is not connected in any way with any organization or aspect of Freemasonry.

Legends

The rapid succession of the last direct Capetian kings of France between 1314 and 1328, the three sons of Philip IV the Fair, led many to believe that the dynasty had been cursed – thus the name of "cursed Kings" (rois maudits). It is said that Jacques de Molay, the last master of the order, cursed King Philip while lying on his execution pyre. The Knights Templar later became surrounded by legends concerning secrets and mysteries handed down to the select from ancient times. Perhaps most well known are those concerning the Holy Grail, the Ark of the Covenant, and secrets of building. Some sources say the Holy Grail, or Sangreal, was found by the order and taken to Scotland during the scourging of the order in 1307, and that it remains buried beneath Rosslyn Chapel. Some say that the order also found the Ark of the Covenant, the chest which contained sacred objects of ancient Israel, including Aaron's rod and the tablets of stone inscribed by God with the Ten Commandments. These legends are connected with the long occupation by the order of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Some sources record that they discovered secrets of the Master Masons who had built the original and second temples secreted there, along with knowledge that the Ark had been moved to Ethiopia before the destruction of the first temple. Allusion to this is made in engravings on the Cathedral at Chartres (considered along with the Cathedrals at Amiens and Reims to be one of the best examples of gothic architecture), great influence over the building of which was had by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who was also influential in the formation of the order. Further links to both the search by the order for the Ark and to its discovery of ancient secrets of building are suggested by the existence of the monolithic Church of St George in Lalibela in Ethiopia, which stands to this day and whose construction is incorrectly attributed to the Knights Templar. There is also an underground church dated to the same period in Aubeterre in France. During the 14th century, England under King Edward II was at war with Scotland. In 1314 he engaged the Scots in battle at Bannockburn. A persistent tale would have it that the Scots won the battle largely due to the intervention of the Knights Templar on the side of their King Robert the Bruce. In reality, none of the contemporary or near contemporary accounts of the Battle of Bannockburn mention the Knights Templar at all, and it is certain that if the outlawed Templars had intervened on the side of the Scots, the chroniclers would have mentioned it. The tale is connected to Freemasonry and dates no earlier than the mid eighteenth century. Templars are also listed among the crew of Henry Sinclair's (Earl of the Orkneys) legendary voyage from Scotland to North America in 1398. There is growing speculation surrounding relics that would indicate the possibility that the Knights Templar possessed the charts of pre-Columbian voyages to America. Christopher Columbus' navigators were members of the extant Portuguese Templar Order, and the Templar cross was featured prominently on the sails of his ships in 1492. Fringe researchers and aficionados of esotericism have claimed that the order stored secret knowledge, linking them to the Rosicrucians, the Priory of Sion, the Rex Deus, the Cathars, the Hermetics, the Gnostics, the Essenes, and, ultimately, lost relics or teachings of Jesus such as the Shroud of Turin or a "Judas Testament."

Popular culture

The Knights Templar have had several influences on popular culture, most of them quite inaccurate:

Novels & comics


- A Templar Knight, Sir Brian de Bois-Gilbert, is the villain in Sir Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe (1820).
- Herman Melville treats the Templars ironically in his short work, "The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids" (1855).
- Templar Knight Hinkle Von Vampton serves as the main villain in Ishmael Reed's postmodernist satire Mumbo-Jumbo (1972).
- The Knight Templars legacy also features in Lawrence Durrell´s The Avignon Quintet (Monsieur (1974), Livia (1978), Constance (1982), Sebastian (1983), Quinx (1985)).
- The mythos of the Knights Templar as keepers and defenders of the Holy Grail is a central plot point in Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum (1988). Foucault's Pendulum slyly acknowledges the public perception of the Templars; one character tells a Templar scholar, "If somebody brings up the Templars, he is almost always a lunatic."
- The well-known Swedish author Jan Guillou has written a trilogy about Arn Magnusson, a fictional Swedish character from the Middle Ages who was forced to become a Knight Templar, went to Jerusalem and after returning to Sweden, was a leading military figure shortly before the time of Birger Jarl. The trilogy was well received both by critics and by the general public. The books have been translated into several languages, including German, Spanish and English. The trilogy, dubbed the Crusades trilogy, consists of the following books:
  - The road to Jerusalem (1998)
  - The Knight Templar (1999)
  - The kingdom at the end of the road (2000)
- Recent interest in Templar mythology (and Freemasonry) has been sparked by its prominent role in Dan Brown's apocryphal novel and bestseller, The Da Vinci Code (2003), and its movie adaptation.
- Katherine Kurtz has written many books with Templar characters and themes.
- Two Uncle Scrooge comic book stories by Don Rosa feature the finding of the treasure of the Templars.
- Several works by Michael Jecks feature the character of Bartholomew Baddlesmere, a former Knight Templar. Jecks also has a published work, The Last Templar, containing a description of the fall of the Templar order.
- The 8-part comic miniseries 1602 by Neil Gaiman involved the treasure of the Templars.

Films, video games & music


- The novel Ivanhoe has been the basis for three movies and numerous television adaptations.
- The mythos of the Knights Templar as keepers and defenders of the Holy Grail is also a central plot point in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989).
- The movie The Saint (1997) features a character assuming the name of Simon Templar, and the opening scene references the Knights Templar.
- Templar mythology (and Freemasonry) also has a prominent role in the 2004 movie, National Treasure.
- The 2005 film Kingdom of Heaven shows the incompetent last King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan, and his bloodthirsty henchman, Reynald de Chatillon, as Templars, but historically this is inaccurate.
- A quartet of horror films (Tombs of the Blind Dead, Return of the Evil Dead, The Ghost Galleon, and Night of the Seagulls) by Spanish director Amando de Ossorio depict the Knights Templar as resurrected mummies in search of human blood.
- The Templars are mentioned in various video games such as Ion Storm's Deus Ex, Deus Ex 2 and Revolution Software's Broken Sword adventure series. Many of these plots are derived one way or another from the Illuminatus trilogy.
- The Black Templars Chapter of Space Marines from the Warhammer 40,000 tabletop wargame are based directly on the historical Knights Templar.
- Knights of the Temple: Infernal Crusade, from 2004 by TDK and Starbreeze.
- The Knights Templar feature as playable characters in Flagship Studios' upcoming game, Hellgate London.
- The doom metal band Cathedral wrote a song called Templars Arise! (The Return), found on 2001's Endtyme album.
- The Templars (band) a NYC Oi! band is inspired by the Knights Templar, it is where the bands name is from, also the albums titled "The Poor Knights of Acre" 1993 Sonic Aggression Records, "Return of Jacques de Molay" 1994 Dim Records, "1118-1312" 1997 Do A Runner/Go-Kart Records,"Night of the Seagulls" 1997 Headache Records, "Omne Datum Optimum" 1999 GMM Records, "Milites Templi" 2000 TKO Records/Templecombe Records, and "Outremer" 2005 GMM records. are dervied from events and locations of The Kinghts Templar. The Album "Omne Datum Optimum" 1999 GMM Records has a song titled "The Templars" With a verse as follows. "Scarlet cross on a field of white Fighting for what they believe is right Punished by the church and the state Condemned to die , burning at the stake" Also the song "Night of the Seagulls" has Knights Templar related lyrics as follows. "The spirit of De Payens lives in their hearts De Molays death gave them a start You wanna know how many will be dead Just look at the beach and count all the heads Back to the sea before the crack of damn Till the time’s right for this hell-spawn Then it’ll be time for you to run again Unless you think you can stop these undead"
- Templecombe Records The Templars (band) a NYC Oi! bands own label (in conjunction with TKO Records) is from a Knights Templar site in Sommerset England

Grand Masters from 1118 to 1314

Oi!) seal depicting the Temple of Jerusalem]] # Huguens de Payns (1118-1136) # Robert de Craon (Robertus Burgundio) (1136-1146) # Everard des Barres (Ebrardus de Barris) (1146-1149) # Bernard de Tremelay (1149-1153) # André de Montbard (1153-1156) # Bertrand de Blanchefort (1156-1169) # Philippe de Milly (Philippus de Neapoli/de Nablus) (1169-1171) # Odo (Eudes) de St Amand (Odon de Saint-Chamand) (1171-1179) # Arnaud de Toroge (Arnaldus de Turre Rubea/de Torroja )(1179-1184) # Gérard de Ridefort (1185-1189) # Robert de Sablé (Robertus de Sabloloi) (1191-1193) # Gilbert Horal (Gilbertus Erail/Herail /Arayl /Horal/Roral) (1193-1200) # Phillipe de Plessis Plaissie`/ Plesse` /Plessiez (1201-1208) # Guillaume de Chartres (Willemus de Carnoto) (1209-1219) # Pierre (Pedro) de Montaigu (Petrus de Monteacuto) (1219-1230) # Armand de Périgord (Hermannus Petragoricensis aka Hermann de Pierre-Grosse) (1232-1244) # Richard de Bures (1245-1247) # Guillaume de Sonnac (Guillelmus de Sonayo) (1247-1250) # Renaud de Vichiers (Rainaldus de Vicherio) (1250-1256) # Thomas Bérard (1256-1273) # Guillaume de Beaujeu (Guillelmus de Belloico) (1273-1291) # Thibaud Gaudin (Thiband Ggandin) (1291-1292) # Jacques de Molay (1292-1314) Templars List

Places associated with the Knights Templar

Templars List
- Oak Island, Nova Scotia (fabled western outpost)
- Bannockburn, site of the Battle of Bannockburn in Scotland
- Rosslyn Chapel and Orphir Church in Scotland
- Lundy Island, Devon, England
- Westerdale, North Yorkshire, England
- Hertford, England [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1382899,00.html the Guardian]
- Holy Sepulchre in Cambridge, England [http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/england/cambridge/roundchurch/roundchurch.html Round Church]
- St Sepulchre's in Northampton, England
- Temple Church, Inner Temple, London, England
- Island of Bornholm Denmark
- La chapelle saint-Georges d'Ydes in France
- Church at Laon in France
- Round Church of Lanleff in Brittany, France
- Tempelhof in Berlin, Germany
- Chapel Chwarszczany in Poland
- Convento de Cristo, Castle of Tomar and Church of Santa Maria do Olival in Tomar, Portugal.
- Castle of Almourol, Idanha, Monsanto, Pombal and Zêzere in Portugal
- Castle of Soure, Coimbra, Portugal
- Quinta da Regaleira in Sintra, Portugal
- Irrigation system in Aragon, Spain
- The castle of Barberà in Spain
- The castle of Ponferrada in Spain
- Church of San Jacopo in Campo Corbolini, in Florence Italy
- Kolossi Castle in Cyprus
- Krak des Chevaliers (Castle of the Knights Hospitaller) Syria
- Chastel Blanc Syria
- Temple Mount, Dome of the Rock, and Well of Souls in Jerusalem

See also


- Acre, Palestine
- Albigensian Crusade
- Council of Vienne
- Geoffrey de Charney
- Hashshashin
- History of Freemasonry
- Knights Hospitaller
- Knights of St Thomas
- Montesa
- Rosslyn Chapel
- Templars in England
- Teutonic Knights
- The Marriage of the Virgin
- Knights Templar Seal Articles related to the Templar's Tradition heirs
- Order of Christ
- Freemasonry
- Rosicrucian
- Militia Templi

External links


- [http://www.knightstemplar.org Grand Encampment Knights Templar of the United States of America (Masonic)]
- [http://www.demolay.org DeMolay International]
- [http://www.thelodgeroom.com/bodies.html Masonic Bodies]
- [http://www.supremecouncil.org Scottish Rite Freemasonry (Northern Masonic Jurisdiction - USA)]
- [http://www.frpd.org/historical/skeleton.htm Skeleton in the Armor]A Fall River police report on a Templar relic in New England
- [http://www.osmth.org/ Sovereign Military Order of the Temple of Jerusalem]
- [http://www.templarhistory.com/ Templar History Magazine]
- [http://www.yorkrite.com York Rite Freemasonry]
- [http://www.siol-nan-gaidheal.com/templar.htm The Ancient Scottish Military Order of Knights Templar, Black Chapter]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14493a.htm New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia]
- Category:Secret societies ja:テンプル騎士団

Anarchy (word)

Anarchy (New Latin anarchia, from Greek ανα–, "no" + αρχη, "rule") is a term that has several usages. Specific meanings include # Absence of any form of state. See anarchism. # Societal harmony through voluntary cooperation. See anarchism. # Political disorder and confusion. See anomie. # Absence of a ruler, ruling class, ruling political party or parties, or power elite. See anarchism. Category:Anarchism simple:Anarchy

Constance of Portugal (1285-1313)

Constance (Portuguese: Constança), Princess of Portugal was a daughter of Portuguese King Denis. She was born on January 3 1290 and became Queen of Castile when she married Castilian King Ferdinand IV. From Ferdinand IV she had three children:
- Leonor (1307-1359), married King Alfonso IV of Aragon
- Constanza (1308-1310)
- Alfonso XI of Castile (1311-1350) Constance of Portugal died November 18 1313.

1307

Events


- July - The Knights Hospitaller begin their conquest of Rhodes.
- September 5 - Pope Clement V confirms the Knights Hospitaller possession of Rhodes, although only Feracle had fallen to their attacks.
- October 13 - All Knights Templar in France are simultaneously arrested by agents of Phillip the Fair, to be later tortured into "admitting" heresy.
- November 18 - (Legendary) - William Tell shoots an apple off his son's head.
- Edward II becomes King of England.
- Per Abad writes the codex of the Cantar de mio Cid.

Deaths


- April 7 - Joan of Acre, daughter of King Edward I of England (born 1271)
- July 4 - Rudolph I of Bohemia (born 1281)
- July 7 - King Edward I of England (born 1239)
- Leo IV of Armenia (born 1289)
- Emperor Chengzong of Yuan China
- Guillaume de Gisors, grand master of the Priory of Sion (born 1219)
- Hethum II of Armenia (born 1266) Category:1307 ko:1307년

Alfonso IV of Aragon

Alfonso IV of Aragon, surnamed the Kind (Catalan: Alfons el Benigne) was the king of Aragon and count of Barcelona (as Alfonso III) from 1327 to 1336. Born in 1299 and died January 24 1336, he was the second son of James II of Aragon and Blanche of Anjou. He became heir after his older brother James renounced his rights to become a monk. He married Teresa of Entença and Antillon (1300-1327), heiress of Urgell. With this marriage, Urgell was definitively incorporated into the crown of Aragon. After widowing, he married Leonor de Castile, who should have been his brother James' wife but he refused to consumate the marriage. She was the sister of Alfonso XI of Castile and was murdered by her nephew Peter I of Castile.

Children

By Teresa of Entença:
- Alfons (lived only one year).
- Peter IV
- James (Jaume), Count of Urgell (1320-1347). He also inherited Entença and Antillon.
- Fadrique (died young).
- Constança (1322-1346), married James III of Majorca.
- Elizabeth (died young).
- Sanç (1327, lived only a few days). By Leonor de Castile:
- Ferdinand (Ferran), Marquis of Tortosa. Married Maria of Portugal (daughter of Peter I of Portugal) and was killed by his half-brother Peter IV.
- John (Joan). Married Isabel Núñez de Lara and was killed by order of his cousin Peter I of Castile. Category:Aragonese monarchs Category:Counts of Barcelona Category:1299 births Category:1366 deaths ja:アルフォンソ4世 (アラゴン王)

1310

Events


- May 11 - In France, 64 members of the Knights Templar are burned at the stake for heresy
- Abulfeda becomes governor of Hama.
- The first purpose-built accommodation for students (Mob Quad) completed in Merton College, Oxford, England.

Births


- Laura, beloved of Petrarch (died 1348)
- Gil Alvarez De Albornoz, Spanish cardinal
- Casimir III of Poland (died 1370)
- Hugh IV of Cyprus (died 1359)
- Pope Urban V (died 1370)

Deaths


- October 1 - Beatrice of Burgundy, Lady of Bourbon (born 1257)
- Arnolfo di Cambio, Italian architect and sculptor (born 1232)
- Baibars II, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt Category:1310 ko:1310년

1311

Events


- Bolingbroke Castle passes to the House of Lancaster.
- March 15 - the Catalan Company defeats Walter V of Brienne to take control of the Duchy of Athens.
- A committee of twenty-one English barons draw up a series of ordinances, which substituted ordainers for the King (Edward II) as the effective government of the country.

Births


- June 24 - Philippa of Hainault, queen of Edward III of England (died 1369)
- August 13 - King Alfonso XI of Castile (died 1350)
- Peter I, Duke of Bourbon (died 1356)
- Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut (died 1356)
- Joan II of Navarre, daughter of King Louis X of France (died 1349)

Deaths


- March 15 - Walter V of Brienne, Duke of Athens
- Antony Bek, bishop of Durham
- David VIII of Georgia (born 1273)
- James II of Majorca (born 1243)
- Bernard Saisset, Occitan bishop of Pamiers (born 1232)
- Arnold of Villanova, Spanish alchemist and physician (born 1235)
- Emperor Wuzong of Yuan China Category:1311 ko:1311년

Gibraltar

Gibraltar is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. It is located in southwestern Europe adjoining the southern coast of Spain, a strategic location on the Strait of Gibraltar that links the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, also placing it between Europe and Africa. The British Armed Forces had a major presence on the territory, and although the forces' presence now is much reduced, there are many reminders of their previous importance. The issue of sovereignty over Gibraltar is a major issue of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations. Spain often requests the return of sovereignty over Gibraltar. A majority of 98.97% of the population voted in a referendum in November, 2002 not to share sovereignty. Gibraltar is a part of the European Union, having joined under the British Treaty of Accession, with exemption from some areas such as the Customs Union & Common Agricultural Policy. The name of the rock comes from the Arabic name of Jebel Tarik (جبل طارق) meaning Tariq's mountain. It refers to the Ummayad general Tariq ibn-Ziyad who led the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711 at the head of an army of Berbers, Syrians and Yemenis. Earlier it was Calpe, one of the Columns of Hercules. Today, Gibraltar is also known colloquially as 'Gib' or 'the Rock'.

History

Columns of Hercules

Politics

Main article: Politics of Gibraltar, see also Disputed status of Gibraltar. As an overseas territory of the UK, Gibraltar has had considerable internal self-government since the introduction of its present constitution in 1969. The Governor of Gibraltar, appointed by Queen Elizabeth II, is responsible for defence, foreign relations, internal security and financial stability. All other matters, defined as 'domestic', are the responsibility of the Council of Ministers, with the leader of the majority party in the elected House of Assembly appointed as Chief Minister. The issue of sovereignty continues to dominate Gibraltar politics. Both main political parties, the Gibraltar Social-Democrats (GSD) and the Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP) are opposed to any transfer of sovereignty to Spain. Spain continues to request the return of sovereignty over the territory, and the British Government, whilst stating that no change would take place without the consent of the people of Gibraltar, in 2002 accepted the principle of joint sovereignty between the United Kingdom and Spain. All local political parties opposed this move, instead supporting self-determination for the Rock, as do the main UK opposition parties. The notion of accepting an arrangement with Spain was resoundingly rejected by the population in two referenda held in 1967 and in 2002, the latter just months after the joint sovereignty principle was accepted by the British government. On both occasions well over 95 percent of voters said they wanted to remain British; on the latter occasion, the percentage was 98.97 percent. (For details on Gibraltar's status in the EU, see Special member state territories and their relations with the EU.)

Defence

Defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Military forces are commanded by [http://www.northwood.mod.uk/pjobs/gibraltar/gib.htm Headquarters British Forces Gibraltar].

Army

The army garrison