:: wikimiki.org ::

Formia

Formia

Formia is a small town/city on the Mediterranean Coast of Italy. It is located halfway between Rome and Naples, and lies on the Roman-era Appian Way. Formia was founded by ancient Romans. Cicero was assassinated on the Appian Way outside the town, and his tomb remains a minor tourist destination. As far as small towns go, it's full of excitement. The main avenue is via Vitruvio, 10-12 blocks packed with small boutiques and gelaterias (ice-cream parlors). There are a few nice beaches next to Formia. Terracina, Gaeta, and Sperlonga are three towns next to Formia that have nice beaches. Formia itself is not really a beach town, but more of a transportation hub. The Rome-Naples rail line passes through Formia, and visitors and residents travel by bus to Gaeta, Minturno, Spigno and other local towns. Ferries carry tourists to Ponza, Ischia and other destinations that require travel by sea. ---- Category:Coastal towns of Lazio

Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km² (965 000 mi²). It is also called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea in oceanography to distinguish it from other mediterranean seas in the world. It was a superhighway of transport in ancient times, allowing for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region — Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and the Middle-East (Arab/Persian/Semitic) cultures. The history of the Mediterranean is important in understanding the origin and development of Western Civilization.

Name

The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin mediterraneus, 'inland' (medius, 'middle' + terra, 'land, earth'), in Greek "mesogeios". The Mediterranean Sea has been known by a number of alternative names throughout human history. It was, for example, commonly called Mare Nostrum (Latin, Our Sea) by the Romans. In the Bible, it is referred to as the Great Sea or the Western Sea. In modern Hebrew, it is called "ha-Yam ha-Tichon" (הים התיכון), "the middle sea", a literal adaptation of the German equivalent Mittelmeer. In Turkish, it is Akdeniz, "the white sea". In Arabic, it is Al-Bakhr Al-Abiad Al-Muttawasit, "the middle white sea". Currently, "The Med" is a common English language contraction for the Mediterranean Sea and its surrounding regions when employed in informal speech.

Geography

Turkish The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar on the west and to the Sea of Marmara and Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, on the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The man-made Suez Canal in the south-east connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. Tides are very limited in the Mediterranean as a result of the narrow connection with the ocean. The Mediterranean climate is generally one of wet winters and hot, dry summers. Special crops of the region are olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork. The region has a long history of civilization. Large islands in the Mediterranean include:
- Cyprus, Crete, Euboea and Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean
- Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and Malta in the central Mediterranean
- Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic Islands) in the western Mediterranean

Bordering countries

Modern states bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:
- Europe (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, the island state of Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, and the island state of Cyprus.
- Asia (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the Gaza Strip and Egypt.
- Africa (from east to west): Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco

Subdivisions

Morocco] The Mediterranean Sea is sub-divided into a number of smaller seas, each with their own designation (from west to east):
- the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco,
- the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy),
- the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily,
- the Adriatic Sea between the Italian peninsula and the Dalmatian coast,
- the Ionian Sea between Italy and Greece,
- the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey, with
- the Thracian Sea in its north,
- the Mirtoon Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnesos,
- the Sea of Crete north of Crete, and
- the Sea of Marmara between the Aegean and Black Seas. In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:
- the Gulf of Lyon, south of France
- the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy
- the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy,
- the Gulf of Haifa, between Haifa and Akko, Israel
- the Gulf of Sidra, between Tunisia and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)
- the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia
- the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy
- the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica
- the Gulf of Iskenderun, between Iskenderun and Adana(Turkey).
- the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya(Turkey).

Geology

The geology of the Mediterranean is complex, involving the break-up and then collision of the African and Eurasian plates, and the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the late Miocene when the Mediterranean dried up. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 meters (about 3.27 miles) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km. A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions (which in turn are divided into subdivisions), the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Western Mediterranean covers an area of about 0.85 million km² and the Eastern Mediterranean about 1.65 million km². In the last few centuries, humankind has done much to alter Mediterranean geology. Structures have been built all along the coastlines, exacerbating and rerouting erosional patterns. Many pollution-producing boats travel the sea that unbalance the natural chemical ratios of the region. Beaches have been mismanaged, and the overuse of the sea's natural and marine resources continues to be a problem. This misuse speeds along and/or confounds natural processes. The actual geography has also been altered by the building of dams and canals. The Mediterranean was once thought to be the remnant of the Tethys Ocean. It is now known to be a structurally younger ocean basin known as Neotethys. Neotethys formed during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic rifting of the African and Eurasian plates. There have been theories that the Mediterranean reflooded after Man reached the area, causing the Biblical Flood legend. However, the Strait of Gibraltar is too deep to have dried out in the Ice Age, and the Flood legend may recall the Black Sea re-flooding.

Ecology

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian Salinity Crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a salt-water river that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hypersaline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalized with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonize the eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the eastern Mediterranean, which has made conditions there even more like the Red Sea. This species exchange is known as the Lessepsian Migration, after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the engineer who oversaw the canal's construction.

External Links

- [http://www.planbleu.org/indexUK.html Planblue - Environment and Development in the Mediterranean Region]
- Category:Seas zh-min-nan:Tē-tiong-hái ko:지중해 ja:地中海 th:ทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน

Rome

Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma) is the capital of Italy and of its Latium region. It is located on the Tiber and Aniene rivers, near the Mediterranean Sea, at . The Vatican City, a sovereign enclave within Rome, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the home of the Pope. Rome is the largest city and comune in Italy; the comune or municipality is one of the largest in Europe with an area of 1290 square kilometers. Within the city limits, the population is 2,823,807 (2004); almost 4 million live in the general area of Rome as represented by the province of Rome. The current mayor of Rome is Walter Veltroni. With a GDP of €75 billion (higher than New Zealand's and equivalent to Singapore's — all three have roughly the same population of around 4 million), in the year 2001 the comune of Rome produced 6.5% of Italy's total GDP, the highest rate among all of Italy's cities. The city's history extends nearly 2,800 years, during which time it has been the seat of ancient Rome (the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, Roman Empire), and later the Papal States, Kingdom of Italy and Italian Republic.

History

Demographics

Throughout its long history Rome has been a centre of learning, trade and commerce. The native Italian population have shared their city throughout the ages with migrants from across Europe and the wider world. In ancient times a large proportion of the population were foreign merchants, slaves, officials and their descendants who came from across the wide empire which bore the city's name. Today the population is very diverse with immigrants thought to make up as much as 20% of the population of the city.

Economy

Today Rome has a dynamic and diverse economy concentrating on innovation, technologies, communications and the service sector. They produce 6.5% of the national GDP (more than any other city in the Italy) and continues to grow at a higher rate than those in the rest of the country. Tourism is inevitably one of Rome's chief industries. The city is also a centre for banking, publishing, insurance, fashion, high-tech industries, housing, cinema (particularly at the famous Cinecittà studios, dubbed the "Hollywood on the Tiber"), and the aerospace industries. Many international headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the E.U.R. (Esposizione Universale Roma); the Torrino (further south from the E.U.R.); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina.

Transportation

Esposizione Universale Roma district.]] Esposizione Universale Roma) from the park around the artificial lake. Rome, EUR district.]] Rome has an intercontinental airport named Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport - FCO, but more commonly known as Fiumicino, which also is Italy's chief airport, and the Giovan-Battista Pastine international airport (commonly referred to as Ciampino Airport), a joint civilian and military airport southeast of the city-center, along the Via Appia, which handles mainly charter flights and regional European flights including some low-cost airlines. A third airport, called Aeroporto dell'Urbe, is located in the north of the city along the ancient Via Salaria and handles mainly helicopters and private flights. A fourth airport, called Aeroporto di Centocelle, in the eastern part of Rome between the Via Prenestina and the Via Casilina, has been abandoned for some years now, but is currently being redeveloped as one of the largest public parks in Rome. A subway system operates in Rome called the "Metropolitana" or Rome Metro which was opened in 1955. There are 2 lines (A & B), a third (C) and a new branch of the B-line (B1) are under construction, while a fourth line (D) has been planned. The frequent archaeological findings delay underground work. Today's (2005) total length is 38 km. The two existing lines, A & B, only intersect at one point, Termini Station, the main train station in Rome (which also is the largest train station in Europe, underneath and around which exists now a lively shopping center known as the "Forum Termini" with more than 100 shops of various types). Other stations includes: Tiburtina (second-largest, which is currently being redeveloped and enlarged to become the main high-speed train hub in the city), Ostiense, Trastevere, Tuscolana, S. Pietro, Casilina, Torricola. The Rome Metro is part of an extensive transport network made of a tramway network, several suburban and urban lines in and around the city of Rome, plus an "express line" to Fiumicino Airport. Whereas most FS-Regionale lines (Regional State Railways) do provide mostly a suburban service with more than 20 stations scattered throughout the city, the Roma-Lido (starting at Ostiense station), the Roma-Pantano (starting nearby Termini) and the Roma-Nord (starting at Flaminio station) lines offer a metro-like service. Rome also has a comprehensive bus system. The web site (translated in english) of the [http://www.atac.roma.it/index.asp?lng=2 public transportation company (ATAC)] allows a route to be calculated using the buses and subways. [http://www.atac.roma.it/biglietti/index.asp?COD=320&LNG=2 Metrebus integrated fare system] allows holders of tickets and integrated passes to travel on all companies vehicles, within the validity time of the ticket purchased. Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to the banning of unauthorized traffic from the central part of city during workdays from 6.00 a.m to 6 p.m. (this area is officially called Zona a Traffico Limitato, Z.T.L. in short). Heavy traffic due to night-life crowds during week-ends led in recent years to the creation of other Z.T.L.s in the Trastevere and S. Lorenzo districts during the night, and to the experimentation of a new night Z.T.L. also in the city center (plans to create a night Z.T.L. in the Testaccio district as well are underway). In recent years, parking-spaces along the streets in wide areas of the city have been converted to pay-parkings, as new underground parkings spread throughout the city. In spite of all these measures, traffic remains an unsolved problem, as in the rest of the world's cities.

Education

Z.T.L. Rome continues to be the major education and research center of Italy, with many major universities that offer degrees in all fields. Among the prestigious educational establishments in Rome is the University of Rome La Sapienza (founded 1303), which is Europe’s biggest university with almost 150,000 students. The city is also home to three other public universities: Università degli studi di Roma “Tor Vergata”, more commonly called Roma 2, University of Roma Tre and the Istituto Universitario di Scienze Motorie. Undisputed as the greatest repository of western art of the last 3,000 years of human history, Rome is home to many foreign academic institutions, as well, such as The American Academy, The British School, The French Institute, The German Archaeological Institute, The Swedish Institute, and The Finnish Institute, The Japan Foundation. Several private universities are as well located in Rome, as:
- LUISS University (Libera università internazionale degli studi sociali), probably the most prestigious private university in Rome;
- Università Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore, a renowned university in Italy;
- John Cabot University, a private American University;
- LUMSA University (Libera Universita Maria SS. Assunta);
- University of Malta, an International University;
- Libera Università di Roma "Leonardo da Vinci";
- Libera Università Degli Studi "S. Pio V";
- UPTER University;
- I.S.S.A.S. University. Still located in Rome are the Accademia di Santa Cecilia - the world's oldest academy of music (founded 1584), St. John's University's Rome campus which is located at the Pontificio Oratorio San Pietro, several academies of fine arts, colleges of the church, medical and Health research instituts.

Monuments and sights

- See Wikipedia's category "Monuments and sights of Rome"

Houses of worship

Churches

Rome is home to over 900 churches.

Basilicas

Patriarchal basilicas

- San Giovanni in Laterano (St. John in Lateran)
- San Pietro in Vaticano (St. Peter's)
- San Paolo fuori le Mura (St. Paul outside the Walls)
- Santa Maria Maggiore (St. Mary Major)
- San Lorenzo fuori le Mura (St. Lawrence outside the Walls)

Other basilicas

- Sant'Agnese fuori le mura (St. Agnes outside the Walls)
- Sant'Andrea delle Fratte
- Santi Apostoli (Holy Apostles)
- San Bernardo alle Terme
- San Clemente (St. Clement)
- Santi Cosma e Damiano (SS. Cosmas and Damian)
- Santa Croce in Gerusalemme
- San Lorenzo in Lucina
- San Marco (St. Mark)
- Santa Maria degli Angeli
- Santa Maria in Aracoeli
- Santa Maria sopra Minerva
- San Martino ai Monti
- San Pietro in Vincoli (St. Peter in Chains)
- Santa Prassede (St. Praxedis)
- San Saba
- Santa Sabina
- San Sebastiano fuori le mura
- Santi Quattro Coronati
- Santa Maria in Trastevere

Other important churches

The following do not yet have Wikipedia articles, but are important nonetheless:
- San Giorgio al Velabro;
- San Giovanni dei Fiorentini;
- San Lorenzo in Miranda (temple of Antoninus and Faustina)
- Santi Marcellino e Pietro;
- Santa Maria della Pace;
- Santa Maria dei Monti;
- Santo Stefano Rotondo;

Non-Christian places of worship

- Great Synagogue of Rome
- Great Mosque of Rome and Islamic Cultural Center Image:Sicht vom petersdom roma.jpg|View over Rome from St. Peter's Basilica. Image:RomeSinagogue.jpg|Rome's main Synagogue in the old Jewish Ghetto district, on the banks of the Tiber river.

Administrative subdivision of Rome

The Administrative subdivision of Rome consists in the division of the large territory of Rome into 19 Districts.

Province of Rome

Rome is the capital of a province, with an area of 5,352 sq. km, and a total population of 3,700,424 (2001) in 120 comuni. The province can be viewed as the extended metropolitan area of the town of Rome, although in its more peripheral portions, especially to the north, it comprises towns surrounded by firmly rural landscape, just as towns elsewhere thruout Italy.

Markets and shopping areas

Porta Portese

Street market on Sunday mornings, from very early to around 1pm, on the left bank of the Tiber, between Porto Portese and Stazione Trastevere, centred on Via Portuense. The wares are mainly clothes, both old and new. The second-hand clothing stalls are by far the more popular, with the clothes sorted by type (leathers and furs, jeans, coats, children’s clothes, etc) and piled on large tables with everything at the same (low) price. Tables start at 50c, and range up to 20 euro for high-quality leather and fur.

Campo de' Fiori

Campo de' Fiori is one of the oldest markets in Rome, where food and flowers are most frequently found. Though the name literally means "field of flowers," there are no fields in sight; it's in the middle of downtown Rome, off of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele II. The market is open every morning of the week except Sunday. Campo de' Fiori, surrounded by many bars and restaurants, is also a popular destination at night for locals and foreigners alike.

Symbols and trivia

Rome is commonly identified by several proper symbols, including the Colosseum, the she-wolf (Lupa capitolina), the imperial eagle, and the symbols of Christianity. The famous acronym SPQR recalls the ancient age and the unity between Roman Senate and Roman people. Rome is called "L'Urbe" (The City), "Caput mundi" (head of the world), "Città Eterna" (eternal city), and "Limen Apostolorum" (the threshold of the apostles). The town's colors are golden yellow and red (garnet): they stand, respectively, for christian and imperial dignities. Rome has two holidays of its own: April 21 (the founding of Rome), and June 29 (the feast of its patron saints, Peter and Paul). Other locally important dates are December 8 (the Immaculate Conception) and January 6 (Epiphany). The Grande Raccordo Anulare (commonly shortened "Il GRA" or "Il Raccordo"), which is more than 80 km long, once encircled the city. Rome has since grown past this round motorway, with new districts well beyond it. Some proverbs about the Eternal City:
- When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
- All roads lead to Rome.
- Rome wasn't built in a day. During its long history, Rome has always had a scarcity of native inhabitants, so by tradition a "true" Roman is one whose family has lived in Rome for no less than 7 generations: this is the original "Romano de Roma" (in Romanesco, the local dialect of Italian). For the autonomistic party Lega Nord, Rome is the symbol of the allegedly parasytical Italian central government, crystalized in their slogan Roma ladrona ("Thief Rome"). Image:Roma01.jpg|Senatus PopulusQue Romanus. Great Seal of Rome's municipality Image:polizia-roma.gif|Seal of Rome's City Police, with the seal and the she-wolf.

Events

Roma Europa Festival, September Annual appointment for modern art and theatre, music and dance, with artists from of all Europe. Festival Romics, October Comics and Cartoon Festival: exhibitions, cartoon film showings of designers and publishing companies. Roma Jazz Festival, October Festival of jazz music since of 1876. Italian and international artists. Roman Summers, from June to September Various events from music to theater, literary meetings and cinema. Events that take place in the most characteristic places in Rome that attract the participation of thousands of artists from all over the world.

Cultural Events

White Night

Series of events at venues throughout Rome on September: concerts, special outdoor performances, churches and monuments open to the public during, museums open all night with free entrance, shops open all nights. ([http://www.lanottebianca.it/index.asp?lang=en&destinazione=cosa_])

External links

- [http://www.comune.roma.it/cultura/ Official Site of the City of Rome]
- [http://www.romasotterranea.it/ Roma Sotterranea/Subterranean Rome]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/home.html Bill Thayer's Gazetteer of Rome]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Arc/5319/eng.htm Andrea Pollett's Virtual Roma]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/9259/roma_ant.htm Roma Antica e Roma Moderna], in Italian
- [http://www.forbeginners.info/rome/ Rome for Beginners]
- [http://www.alberghi-a.roma.it/info.htm Informations and useful numbers about Rome]

Ancient Rome

- [http://www.romeartlover.it/Rome.htm Rome in the footsteps of an XVIIIth Century traveller]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/ Encyclopædia Romana, by James Grout]
- [http://www.maquettes-historiques.net/page4.html La maquette de Rome]
- [http://intranet.grundel.nl/thinkquest/introduction.html "Forum Romanum", a ThinkQuest site]
- [http://www.vroma.org/~forum/ "Forum Romanum" Project at VRoma]

Christian Rome

- See Wikipedia's category "Churches of Rome"

Galleries

- [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov:81/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15316 Satellite image of Rome] at NASA's Earth Observatory
- [http://myweb.lmu.edu/fjust/Rome.htm Ancient Rome, Images and Pictures]
- [http://map.cs.telespazio.it/fontane/index.html Fontanelle di Roma], including the aqueducts
- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/roma/movie.htm A virtual travel of Rome] pictures and virtual reality movies
- [http://www.rome.info/pictures/ Free Rome Pictures]
- [http://sabin.ro/gallery/album412 Rome Photo Gallery]
- [http://digilander.libero.it/fotogian/roma.html Photos of Rome]
- [http://www.photoroma.com/ PhotoRoma]
- [http://www2.siba.fi/~kkoskim/rooma/pages/MAIN.HTM Vedute di Roma]
- [http://www.secretrome.com Pictures of Rome]
- [http://rome.arounder.com/fullscreen.html Arounder.Com] (QTVR panoramas)

Maps

- [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/maps/italy/lazio.gif Rome and environs (Lazio)]
- [http://www.statravel.co.uk/images/off/short_breaks/map/map_rom.gif downtown Rome]
- [http://www.walkingrome.com/links/Pianta-di-Roma-Web.jpg downtown Rome (WalkingRome)]
- [http://www.activitaly.it/infobase/index.php?lang=en Interactive map (Activitaly)]
- [http://www.duke.edu/~rkl7/Images/Rome%20City%20map.jpg Map of Ancient Rome]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=rome&spn=0.039455,0.126549&t=k&hl=en Google Maps satellite images of Rome]

Travel guides

- Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Holy cities Category:Roman sites of the Lazio
- Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy Category:Christianity als:Rom ko:로마 ja:ローマ simple:Rome

Appian Way

]] The Appian Way (Latin: Via Appia) is the most important Roman road. It was called regina viarum, "the queen of the roads." Its construction was started in 312 BC by the consul Appius Claudius Caecus on an existing track that connected Rome with the Alban Hills (this road has been thought to be the one that originally brought Latins from Alba Longa to the future capital). The original track of the Appian Way connected Rome (from Porta San Sebastiano in the Aurelian Walls, near the Baths of Caracalla) with Ariccia, Forum Appii, Terracina, Fondi, Formia, Minturnae (Minturno), Sinuessa (Mondragone) and finally Capua. The road was later extended (190 BC) to Benevento (Beneventum) and Venosa which was founded at that time and populated by 20,000 Roman farmers, and still later carried to Taranto (Tarentum) and Brindisi (Brundisium). The Via Appia Traiana would soon have more linearly connected Benevento with Aecae (Troia), Canusium (Canosa) and Barium (Bari). In 71 BC six thousand slaves rebelling under Spartacus, having been captured after his final defeat and death, were crucified along this road by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Marcus Licinius Crassus After the fall of the Roman empire, the road fell out of use; Pope Pius VI ordered its restoration. Wide parts of the original road have been preserved, and some are now used by cars (for example, in the area of Velletri). Along the part of the road closest to Rome, one can see many tombs and catacombs of Roman and early Christian origin. Also the Church of Domine Quo Vadis is in the first mile of the road. The Via Appia was also the site of the first milestones. A new Appian Way was built in parallel with the old one in 1784. :See also : Three Taverns Category:Roman roads Category:Monuments and sights of Rome ja:アッピア街道

Cicero

: For other uses see Cicero (disambiguation) Marcus Tullius Cicero (standard English pronunciation ; Classical Latin pronunciation ) (January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC) was an orator and statesman of Ancient Rome, and is generally considered the greatest Latin orator and prose stylist. prose

Biography

Cicero was born in Arpinum and killed at Formia, fleeing from political enemies. "It is no exaggeration", wrote Taylor (as cited in "References"), "to say that the most brilliant era of Roman public life was ushered in by Cicero and closed by his death—he stood at its cradle and he followed its hearse." His family, the Tullii, were one of the landed gentry in Arpinum and resented the fame and fortunes of the other great Arpinate families, the Marii. Throughout his life, the conservative Cicero loathed being compared to the then more famous Marius. The name "Cicero" is derived from cicer, the Latin word for "chickpea." Plutarch explains that the name was originally applied to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose, which resembled that of a chickpea. In fact (Plutarch continues), Cicero was urged to change the theretofore-ignoble name when he entered politics, but he refused.

Early life

According to Plutarch, he was an extremely adept student, learning so well and rapidly that he attracted attention from all over Rome. He was especially fond of poetry, although he shied away from no scholarly field. In 89 BC-88 BC, Cicero served on the staffs of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo and Lucius Cornelius Sulla as they campaigned in the Social War, though he had no taste for war. Cicero also had a love for almost everything Greek, and even stated in his will that he wanted to be buried in Greece. He found the ancient philosophers such as Plato very thought provoking. Cicero served as quaestor in western Sicily in 75 BC. He wrote that in Sicily he saw the gravestone of Archimedes of Syracuse, on which was carved Archimedes' favorite discovery in geometry, that the ratio of the volume of a sphere to that of the smallest right circular cylinder in which it fits is 2:3. He built an extremely successful career as an advocate, and first attained prominence for his successful prosecution in August 70 BC of Gaius Verres, the former governor of Sicily. Despite his great successes as an advocate, Cicero suffered from his lack of reputable ancestry; as no Tullius had been consul before him, he was neither noble nor patrician, and his family was considered unimportant. He was further hindered by the fact that the last man to have been elected to the consulate without consular ancestors (i.e., the last "New Man", or Novus Homo) had been the political radical and militarily innovative Marius.

Consul

In 63 BC, Cicero became the first novus homo in more than thirty years by being elected consul. His only significant historical accomplishment during his year in office was the suppression of the Catiline conspiracy, a plot to overthrow the Roman Republic led by Lucius Sergius Catilina, a disaffected patrician. Cicero procured a senatus consultum de re publica defendenda (a declaration of martial law, also called the senatus consultum ultimum) and drove Catiline out of the city by a philippic in which he described the debauchery of Rome and especially Catiline. Catiline fled but left behind his 'deputies' who would start the revolution from within whilst Catiline assaulted it from without with an army recruited among Sulla's veterans in Etruria. Cicero managed to have these 'deputies' of Catiline confess their crime in front of the entire Senate, after ambushing an embassy they had sent to a Gaulish tribe. The Senate then deliberated upon the punishment to be given to the conspirators. As it was a legislative rather than a judicial body, there were limits on its power to do so; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile - the standard options - would not remove the threat to the State. At first most in the Senate spoke for the 'extreme penalty'; many were then swayed by Julius Caesar who spoke decrying the precedent it would set and argued in favor of the punishment being confined to a mode of banishment. Cato then rose in defense of the death penalty and all the Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the Tullianum, the notorious Roman prison, where they were hanged. He received the honorific "Pater Patriae" for his actions in suppressing the conspiracy, but thereafter lived in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial. He also received the first public thanksgiving for a civic accomplishment; heretofore it had been a purely military honor. Cicero's Pro Flacco oration provides a uniquely early and clear example of anti-Semitism; in this speech, Cicero plays upon several stereotypical themes which have been echoed throughout the last two millennia. The case involved the defense of Lucius Valerius Flaccus, a Roman aristocrat, who was accused of (among other things) unlawfully confiscating Jewish funds which had been collected for the maintenance of the Temple at Jerusalem. In defense of Flaccus, Cicero made arguments regarding the public site which had been selected for the open-air tribunal: "Now let us take a look at the Jews and their mania for gold. You chose this site, [chief prosecutor] Laelius, and the crowd which frequents it, with an eye to this particular accusation, knowing very well that Jews with their large numbers and tendency to act as a clique are valuable supporters to have at any kind of public meeting."

Exile and return

In 58 BC, the populist Publius Clodius Pulcher introduced a law exiling any man who had put Roman citizens to death without trial. Although Cicero maintained that the sweeping senatus consultum ultimum granted him in 63 BC had indemnified him against legal penalty, he nevertheless appeared ragged in public and began to beg for support from the people. Seeing that he could not go out in public without being lambasted by Clodius's heavies, he dedicated a statue to Minerva in the Forum and left Italy for a year and spent his quasi-exile setting his speeches to paper. In letters to his friend Atticus, Cicero maintained that the Senate was jealous of his accomplishments which was why they did not save him from exile. Cicero returned after over a dozen months from his exile to a cheering crowd, much in the manner of Demosthenes, which the historian Appian pointed out. During the 50s, Cicero supported the populist Milo to use as a spear head against Clodius, who continued to use his popular support to establish terror in the streets. During the mid-50s, Clodius was killed by Milo's gladiators on the Via Appia. Cicero defended Milo on counts of murder from the relatives of Clodius, yet failed. Despite this failure, Cicero's Pro Milone was considered by some as his ultimate masterpiece. Cicero argued that Milo had no reason to kill Clodius and had all to gain from his living, pointing out that Milo had no idea that he would encounter Clodius on the Via Appia. The prosecution, however, pointed out that Milo had freed his slaves who were with him during the bout with Clodius so that they could not testify against him in court on charges that he had ordered the killing of Clodius. Cicero rejected this, saying that Milo's slaves had defended him honorably and deserved to be free, seeing as how they had saved their master from an attack by Clodius. Milo fled into exile and continued to live in Massilia until he returned to stir up further trouble during the Civil War. As the struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC, Cicero favored Pompey but tried to avoid turning Caesar into a permanent enemy. When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar attempted vainly to convince him to return, and in June of that year Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrachium (Epidamnos) .In 48 BC, Cicero was with the Pompeians at the camp of Pharsalus and quarreled with many of the Republican commanders, including a son of Pompey. They in turn disgusted him by their bloody attitudes. He returned to Rome, however, after Caesar's victory at Pharsalus. In a letter to Varro on April 20 46 BC, Cicero indicated what he saw as his role under the dictatorship of Caesar: "I advise you to do what I am advising myself – avoid being seen, even if we cannot avoid being talked about... If our voices are no longer heard in the Senate and in the Forum, let us follow the example of the ancient sages and serve our country through our writings, concentrating on questions of ethics and constitutional law." In February 45 BC, Cicero's daughter Tullia died. He never entirely recovered from this shock.

Opposition to Mark Antony, and death

Cicero was taken completely by surprise when Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March 44 BC. In a letter to the conspirator Trebonius, Cicero expressed a wish of having been "...invited to that superb banquet" Cicero became a popular leader during the instability and was disgusted with Mark Antony, Caesar's former Master of the Horse who was hoping to take revenge upon the murderers of Caesar by first having him not outlawed a tyrant so that the Caesarians could have lawful support, in exchange for amnesty for the assassins which the Senate agreed to. Cicero and Antony, Caesar's subordinate, became the leading men in Rome; Cicero as spokesman for the Senate, and Antony as consul and as executor of Caesar's will. But the two men had never been on friendly terms, and their relationship worsened after Cicero made it clear he felt Antony to be taking unfair liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. When Octavian, Caesar's heir, arrived in Italy in April, Cicero formed a plan to play him against Antony. In September he began attacking Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics. Praising Octavian to the skies, he labeled him a "God-Sent Child" and said he only desired honor and that he would not make the same mistake as his Uncle. Meanwhile, his attacks on Antony, whom he called a "sheep," rallied the Senate in firm opposition to Antony. During this time, Cicero became an unrivaled popular leader and, according to the historian Appian, "had the power any popular leader could possibly have." He was at the height of his fame. As popular leader, Cicero heavily fined the supporters of Antony for petty charges and had volunteers forge arms for the Republicans. It turned out to be so insulting that a right hand man of Antony was preparing to march on Rome to arrest Cicero. Cicero fled the city and the plan was abandoned. Appian is the only one to give this tale of a march on Rome for the arrest of Cicero. Cicero supported Marcus Junius Brutus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. One tribune, a certain Salvius, delayed these proceedings and was "reviled," as Appian put it, by Cicero and his party. The speech of Lucius Piso, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of Mutina, which was in the hands of one of Caesar's assassins, Decimus Brutus, who also was named a second son in Caesar's will. Cicero described his position in a letter to Cassius, one of Caesar's assassins, that same September: "I am pleased that you like my motion in the Senate and the speech accompanying it... Antony is a madman, corrupt and much worse than Caesar - whom you declared the worst of evil men when you killed him. Antony wants to start a bloodbath..." Cicero's plan to drive out Octavian and Antony failed, however. The two reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of Mutina. Immediately after legislating their alliance into official existence for a five-year term with consular imperium, the Triumviri began proscribing their enemies and potential rivals. Cicero and his younger brother Quintus Tullius Cicero, formerly one of Caesar's legates, and all of their contacts and support were numbered among the enemies of the state. Antony hunted for Cicero most viciously among the proscribed. Many men fell bravely, with many stories of bravery and virtue according to historical accounts. One victim turned out to be the tribune Salvius, who, after siding with Antony, moved his support directly and fully to Cicero. Salvius held a dinner party for his friends because he knew he would not be around for long and wished to have one last gathering to say goodbye. The legionaries burst into the party and beheaded Salvius in front of his friends. Cicero was viewed with pity by many, and many claimed not to have seen him. He fled, but was caught at one of his villas after going to retrieve money. He fled by the coast of the nearby villa. When the executioners arrived, his slaves said they did not see him, yet a dependent of Clodius said otherwise. His last words were said to have been "there is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly." He was decapitated by his pursuers on December 7, 43 BC; his head and hands were displayed on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. He was the only victim of the Triumvirate's proscriptions to have been so displayed after death. According to Plutarch, Antony's wife Fulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed the tongue repeatedly with her hatpin, taking a final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.

Works

Speeches

Of his speeches, eighty-eight were recorded, but only fifty-eight survive. (Some of the items below are more than one speech.)

Quotes

- "What is morally wrong can never be advantageous, even when it enables you to make some gain that you believe to be to your advantage. The mere act of believing that some wrongful course of action constitutes an advantage is pernicious."
- "Freedom is participation in power."
- Famously said that Queen Cleopatra of Egypt was a boring woman.
- "A nation can survive its fools, and even the ambitious. But it cannot survive treason from within. An enemy at the gates is less formidable, for he is known and carries his banner openly. But the traitor moves amongst those within the gate freely, his sly whispers rustling through all the alleys, heard in the very halls of government itself."

Judicial speeches

- (81 BC) Pro Quinctio (On behalf of Publius Quinctius)
- (80 BC) Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino (On behalf of Sextus Roscius of Ameria)
- (77 BC) Pro Q. Roscio Comoedo (On behalf of Quintus Roscius the Actor)
- (70 BC) Divinatio in Caecilium (Spoken against Caecilius at the inquiry concerning the prosecution of Verres)
- (70 BC) In Verrem (Against Gaius Verres, or The Verrines)
- (69 BC) Pro Tullio (On behalf of Tullius)
- (69 BC) Pro Fonteio (On behalf of Marcus Fonteius)
- (69 BC) Pro Caecina (On behalf of Aulus Caecina)
- (66 BC) Pro Cluentio (On behalf of Aulus Cluentius)
- (63 BC) Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo (On behalf of Rabirius on a Charge of Treason)
- (63 BC) Pro Murena (On behalf of Lucius Murena)
- (62 BC) Pro Sulla (On behalf of Sulla)
- (62 BC) Pro Archia Poeta (On behalf of the poet Archias)
- (59 BC) Pro Flacco (On behalf of Flaccus)
- (56 BC) Pro Sestio (On behalf of Sestius)
- (56 BC) In Vatinium (Against Vatinius at the trial of Sestius)
- (56 BC) Pro Caelio (On behalf of Marcus Caelius Rufus)
- (56 BC) Pro Balbo (On behalf of Cornelius Balbus)
- (54 BC) Pro Plancio (On behalf of Plancius)
- (54 BC) Pro Rabirio Postumo (On behalf of Rabirius Postumus)

Political speeches

Early career (before exile)

- (66 BC) Pro Lege Manilia or De Imperio Cn. Pompei (in favor of the Manilian Law on the command of Pompey)
- (63 BC) De Lege Agraria contra Rullum (Opposing the Agrarian Law proposed by Rullus)
- (63 BC) In Catilinam I-IV (Catiline Orations or Against Catiline) [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/claslattexts/cicero/incatilinam.html]
- (59 BC) Pro Flacco (In Defense of Flaccus)

Mid career (after exile)

- (57 BC) Post Reditum in Quirites (To the Citizens after his his recall from exile)
- (57 BC) Post Reditum in Senatu (To the Senate after his his recall from exile)
- (57 BC) De Domo Sua (On his House)
- (57 BC) De Haruspicum Responsis (On the Responses of the Haruspices)
- (56 BC) De Provinciis Consularibus (On the Consular Provinces)
- (55 BC) In Pisonem (Against Piso)

Late career

- (52 BC) Pro Milone (On behalf of Titus Annius Milo)
- (46 BC) Pro Marcello (On behalf of Marcellus)
- (46 BC) Pro Ligario (On behalf of Ligarius before Caesar)
- (46 BC) Pro Rege Deiotaro (On behalf of King Deiotarius before Caesar)
- (44 BC) Philippicae (consisting of the 14 philippics Philippica I-XIV against Marcus Antonius) [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0021] (The Pro Marcello, Pro Ligario, and Pro Rege Deiotaro are collectively known as "The Caesarian speeches").

Philosophy

Rhetoric

- (84 BC) De Inventione (The composition of arguments)
- (55 BC) De Oratore (The orator)
- (54 BC) De Partitionibus Oratoriae (The subdivisions of oratory)
- (52 BC) De Optimo Genere Oratorum (The Best Kind of Orators)
- (46 BC) Brutus (The Brutus, a short history of Roman oratory)
- (46 BC) Orator ad M. Brutum (The Orator, also dedicated to Brutus)
- (44 BC) Topica (Topics of argumentation)
- (?? BC) Rhetorica ad Herennium (traditionally attributed to Cicero, but currently disputed)

Other philosophical works

- (51 BC) De Republica (On the Republic)
- (45 BC) Hortensius (Hortensius)
- (45 BC) Lucullus or Academica Priora (The Prior Academics)
- (45 BC) Academica Posteriora (The Later Academics)
- (45 BC) De Finibus, Bonorum et Malorum (About the Ends of Goods and Evils). [http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/De_Finibus.html] Source of Lorem ipsum
- (45 BC) Tusculanae Quaestiones (Questions debated at Tusculum)
- (45 BC) De Natura Deorum (The Nature of the Gods)
- (45 BC) De Divinatione (Divination)
- (45 BC) De Fato (The Fate)
- (44 BC) Cato Maior de Senectute (Cato the Elder On Old Age)
- (44 BC) Laelius de Amicitia (Laelius On Friendship)
- (44 BC) De Officiis (Duties)
- (?? BC) Paradoxa Stoicorum (Stoic Paradoxes)
- (?? BC) De Legibus (The Laws)
- (?? BC) De Consulatu Suo (His Consulship)
- (?? BC) De temporibus suis (His Life and Times)
- (?? BC) Commentariolum Petitionis (Handbook of Candidacy) [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0022:text=Pet.:section=1] (attributed to Cicero, but probably written by his brother Quintus)

Letters

- (68 BC-43 BC) Epistulae ad Atticum (Letters to Atticus)
- (59 BC-54 BC) Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem (Letters to his brother Quintus)
- (43 BC) Epistulae ad Brutum (Letters to Brutus)
- (43 BC) Epistulae ad Familiares (Letters to his friends)

References

# Everitt pp. 215 see sources below

Sources

- Anthony Everitt (2001), Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician, Random House, hardback, 359 pages, ISBN 0-375-50746-9
- Taylor, H. (1918). Cicero: A sketch of his life and works. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.

External links

- General:
- [http://gracie.smsu.edu/cicero.htm Links to Cicero resources]
- [http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/Cic.html University of Texas Cicero Homepage]
- Works by Cicero:
-
- Perseus Project (Latin and English): [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html Classics Collection (see: M. Tullius Cicero)]
- Latin Library (Latin): [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cic.html Works of Cicero]
- UAH (Latin, with translation notes): [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/claslattexts/cicero.html Cicero Page]
- [http://www.constitution.org/rom/de_officiis.htm De Officiis], translated by Walter Miller
- Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time:
- At Project Gutenberg
- Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/674 Parallel Lives]
- Life of Cicero by Anthony Trollope, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8945 Volume I] - [Volume II]
- [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11448 Cicero by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (Ancient Classics for English Readers)]
- [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13481 Roman life in the days of Cicero by Rev. Alfred J. Church]
- [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11256 Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero by W. Warde Fowler]
- [http://www.heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/cicero At Heraklia website]
- [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.html Dryden's translation of Cicero from Plutarch's Parallel Lives]
- [http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/LatinAuthors/Cicero.html At Middlebury College website]
- [http://freewebs.com/praetorbrutus]

Notes

1- Official full name of Cicero. The meaning in English is "Marcus Tullius Cicero, son (filius) of Marcus, grandson (nepos) of Marcus, great-grandson (pronepos) of Marcus, of the tribe Cornelia". Category:106 BC births Category:43 BC deaths Category:Roman era rhetoricians Category:Roman era philosophers Category:Roman era writers Category:Natives of the Lazio Category:Roman jurists Category:Rhetoric Category:Rhetoric Category:Executed writers Category:Executed Romans Category:Classical Humanists ko:키케로 ja:マルクス・トゥッリウス・キケロ

Gaeta

Gaeta (ancient Latin name Caieta) is a city in Province of Latina, in Lazio, Italy. The town has played a conspicuous part in military history . Its fortifications date back to Roman times, and has several traces of the period, including the first-century mausoleum of the Roman general Lucius Munatius Plancus at the top of the Montagna Spaccata («Split Mountain»). These fortifications were extended and strengthened in the 15th century, and indeed throughout the history of the Kingdom of Naples (later the Two Sicilies). Nowadays Gaeta is a fishing and oil seaport, and a renowned tourist resort. NATO maintains a base of operations at Gaeta.

History

According to the legend told by Virgil, Caieta was the name of Aeneas’ wet-nurse, who would have been buried here. According to Strabo the name stemmed from the Greek term kaiétas, which means «cave», probably referring to the several harbours. In the classical age Caieta was a tourist resort and host house of many important and rich characters of Rome, as well as the neighbouring Formia and Sperlonga, all linked to capital of the Empire by Via Appia and its end trunk Via Flacca (or Valeria), through an apposite diverticulum. At the beginning of Middle Ages, after the Lombards invasion, Gaeta remained under Byzantine Empire suzerainty. In the following years, like Amalfi, Sorrento and Naples, it would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant. Its history, however, is rather obscure until, around 830, it become a lordship ruled by hereditary Hypati, or consuls: the first one was Constantine (839-866), who was followed by Marino I and then Docibile I (867-906). Greatest of Hypati was John I (906-933), who crushed the Saracens at Garigliano in 915 and gained the title of patricius from Byzantium’s Emperor Constantine VII. In the 11th century the duchy fell into the hands of the Norman counts of Aversa, afterwards princes of Capua, and in 1135 it was definitively annexed to his kingdom by Roger of Sicily. The town, however, maintained its own coinage as late as 1229. In 1227 Frederick II was in the city and strengthened the castle. However, in the struggle between the Emperor and the Papacy Gaeta fell to the latter, and the Papal forces destroyed the imperial castle in the fray. In 1233, Frederick regained control of the important port and fortress. In 1279 Charles I of Anjou rebuilt the castle and enhanced the fortifications. In 1289 James of Aragon besieged the city in vain. From 1378 Gaeta hosted for some years antipope Clement VII. Future King of Naples Ladislas lived in Gaeta from 1387. Here, on 21 September, he married Costanza Chiaramonte, whom he repudiated three years later. Alfons I of Naples made Gaeta his beachhead for the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples in 1435. He enlarged the castle, which became his royal palace, and created a mint. In 1495 French king Charles VIII conquered the city and sacked it. The following year, however, Frederick I of Aragon regained it with a tremendous siege which lasted from September 8 to November 18. In 1528 Andrea Doria, admiral of Charles V, defeated a French fleet in the waters facing Gaeta and gave the city to its emperor. Gaeta was thenceforth protected with a new and more extensive wall, which also encompassed Monte Orlando. Charles V On September 30, 1707 Gaeta was stormed and taken after a three months siege by the Austrians under Daun. On 6 August, 1734 it was taken, after a siege of four months, by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles of Naples. The fortifications were again strengthened; and in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On July 18, 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the French under Masséna. On July 18, 1815 it capitulated, after a three months siege, to the Austrians. In November 1848 Pope Pius IX, after his flight in disguise from Rome, found a refuge at Gaeta, where he remained until September 4, 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the scene of the last stand of Francis II of the Two Sicilies against the forces of United Italy. Shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's occupation of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till February 13, 1861 that he was forced to capitulate after the withdrawal of the French fleet made bombardment from the sea possible,. After the Risorgimento and until World War II, Gaeta grew in importance and wealth as a seaport. The nearby town of Elena, separated after the Risorgimento and named after the queen of Italy, was reunited to Gaeta following World War I. Mussolini transferred Gaeta from the southern region known today as Campania (formerly Terra di Lavoro, to which it is historically and culturally attached) to the central region of Lazio. During World War II, the city retained its strategic importance for Mussolini and later for his Nazi allies. After the king dismissed Mussolini, the latter was initially taken via Gaeta to the island prison of Ponza (where Mussolini had previously locked up many of his political enemies). To keep the population ignorant of the massive convoy, a false air-raid siren sounded. Mussolini would later be transferred to Gran Sasso, from where the Germans rescued him. Germans After Italy surrendered to the Allies, however, the town's fortunes began to decline. Recognizing the city's strategic importance, and fearful of an Allied landing in the area, German troops occupied the city and expelled most of the population. The zone of exclusion began with a five-kilometre border from the historical city centre. Soon after, however, the population was expelled even beyond this point. The Gaetani were finally ordered to leave the area completely. Those who could not were placed in a concentration camp, and a few were taken to Germany. Following the Allied advance across the Garigliano and the Allied occupation of Rome, the Gaetani were allowed to return to their city and begin the process of rebuilding. In subsequent decades the city has boomed as a beach resort, and has seen some success at marketing its agricultural products, primarily its tomatoes and olives. Many of its families count seamen among their number. However, the decades since World War II have been as difficult for Gaeta as they have been for most of Italy's southern regions (the so-called Mezzogiorno). In particular, its importance as a seaport has nearly vanished, and ferries to Ponza and elsewhere now leave from the nearby town of Formia. All attempts to build a permanent industry as a source of employment and economic well-being for the town have failed. Notable losses include the Littorina rail line (now used as a parking lot and a marketplace), the AGIP refinery (nowadays a simple depot), and the once-thriving glass factory, which has become an unused industrial relic.

Main sights

AGIP AGIP Main monuments of the city include:
- The massive Castle.
- The Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus (22 BC) is a cylindrical travertine monument at the top of Monte Orlando (168 m). It stands at 13.20m and has a diameter of 29.50 m. Another important Roman public man, Lucius Sempronius Atratinus, Marc Antony's fleet commander, has a mausoleum, site in the more recent district of Gaeta: of similar diamater, it is however less well preserved.
- The Sanctuary of SS. Trinità, mentioned as early as the 11th century and visited, among the others, by St. Francis and Saint Philip Neri. The Curcifix Chapel was built in 1434 over a rock which had falled from the nearby cliffs. From the sanctuary the Grotta del Turco can be visited: it is a grotto which ends directly in the sea and where the waves create suggestive light phenomena.
- The Church of Annunziata (1320), it was rebuilt at the beginning of in Baroque style by Andrea Lazzari. It houses works by Luca Giordano, Sebastiano Conca and Giacinto Brandi, as well as the sarcophagus of Enrico Caracciolo, a notable Gothic artwork. The most interesting sight is however the Golden Grotto, a Renaissance room where Pope Pius IX devised the dogma of Papal infallibility. The walls of the grotto are decorated with 19 panels by Giovan Filippo Criscuolo (1531) into carved and gilded frames with small pilasters. On the altarpiece is an Immacolata by Scipione Pulzone.
- Church of San Giovanni a Mare was built by the hypate Giovanni IV in the 10th century, outside the old sea walls of the city. It is a rare example of fusion between the basilica plant with the Byzantine one. The simple façade has a Gothic portal and a dome, while the interior has a nave with two aisles. The inner pavement is slightly inclined to allow waters flow away after sea floods.
- The Cathedral of Assunta and Sant'Erasmo. It was erected over a more ancient church, Santa Maria del Parco, and consecrated by Pope Pascal II in 1106: it had a nave with six aisles separated da columns with Gothic capitals. In 1778, however, two of the aisles were suppressed and the Gothic lines hidden. In 13th century Arab-style arches were added over the capitals. In 1663 the crypt was decorated in Baroque style. The interior houses a banner from the Battle of Lepanto, donated by Pope Pius V to Don John of Austria, who used it as admiral flag. The main sight of the church is however the the Easter candelabrum, standing at 3.50 m, from the late 13th century: it is a Romanesque marble artwork, decorated with 48 reliefs in 4 vertical rows, telling the Stories of the Life of Jesus. There are also paintings by Giacinto Brandi and Giovan Filippo Criscuolo.
- The large church of St. Francis was constructed, according to the legend, by the Saint himself in 1222.
- The Cathedral has a great belfry, standing at 57 m, which is considered the city's finest piece of art. The base has two marble lions, and the whole construction made large use of ancien roman architectural parts. The upper part, with octagonal plant and small Romanesque arches with majolica decoration, was completeed in 1279.
- The parish church of Santa Lucia, the former St. Mary in Pensulis, was once a Royal chapel and here prayed Margherita of Durazzo and king Ladislas. It had originally Romanesque and Sicilian-Arab lines, but in the 1456 it was rebuilt in Renaissance style, and in 1648 to a Baroque one. The side has a Mediaeval pronaos with ancient fragments and beast figures.
- The Medieval Quarter is itself of interest. It lies on a the steep sides of Mount Orlando and has characteristic houses from the 11th-13th centuries. Gaeta is also the centre of the Regional Park of Riviera di Ulisse, which includes Monte Orlando, Gianola and the Scauri Mounts, and the two promontories of Torre Capovento and that of Tiberius' Villa at Sperlonga.

Culture

Gaeta has erected a monument to Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot), who according to many sources was born there (although other sources give Genoa). Other important people which was born in Gaeta include: Pope Gelasius II, writer and Papal diplomatic Tommaso De Vio, and the painters Giovanni da Gaeta, Giovan FIlippo Criscuolo (c. 1500-1584), Scipione Pulzone (1550-1597) and Sebastiano Conca (1680-1764). Gaetani speak a dialect of Italian that, while similar to the nearby Neapolitan, is one of the few Italian dialects to preserve Latin's neuter gender. Distinctive local cuisine includes the tiella, which resembles both a pizza and a calzone, the sciuscielle and the mostaccioli. The most famous folklore event of Gaeta is Gliu Sciuscio of December 31, in which bands of young Gaetani in traditional costumes go for the city's streets, playing mainly self-built instrument. The town is also notable for its distinctive brand of olives, marketed throughout the world (the main production, however, takes place in neighbouring Itri) and its splendid beaches (Serapo, Fontania, Ariana, Sant'Agostino).

External links

- [http://www.gaeta.it gaeta.it] ---- Category:Coastal towns of Lazio Category:Repubbliche Marinare of Italy Category:Baroque art Category:Renaissance art Category:Norman architecture Category:Gothic art ja:ガエータ

Sperlonga

Sperlonga is a coastal town in Italy, about half way between Rome and Naples. It has a long history, with ancient roman villas and a cave (locally associated with the roman emperor Tiberius) in which roman ruins have been found, a medieval "old town" originally built as a fortress (and at least one conquest by a Saracen navy), and is now a thriving tourist destination. Surrounding towns include Terracina to the West, Fondi to the North, Itri to the North-East, and Gaeta to the East. noteworthy is a museum ercted on the ground of the former villa of tiberius showing many statuary founding. Pronunciation: approximately as in Spare+Long+Ah

Formia

Mediterranean Sea

Name

Geography

Bordering countries

Subdivisions

Geology

Ecology

See also

External Links

Rome

History

Demographics

Economy

Transportation

Education

Monuments and sights

Houses of worship

Churches

Basilicas

Patriarchal basilicas

Other basilicas

Other important churches

Non-Christian places of worship

Administrative subdivision of Rome

Province of Rome

Markets and shopping areas

Porta Portese

Campo de' Fiori

Symbols and trivia

Events

Cultural Events

White Night

External links

Ancient Rome

Christian Rome

Galleries

Maps

Travel guides

Appian Way

Cicero

Biography

Early life

Consul

Exile and return

Opposition to Mark Antony, and death

Works

Speeches

Quotes

Judicial speeches

Political speeches

Early career (before exile)

Mid career (after exile)

Late career

Philosophy

Rhetoric

Other philosophical works

Letters

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Notes

Gaeta

History

Main sights

Culture

External links

Sperlonga

Gaeta

History

Main sights