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Girolamo Cardano

Girolamo Cardano

Gerolamo Cardano or Jerome Cardan or Girolamo Cardan (September 24, 1501 - September 21 1576) was a celebrated Italian Renaissance mathematician, physician, astrologer, and gambler. He was born in Pavia, Italy, the illegitimate child of a mathematically gifted lawyer who was a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. In his autobiography, Cardano claimed that his mother had attempted to abort him. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from Milan to Pavia to escape the plague; her three other children died from the disease. In 1520, he entered the University of Pavia and later in Padua studying medicine. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after his studies had ended. Eventually, he managed to develop a considerable reputation as physician and his services were highly valued at the courts. He was the first to describe typhoid fever. Today, he is best known for his achievements in algebra. He published the solutions to the cubic and quartic equations in his 1545 book Ars magna. Part of the solution to the cubic was communicated to him by Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long fight), and the quartic was solved by Cardano's student Lodovico Ferrari. Both were acknowledged in the foreword of the book. In his exposition, he occasionally used complex numbers even though he did not quite trust them. Cardano was notoriously short of money and kept himself afloat by being an accomplished gambler and chess player. His book about games of chance, Liber de ludo aleae, written in the 1560s but published only in 1663 after his death, contains the first systematic treatment of probability, as well as a section on effective cheating methods. Cardano invented several mechanical devices including the combination lock, the gimbal consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported compass or gyroscope to rotate freely, and the Cardan shaft with universal joints, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that perpetual motion is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two encyclopedias of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the Cardan grille, a cryptographic tool, in 1550. Cardano's eldest and favorite son was executed in 1560 after he confessed to having poisoned his annoying, mercenary, cuckolding wife. Cardano's daughter was a prostitute who died from syphilis, prompting him to write a treatise about the disease. His other son was a gambler who stole money from him. Cardano himself was accused of heresy in 1570 because he had computed and published the horoscope of Jesus in 1554. Apparently, his own son contributed to the prosecution. He was arrested and had to spend several months in prison, was forced to abjure and give up his professorship. He moved to Rome, received a lifetime annuity from Pope Gregory XIII (after first having been rejected by Pope Pius V) and finished his autobiography. He died there on the day he had (supposedly) astrologically predicted earlier.

Further reading


- Cardano, Girolamo, Astrological Aphorisms of Cardan, The. Edmonds, WA: Sure Fire Press, 1989.
- ———— The Book of My Life. trans. by Jean Stoner. New York: New York Review of Books, 2002.
- Grafton, Anthony, Cardano's Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer. Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press, 1999.
- Ore, Øystein: Cardano, the Gambling Scholar. Princeton, 1953.

External links


- Cardano, Gerolamo Cardano, Gerolamo Cardano, Gerolamo Cardano, Gerolamo ko:지롤라모 카르다노 ja:ジェロラモ・カルダーノ

September 24

September 24 is the 267th day of the year (268th in leap years). There are 98 days remaining.

Events


- 622 - Muhammad completes his hegira from Mecca to Medina.
- 1493 - Christopher Columbus departs on his second expedition to the New World.
- 1664 - The Netherlands surrenders New Amsterdam to England.
- 1789 - The United States Supreme Court and the position of Attorney General are established.
- 1789 - The United States Post Office Department is established.
- 1841 - The Sultan of Brunei cedes Sarawak to Britain.
- 1852 - The first airship is displayed.
- 1869 - "Black Friday": Gold prices plummet as Jay Gould and James Fisk plot to control the market.
- 1890 - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints officially renounces polygamy.
- 1903 - Edmund Barton steps down as Prime Minister of Australia and is succeded by Alfred Deakin.
- 1940 - Baseball: Jimmie Foxx becomes the second member of the 500 home run club with a home run at Shibe Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
- 1948 - The Honda Motor Company is founded.
- 1957 - President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends United States National Guard troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, to enforce desegregation.
- 1961 - The old Deutsche Opernhaus in the Berlin neighborhood of Charlottenburg
- 2005 - returns to its newly rebuilt house as the Deutsche Oper Berlin.
- 1962 - United States court of appeals orders the University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith.
- 1973 - Guinea-Bissau declares its independence from Portugal.
- 1988 - 1988 Summer Olympics: Ben Johnson "defeated" Carl Lewis and Linford Christie in 100 metres sprinting in a record time of 9.79 seconds. (Johnson would later be disqualified in a high profile case of doping in sports.)
- 1991 - Nirvana releases Nevermind.
- 1991 - Red Hot Chili Peppers releases Blood Sugar Sex Magik.
- 1993 - Brøderbund releases the computer game Myst.
- 2005 - Hurricane Rita makes landfall in the United States, devastating Beaumont, Texas and Houston, Texas.
- 2005 - September 24, 2005 anti-war protest

Births


- 15 - Vitellius, Roman Emperor (d. 69)
- 1301 - Ralph Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford, English soldier (d. 1372)
- 1501 - Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician (d. 1576)
- 1534 - Guru Ram Das, fourth Sikh Guru (d. 1581)
- 1564 - William Adams, British navigator and samurai (d. 1620)
- 1583 - Albrecht von Wallenstein, Austrian general (d. 1634)
- 1625 - Johan de Witt, Dutch politician (d. 1672)
- 1705 - Leopold Josef Graf Daun, Austrian field marshal (d. 1766)
- 1717 - Horace Walpole, British novelist and politician (d. 1797)
- 1724 - Sir Arthur Guinness, Irish brewer (d. 1803)
- 1755 - John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1835)
- 1817 - Ramon de Campoamor y Campoosorio, Spanish poet and philosopher (d. 1901)
- 1857 - Richard Mansfield, German-born actor (d. 1907)
- 1871 - Lottie Dod, English athlete (d. 1960)
- 1878 - C. F. Ramuz, Swiss writer (d. 1947)
- 1884 - Hugo Schmeisser, German weapons designer (d. 1953)
- 1890 - A. P. Herbert, British humorist, barrister, novelist (d. 1971)
- 1894 - Tommy Armour, Anglo-American golfer (d. 1968)
- 1895 - André Frédéric Cournand, French born physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1988)
- 1896 - F. Scott Fitzgerald, American novelist (d. 1940)
- 1898 - Howard Walter Florey, Australian-born pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1968)
- 1899 - Sir William Dobell, Australian portrait artist (d. 1970)
- 1905 - Severo Ochoa, Spanish–born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1993)
- 1911 - Konstantin Chernenko, Soviet premier (d. 1985)
- 1912 - Don Porter, American actor (d. 1997)
- 1918 - Audra Lindley, American actress (d. 1997)
- 1919 - Dayton Allen, American actor and comedian (d. 2004)
- 1921 - Jim McKay, American sports commentator
- 1923 - Louis Edmonds, American actor (d. 2001)
- 1924 - Theresa Merritt, American actress (d. 1998)
- 1925 - Autar Singh Paintal, Indian medical scientist (d. 2004)
- 1930 - John Young, American astronaut
- 1931 - Anthony Newley, British actor and singer (d. 1999)
- 1934 - Manfred Wörner, German politician and diplomat (d. 1994)
- 1936 - Jim Henson, American puppeteer (d. 1990)
- 1941 - Linda McCartney, American singer and activist (d. 1998)
- 1942 - Gerry Marsden, English singer (Gerry and the Pacemakers)
- 1945 - Lou Dobbs, American journalist
- 1946 - "Mean" Joe Greene, American football player
- 1946 - Lars Emil Johansen, Prime Minister of Greenland
- 1948 - Gordon Clapp, American actor
- 1948 - Phil Hartman, American actor (d. 1998)
- 1950 - Alan Colmes, American talk show host
- 1951 - Pedro Almodóvar, Spanish movie director
- 1954 - Patrick Kelly, American fashion designer (d. 1990)
- 1956 - Hubie Brooks, baseball player
- 1958 - Kevin Sorbo, American actor
- 1959 - Steve Whitmire, American voice actor
- 1962 - Nia Vardalos, Canadian actress, writer, and comedienne
- 1966 - Michael J. Varhola, American author, editor, publisher, and game designer.
- 1969 - Shawn "Clown" Crahan, American musician (Slipknot)
- 1969 - Donald DeGrate, Jr., American music producer
- 1976 - Stephanie McMahon-Levesque, American professional wrestler
- 1978 - Wietse van Alten, Dutch archer
- 1980 - John Arne Riise, Norwegian footballer
- 1982 - Morgan Hamm, American gymnast
- 1982 - Paul Hamm, American gymnast

Deaths


- 366 - Pope Liberius
- 768 - Pippin the Short, King of the Franks (b. 714)
- 1054 - Hermannus Contractus, scholar (b. 1013)
- 1143 - Agnes of Germany, daughter of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1072)
- 1143 - Pope Innocent II
- 1180 - Manuel I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor
- 1213 - Gertrude of Meran, queen of Andrew II of Hungary (murdered) (b. 1185)
- 1275 - Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford, Constable of England (b. 1208)
- 1435 - Isabeau of Bavaria, queen of Charles VI of France
- 1494 - Poliziano, Italian humanist (b. 1454)
- 1541 - Paracelsus, Swiss alchemist (b. 1493)
- 1545 - Albert of Mainz, archbishop and elector of Mainz (b. 1490)
- 1605 - Manuel Mendes, Portuguese composer
- 1621 - Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, Polish military commander (b. 1560)
- 1646 - Duarte Lobo, Portuguese composer
- 1707 - Vicenzo da Filicaja, Italian poet (b. 1642)
- 1732 - Emperor Reigen of Japan (b. 1654)
- 1802 - Alexander Radishchev, Russian writer (b. 1749)
- 1834 - Pedro I of Brazil, Emperor of Brazil (b. 1798)
- 1904 - Niels Ryberg Finsen, Danish physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1860)
- 1930 - William A. MacCorkle, Governor of West Virginia (b. 1857)
- 1939 - Carl Laemmle, German film producer (b. 1867)
- 1975 - Earle Cabell, Texas politician (b. 1906)
- 1981 - Patsy Kelly, American actress (b. 1910)
- 1984 - Neil Hamilton, American actor (b. 1899)
- 1991 - Dr. Seuss, American children's writer (b. 1904)
- 2003 - Rosalie Allen, American singer and disc jockey (b. 1924)
- 2003 - Edward Said, Palestinian-born literary critic (b. 1935)
- 2004 - Françoise Sagan, French writer (b. 1935)
- 2005 - Tommy Bond, American actor (b. 1926)
- 1992 - Elad (Ladechka) Lener, someone
- R . I . P .
-

Holidays


- Late Roman Empire - start of the indiction year (at least since the time of Bede)
- In ancient Latvia, the third day of Mikeli, and the only day of the year during which men proposed to their prospective wives.
- R.C. Saints - conception of John the Baptist; Our Lady of Mercy Also see September 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Guinea-Bissau - Independence Day (declared, from Portugal, 1973)
- New Caledonia - Territorial Day
- South Africa - Heritage Day.
- Barcelona, Spain - La Mercè the festival for Barcelona's patron saint. A lot of art and musical activities: [http://www.bcn.es/merce/index_ingles.html Festival Website] (obsolete link)
- Trinidad and Tobago - Republic Day (1976) Ladechka didn die

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/24 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.historychannel.com/tdih/tdih.jsp?month=10272961&day=10272989&cat=10272946 The History Channel: This Day in History] ---- September 23 · September 25 · August 24 · October 24 · more historical anniversaries ko:9월 24일 ms:24 September ja:9月24日 simple:September 24 th:24 กันยายน

1501

Events


- Alexander becomes King of Poland.
- The Safavid kingdom was established in northern Iran.
- Martin Luther enters the University of Erfurt.

Births


- January 16 - Anthony Denny, confidant of Henry VIII of England (died 1559)
- January 17 - Leonhart Fuchs, German physician and botanist (died 1566)
- May 6 - Pope Marcellus II (died 1555)
- July 18 - Isabella of Burgundy, queen of Christian II of Denmark (died 1526)
- September 24 - Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler (died 1567)
- November 25 - Yi Hwang, Korean Confucian scholar (died 1570)
- Girolamo da Carpi, Italian painter (died 1556)
- Dawit II of Ethiopia (died 1540)
- Nikolaus Federmann, German adventurer in Venezuela and Colombia (died 1542)
- Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York and Lord Chancellor (approximate date; died 1578)
- Pedro de Mendoza, Spanish conquistador (died 1537)
- John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, Tudor nobleman and politician (died 1553)
- Garcia de Orta, Portuguese physician
- Hilaire Penet, French composer
- Murakami Yoshikiyo, Japanese nobleman (died 1573)

Marriages


- November 14 - Arthur Tudor and Catherine of Aragon.

Deaths


- September 20 - Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, stepson of Edward IV of England (born 1457)
- Gaspar Corte-Real, Portuguese explorer (born 1450)
- John Doget, English diplomat
- Constantine Lascaris, Greek scholar and grammarian
- Alisher Navoi, a Central Asian poet Category:1501 ko:1501년

September 21

September 21 is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years). There are 101 days remaining.

Events


- 454 - Roman Emperor Valentinian III assassinates Aëtius in his own throne room.
- 1745 - Battle of Prestonpans: A Hanoverian army under the command of John Cope is defeated, in ten minutes, by the Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart
- 1765 - Antoine de Beauterne announced he had killed the Beast of Gévaudan.
- 1780 - American Revolutionary War: Benedict Arnold gives the British the plans to West Point.
- 1792 - The French National Convention votes to abolish the monarchy.
- 1827 - Joseph Smith, Jr., claims that the angel Moroni gave him a record of gold plates, one-third of which is translated into The Book of Mormon.
- 1860 - In the Second Opium War, an Anglo-French force defeats Chinese troops at the Battle of Baliqiao.
- 1896 - British force under Horatio Kitchener takes Dongola in the Sudan.
- 1897 - The Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus letter is published in the New York Sun.
- 1898 - Empress Dowager Cixi seizes power and ends the Hundred Days' Reform in China.
- 1921 - Oppau explosion, a storage silo at a fertilizer producing plant exploded in Oppau, Germany, 500—600 killed.
- 1937 - J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit is published.
- 1939 - Romanian Prime Minister Armand Calinescu is assassinated by pro-Nazi members of the Iron Guard.
- 1942 - The B-29 Superfortress makes its debut.
- 1950 - George Marshall sworn in as the 3rd Secretary of Defense of United States.
- 1964 - Malta becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- 1970 - Monday Night Football premieres.
- 1972 - Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos issues Proclamation No. 1081 placing the entire country under martial law.
- 1981 - Belize is granted full independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1991 - Armenia is granted independence from Soviet Union.
- 1993 - Russian President Boris Yeltsin suspends parliament and scraps the then-functioning constitution, thus triggering the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993.
- 1993 - Grunge rock band Nirvana releases its album In Utero.
- 1999 - Chi-Chi earthquake occurs in central Taiwan, leaving about 2,400 people dead.
- 2001 - Deep Space 1 flies within 2,200 km of Comet Borrelly.
-
- 2002 - International Day of Peace recognized by the United Nations as a full day of ceasefire and nonviolence.
- 2003 - Galileo mission terminated by sending the probe into Jupiter's atmosphere, where it is crushed by the pressure at the lower altitudes.
- 2004 - The Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) People's War and the Maoist Communist Centre of India merge to form the Communist Party of India (Maoist).
- 2004 - Punk rock band Green Day releases its critically acclaimed album American Idiot.

Births


- 1328 - Hongwu Emperor of China (d. 1398)
- 1411 - Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, claimant to the English throne (d. 1460)
- 1415 - Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1493)
- 1428 - Jingtai Emperor of China (d. 1457)
- 1452 - Girolamo Savonarola, Dominican priest and ruler of Florence (d. 1498)
- 1629 - Philip Cardinal Howard, English Catholic cardinal (d. 1694)
- 1645 - Louis Joliet, Canadian explorer (d. 1700)
- 1756 - John MacAdam, Scottish engineer and road-builder (d. 1836)
- 1840 - Murad V, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1904)
- 1842 - Abd-ul-Hamid II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1918)
- 1853 - Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1926)
- 1863 - John Bunny, American film comedian (d. 1915)
- 1866 - H. G. Wells, English writer (d. 1946)
- 1866 - Charles Nicolle, French bacteriologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1936)
- 1873 - Papa Jack Laine, American musician (d. 1966)
- 1874 - Gustav Holst, English composer (d. 1934)
- 1895 - Sergei Yesenin, Russian poet (d. 1925)
- 1902 - Luis Cernuda, Spanish poet (d. 1963)
- 1912 - Chuck Jones, American animator (d. 2002)
- 1919 - Mario Bunge, Argentine philosopher and physicist
- 1919 - Fazlur Rahman, Pakistani scholar (d. 1988)
- 1920 - Jay Ward, American animator (d. 1988)
- 1926 - Donald A. Glaser, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1929 - Bernard Williams, English philosopher (d. 2003)
- 1929 - Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian footballer (d. 1979)
- 1931 - Larry Hagman, American actor
- 1934 - Leonard Cohen, Canadian singer and songwriter
- 1935 - Henry Gibson, American actor
- 1944 - Fannie Flagg, American actress and novelist
- 1944 - Hamilton Jordan, Carter's 1ST Chief of Staff
- 1945 - Jerry Bruckheimer, American film and television producer
- 1946 - Moritz Leuenberger, Swiss Federal Councilor
- 1947 - Stephen King, American author
- 1947 - Marsha Norman, American playwright
- 1949 - Artis Gilmore, American basketball player
- 1950 - Charles Clarke, British politician
- 1950 - Bill Murray, American actor
- 1951 - Aslan Maskhadov, Chechen rebel leader
- 1952 - Neil Peart, Canadian drummer (Rush)
- 1953 - Arie Luyendyk, Dutch race car driver
- 1954 - Shinzo Abe, Japanese politician
- 1955 - Mika Kaurismäki, Finnish director
- 1957 - Ethan Coen, American film director
- 1959 - Dave Coulier, American actor
- 1960 - David James Elliott, Canadian actor
- 1961 - Nancy Travis, American actress
- 1962 - Rob Morrow, American actor
- 1963 - Angus Macfadyen, Scottish actor
- 1963 - Curtly Ambrose, West Indian cricketer
- 1963 - Cecil Fielder, baseball player
- 1965 - Cheryl Hines, American actress
- 1967 - Faith Hill, American singer
- 1967 - Tyler Stewart, Canadian drummer (Barenaked Ladies)
- 1968 - Ricki Lake, American actress and talk show hostess
- 1971 - Luke Wilson, American actor
- 1971 - Alfonso Ribeiro, Dominican-born actor
- 1972 - Liam Gallagher, British singer (Oasis)
- 1972 - Jon Kitna, American football player
- 1972 - David Silveria, American drummer (KoЯn)
- 1974 - Andy Todd, English footballer
- 1975 - Doug Davis, baseball player
- 1979 - Richard Dunne, Irish footballer
- 1979 - Chris Gayle, West Indian cricketer
- 1979 - Julian Gray, English footballer
- 1980 - Kareena Kapoor, Indian actress
- 1981 - Nicole Richie, American actress
- 1983 - Maggie Grace, American actress
- 1983 - Hart Hancock, American musician (Amphoteric)

Deaths


- 454 - Aëtius, Roman general
- 1217 - Lembitu of Lehola, Estonian soldier
- 1327 - King Edward II of England (b. 1284)
- 1397 - Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel, English military leader (executed) (b. 1346)
- 1542 - Juan Boscán Almogáver, Spanish poet
- 1558 - Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1500)
- 1576 - Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician (b. 1501)
- 1586 - Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, French church leader (b. 1517)
- 1626 - François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières, Constable of France (b. 1543)
- 1719 - Johann Heinrich Acker, German writer (b. 1647)
- 1743 - Jai Singh II, King of Amber-Juiper (b. 1688)
- 1748 - John Balguy, English philosopher (b. 1686)
- 1796 - François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, French general (b. 1769)
- 1798 - George Read, American lawyer and signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1733)
- 1832 - Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (b. 1771)
- 1860 - Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher (b. 1788)
- 1897 - Wilhelm Wattenbach, German historian (b. 1819)
- 1904 - Chief Joseph, Nez Perce leader (b. 1840)
- 1926 - Leon Charles Thevenin, French telegraph engineer (b. 1857)
- 1938 - Ivana Brlic-Mazuranic Croatian writer (b. 1874)
- 1954 - Kokichi Mikimoto, Japanese inventor (b. 1858)
- 1957 - King Haakon VII of Norway (b. 1872)
- 1971 - Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)
- 1974 - Walter Brennan, American actor (b. 1894)
- 1974 - Jacqueline Susann, American novelist (b. 1918)
- 1987 - Jaco Pastorius, American bassist (b. 1951)
- 1995 - Rudy Perpich, American politician (b. 1928)
- 1998 - Florence Griffith Joyner, American athlete (b. 1959)
- 2002 - Robert L. Forward, American physicist and writer (b. 1932)
- 2004 - Barry Noble Wakeman, American naturalist and educator (b. 1939)

Holidays and observances

International


- International Day of Peace of the United Nations, as propagated by Peace One Day
- RC Saints - Matthew the Evangelist Also see September 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

National


- Independence Day in Malta (1964), Belize (1981) & Armenia (1991)
- Philippines - Thanksgiving Day
- Mabon - Neopagan festival of Mabon
- In ancient Greece, the eighth day of the Eleusinian Mysteries, when the secret rites in the Telesterion finish and the feast, Pannychis, begins.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/21 BBC: On This Day] ----- September 20 · September 22 · August 21 · October 21 · more historical anniversaries ko:9월 21일 ms:21 September ja:9月21日 simple:September 21 th:21 กันยายน



Mathematician

A mathematician is a person whose area of study and research is mathematics. Today, most mathematicians are professors at a university or other research institution; however, a minority have a non-academic career and are often known as amateur mathematicians. While a number of misinformed people may believe mathematics is fully understood (as it is often presented this way in elementary textbooks), in fact, there is ongoing research into many areas of mathematics. In fact, the publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals, many of them devoted to mathematics and many devoted to subjects to which mathematics is applied (such as theoretical computer science and theoretical physics). Unlike the other sciences, research in mathematics generally does not consist of performing experiments. Rather, mathematics is about problem-solving, where truths are deduced from other known truths. Computer experiments and other numerical evidence might be a part of this process, but in the end, mathematics research is about constructing proofs of theorems. In particular, calculation is not a big part of mathematics research, and mathematicians need not have any extraordinary ability in adding or multiplying numbers. See mental calculators to read about prodigies at performing such calculations.

Motivation

Mathematicians are typically interested in finding and describing patterns that may have originally arisen from problems of calculation, but have now been abstracted to become problems of their own. Problems have come from physics, economics, games, generalizations of earlier mathematics, and some problems are simply created for the challenge of solving them. Although much mathematics is not immediately useful, history has shown the eventually applications are found. For example, number theory originally seemed to be without purpose, but after the invention of computers it gained countless applications to algorithms and cryptography.

Differences

Mathematicians differ from philosophers in that the primary questions of mathematics are assumed (for the most part) to transcend the context of the human mind; the idea that "2+2=4 is a true statement" is assumed to exist without requiring a human mind to state the problem. Not all mathematicians would strictly agree with the above; the philosophy of mathematics contains several viewpoints on this question. Mathematicians differ from physical scientists such as physicists or engineers in that they do not typically perform experiments to confirm or deny their conclusions; and whereas every scientific theory is always assumed to be an approximation of truth, mathematical statements are an attempt at capturing truth. If a certain statement is believed to be true by mathematicians (typically as special cases are confirmed to some degree) but has neither been proven nor disproven to logically follow from some set of assumptions, it is called a conjecture, as opposed to the ultimate goal, a theorem that is proven true. Unlike physical theories, which may be expected to change whenever new information about our physical world is discovered, mathematical theories are static. Once a statement is considered a theorem, it remains true forever.

Demographics

As is the case in many scientific disciplines, the field of mathematics has been disproportionately dominated by men. Among the minority of prominent female mathematicians are Emmy Noether (1882 - 1935), Sophie Germain (1776 - 1831), Sofia Kovalevskaya (1850 - 1891), Rózsa Péter (1905 - 1977), Julia Robinson (1919 - 1985), Mary Ellen Rudin, Eva Tardos, Émilie du Châtelet, Mary Cartwright and Marianna Csörnyei.

Quotes

...beware of mathematicians, and all those who make empty prophecies. The danger already exists that the mathematicians have made a covenant with the devil to darken the spirit and to confine man in the bonds of Hell. :-Saint Augustine, De Genesi ad Litteram (actually "mathematicians" in this context refers mainly to astrologers and such) A mathematician is a machine for turning coffee into theorems. :-Paul Erdős Die Mathematiker sind eine Art Franzosen; redet man mit ihnen, so übersetzen sie es in ihre Sprache, und dann ist es alsobald ganz etwas anderes. (Mathematicians are [like] a sort of Frenchmen; if you talk to them, they translate it into their own language, and then it is immediately something quite different.) :-Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Some humans are mathematicians; others aren't. :-Jane Goodall (1971) In the Shadow of Man

Jokes

Several old jokes common amongst the scientific disciplines illustrate the difference between the mathematical mind and that of other disciplines. One goes as follows: :An engineer, a physicist, and a mathematician are all staying at a hotel one night when a fire breaks out. The engineer wakes up and smells the smoke; he quickly grabs a garbage pail to use as a bucket, fills it with water from the bathroom, and puts out the fire in his room. He then refills the pail and douses everything flammable in the room with water. He then returns to sleep. :The physicist wakes up, smells the smoke, jumps out of bed. He picks up a pad and pencil and makes some calculations, glancing frequently at the flames. He then measures exactly 15.6 liters of water into the garbage pail, and throws it on the flames, which are extinguished. Smiling, he returns to sleep. :Finally the mathematician wakes up. He too grabs a pad and begins furiously writing; glancing at the flames; and then writing more. After a while he gets a satisfied look on his face; entering the bathroom, he produces a match, lights it, and then extinguishes it with a bit of running water. "Aha! A solution exists," he murmurs - and returns to his slumbers. Another joke goes thus: :Three men are flying in a hot air balloon and suddenly they realize that they are lost. Luckily they see a man plowing a field and ask, "Where are we?". The man on the ground thinks for a minute and then answers, "You are in a hot air balloon". One of the men in the air then says to his friends, "He was a mathematician - he thought before answering, his answer was totally right and totally useless" And another: :An astrologer, a chemist, and a mathematician are on a bus during their first visit to Scotland. They see a black sheep grazing alone in a pasture as they drive by. The astrologer excitedly exclaims, "Ah, this shows Scottish sheep are black!" The chemist didactically corrects him: "No, no, it just shows some Scottish sheep are black." The mathematician then says, "Actually, we can only be sure there is at least one Scottish sheep of which at least one side is black" And finally: : An experiment is being made. A physicist (or an engineer) and a mathematician are asked to boil hot water, but the kettle is in the living room. The physicist goes to the living room, takes the kettle, returns to the kitchen and puts it on the stove and boils the water. The mathematician does the same. In the second stage, the kettle is in the kitchen and the two are again asked to boil hot water. The physicist simply puts the kettle on the stove and boils the water. However, the mathematician takes the kettle, puts it in the living room and declares: "We have already solved this problem!"

Links and references

References


- A Mathematician's Apology, by G. H. Hardy. Memoir, with foreword by C. P. Snow.
  - Reprint edition, Cambridge University Press, 1992; ISBN 0521427061
  - First edition, 1940
- Dunham, William. The Mathematical Universe. John Wiley 1994.

See also


- mental calculator
- List of mathematicians
- List of amateur mathematicians
- Astronomers, Physicists, Philosophers, Scientists
- American Mathematical Society
- Mathematical Association of America

External links


- [http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/index0.html The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive], a very complete list of detailed biographies.
- [http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/ The Mathematics Genealogy Project], which allows to follow the succession of thesis advisors for most mathematicians, living or dead. Category:Mathematical science occupations
- ja:数学者 ko:수학자 th:นักคณิตศาสตร์ __NOTOC__

Physician

A physician is a person who practices medicine. See that article for more information on what physicians do in their practices; this article focuses on physician training and regulation. In the United States, the term physician is traditional and commonly used. In Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, the term doctor is more common as physician refers to specialists in internal medicine. Because of the extensive training requirements, physicians are traditionally considered to be members of a learned profession.

Training

:See also: medical school and medical residency.

United Kingdom

Medicine in the UK is an undergraduate subject. Students can begin training after leaving the school at 18 years of age. Medical school training lasts either five or six years, depending on the institution, and combines academic and practical training. Junior doctors then enter a vocational training phase. In the UK a doctor's training normally follows this path: #Degree level preclinical - Doctors must study medicine in university or medical school for two to three years "preclinical" (meaning little patient contact). However following recommendations by the British Medical Association (BMA) many universities are following a "Problem-based learning" approach, which stresses basing the studies around actual patient cases. #Clinical - This time is spent in a teaching hospital and typically lasts two or three years. After this is completed the student doctor is awarded a Bachelor of Medicine (BM or MB) and Bachelor of Surgery (BCh or BS). An honorary prefix of "Dr" is now entitled to be used, although it is not recognised in the academic sense of the word (see Doctorate). Doctors who graduated overseas have to pass the Professional and Linguistic Assessment Board test (PLAB) to be eligible for further postgraduate training and jobs in UK. #The Foundation Programme - Due to recent changes in the training of junior doctors, newly qualified doctors enter a two year Foundation Programme, where they train in a variety of different specialities. These must include training in General Medicine and General Surgery but can also include other fields such as Paediatrics or General Practice. Following completion of the Foundation Programme a doctor can choose to specialise in one field. All routes involve further assessment and examinations. The majority in the UK work in the community as General practitioners (GPs), who are the first port of call for patients. They diagnose illness and refer patients for further examination by specialists if necessary. The majority of patients are managed by their GP without the need for further referral. Hospital doctors are promoted after sitting relevant postgraduate exams within their chosen specialty (e.g. Member of the Royal College of Physicians MRCP, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons MRCS) and a competitive interview selection process from SHO to Specialist Registrar and eventually Consultant on completion of the CCST (Certificate of Completion of Specialist Training), which is the highest level in a specialty team (with the exception of university-linked professors). The competition is great for those who wish to attain consultant level and many now complete higher degrees in research such as a Doctorate of Medicine (MD) which is a thesis-based award based on at least two years full-time research or PhD which involves at least three years of full-time research. The time taken to get from graduation from medical school to becoming a Consultant varies from speciality to speciality but can be anything from 7 to 10 years, or longer in some specialities.

United States

In the United States and countries following the U.S. method, the path to a medical degree is somewhat different. #Admissions: Admission into medical school requires either three years of undergraduate study or a four-year post-secondary bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university, depending on medical institution. Most require that the applicant have attained a bachelor's degree prior to matriculation. Admissions criteria include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools, the score on the Medical College Admissions Test (a national standardized test), application essays, letters of recommendation (number varies, but at least 1 from science faculty and 1 from non-science faculty), and interview(s). The list of courses required are as follows:  #
- biology (1 year) #
- general chemistry (1 year) #
- organic chemistry (1 year) #
- physics (1 year) #
- calculus or sometimes statistics (1 year) #
- English composition (1 year) #
- sometimes behavior science and/or biochemistry (1 semester)
Note:These subjects are studied part time, so several can be completed in one year.

#Medical School: Once admitted to medical school, it takes four years to earn a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine "Osteopathy" (D.O.) degree. The course of study is divided into two roughly equal parts. Preclinical study generally comprises the first two years and consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in core subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology, pathology, and neurosciences. Once the student successfully completes preclinical training, he or she moves on to the clinical portion. This usually occupies the final two years of medical school and takes place almost exclusively on the wards of a teaching hospital or, occasionally, with community physicians. The students observe and take part in the care of actual patients under the supervision of residents and attending physicians. Rotations on clinical services such as internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics/gynecology, and psychiatry are the foundation of this curriculum, but many specialty electives may be chosen as well. Upon completion of medical school, the student earns the title of doctor, but cannot practice independently until completing further training. Also, several universities across the U.S. admit high school students to both their undergraduate colleges and the medical schools simultaneously; students attend a single six-year to eight-year integrated program consisting of two to four years of an undergraduate curriculum and four years of medical school curriculum, culminating in both a bachelor's and M.D. degree.
  #Internship: During the last year of medical school, students apply for postgraduate residencies in their chosen field of specialization. These are more or less competitive depending upon the desirability of the specialty, prestige of the program, and the number of applicants relative to the number of available positions. All but a few positions are granted via a national computer match which pairs an applicant's preference with the programs' preference for applicants. The first year of any residency is known as "internship". Completion of this year is the minimum training requirement for obtaining a license to practice medicine in the U.S.
  #Residency: Each of the specialties in medicine has established its own curriculum, which defines the length and content of residency training necessary to practice in that specialty. Programs range from three years after medical school for internal medicine to five years for surgery to eight or nine for neurosurgery. This does not include research years that may last from 1 year up to a completion of a Ph.D. Each specialty incorporates an internship year to satisfy the requirements of licensure. All specialties hold a board exam (either written or written and oral) at the completion of training in order to confer "Board Certification" in that specialty.
  #Fellowship: Certain highly specialized fields require formal training beyond residency. Examples of these are cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery to name just a few. There are many others for each field of study. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are "Fellows" to denote that they already have completed a residency and are "Board Eligible" or "Board Certified" in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board.
  #Attending physicians and Consultants: The physician or surgeon who has completed his or her residency and possibly fellowship training and is in the practice of their specialty is known as an Attending or Consultant. These are the physicians who may independently care for patients and are the final arbiters of care. They are responsible for all care decisions and may bill for their services. However, medicine is an extremely diverse profession with many options available. Some doctors work in pharmaceutical research, occupational medicine (within a company), public health medicine (working for the general health of a population in an area), or join the armed forces.

France

In France, a doctor's training is performed in public university hospital, called Centre hospitalier universitaire or CHU; it consists in:
- First cycle
  - the first year is common with the dentists and the midwives; the rank at the final examination determines in which branch the student can go on; it is called "PCEM1" (premier cycle des études médicales, first cycle of medical studies) or "P1";
  - the second year is called "PCEM2" and is dedicated to the fundamental sciences (or propédeutique, propaedeutics): anatomy, human physiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, statistics...
- Second cycle
  - The first year is called "DCEM1" (deuxième cycle des études médicales, second cycle of medical studies), and is also dedicated to the study of propaedeutics
  - The second, third and fourth years (DCEM2-4) are called externat, and are dedicated to the study of clinical medicine; they end with a classifying examination, the rank determines in which speciality (the general medicine is one of them) the student can make an internat: the first graduate can choose speciality, and at the rank n, the graduate must choose amongst the places left; the graduate also gets a Certificat de synthèse clinique et thérapeutique (certificate of clinical and therapeutical synthesis).
- The internat is two years and a half (general medicine) or four years (specialist) of initial professional experience under the responsibility of a senior; the interne can prescribe, replacements of liberal phsicians can be made, and usually the student works in an hospital. This ends with a doctorate, a research work which most of times consist in a statistical study of cases to propose a care strategy of a specific affection (in an epidemiological, diagnostical, or therapeutical point of view). A specialist also gets a DES (diplôme d'études spécialisées, diploma for specialised studies). The initial training thus consist in eight years and a half for a general practitioner, and ten years for a specialist (including a surgeon).

India

See Medical College (India) for details

Regulation

In most jurisdictions, physicians need government permission to practise. This is known as licensing in the United States, as colegiation in Spain, as ishi menkyo in Japan, as autorisasjon in Norway, as approbation in Germany, and as registration in Australia and the United Kingdom. In France, civilian physicians must be a member of the Order of physicians to practice medicine. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, the profession regulates itself, with the government affirming the regulating body's authority (in the UK the General Medical Council [GMC]). Regulating authorities will revoke permission to practice in cases of malpractice or serious misconduct. Graduates of Foreign Medical Schools, who enter USA have to pass USMLE step 1 and 2 [http://ecfmg.org/ ECFMG old name]and do a residency program to qualify for a state license. After graduating from medical school, American physicians usually take a standardized exam which enables them to obtain a certificate to practice from the appropriate state agency. All American states have an agency which is usually called the "Medical Board," although there are alternate names such as "Board of Medicine," "Board of Medical Examiners," "Board of Medical Licensure," "Board of Healing Arts," etc. Australian states usually have a "Medical Board," while Canadian provinces usually have a "College of Physicians and Surgeons." In the United States, as a result of the war on drugs, pharmaceuticals are strictly regulated at the federal level by the Food and Drug Administration and the Drug Enforcement Administration. All practicing American physicians who intend to prescribe controlled substances must obtain a number from the DEA, and that DEA number must appear on all their prescriptions. Use of the DEA number enables dispensing pharmacists or the DEA to ensure that a physician is not dispensing potentially addictive or harmful drugs, such as opiates or stimulants, in contravention to accepted standards of care.

See also


- List of physicians
- USMLE

External links


- [http://www.fact-sheets.com/health/doctor_tips/ Tips for Talking to Your Doctor] Category:Healthcare occupations Category:Healthcare practitioners and technical occupations
- Physician ja:医師 ko:의사

Astrologer

) - Y2K Chart — This particular chart is calculated for January 1, 2000 at 12:01:00 A.M. Eastern Standard Time in New York City, New York, USA. (Longitude: 074W00'23" - Latitude: 40N42'51"), using the tropical zodiac]] Astrology (from Greek: αστρολογία = άστρον, astron, "star" + λόγος, logos, "word") is any of several traditions or systems in which knowledge of the apparent positions of celestial bodies is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about reality and human existence on earth. All traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real and construed celestial bodies as seen at the time and place of the birth or other event being studied. These are chiefly the Sun, Moon, planets, Ascendant & Midheaven axes, and the lunar nodes. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer, or sometimes an astrologist. Astromancy, divination by the stars, is a slightly archaic synonym for astrology (likewise for astromancer and the rather rarely used astromancist). Many of those who practice astrology believe the positions of certain celestial bodies relative to the Earth either influence or correlate with people's personality traits, important events in their lives, illnesses, and relationships. Astrologers maintain that the cosmos of which the Earth is a part, runs in cycles and patterns. In fact, those practicing astrology learn at the start that astrology is a very serious study of cycles in time. Serious astrology is an applied science not to be confused with "sun-sign astrology" - the popularized entertainment form of astrology. Judicial Astrologers, or true classical scientific astrologers, do not separate from astronomy, the scientific study of outer space. Known as "judges of the heavens" - judicial astrologers rank among the most well-known astronomers, mathematicians and medical doctors in human history, and include such names as Hippocrates, Copernicus, Nostradamus, Brahe, Johann Kepler, Galileo, William Lilly and Isaac Newton, the inventor of calculus. The origin of astrology included astronomy and both were combined as one as an applied science before the emergence of materialist conventional scientists in the 18th Century. Judicial astrologers were considered masters of the art and applied science of astrology and were much sought-after mathematicians and astrological forecasters by royalty and the wealthy. One of the first uses of astrology was in predicting the weather using astrometeorology - a branch of judicial astrology. Judicial astrologers were once called prophets or seers and one of the earliest known astrologers was a prophet of the Bible called Abraham, also believed to be the inventor of the Chaldean Alphabet. Claudius Ptolemy, the Second Century A.D. judicial astrologer who is considered the father of western astrology, declared that prediction of events was only possible through the union of two factors: first, correct mathematical calculations of the positions and motions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars. Second, a prophetic spirit derived from God by which their configurations can be correctly interpreted by certain inspired human beings known as judicial astrologers. Many judicial astrologers practiced as teachers, medicial doctors and strategists and were known for their strict astrological principles and ability to forecast the future. Today, judicial astrologers are rare due to the false popularization of sun-sign astrology; however, those who do practice judicial astrology are known to be very accurate forecasters and astute observers of celestial movements relative to the Earth. It is said that nothing forecast by a judicial astrologer should ever be taken lightly due to the seriousness of practice and qualifications to become a judicial astrologer. The calculations performed in applied Astrology involve complex arithmetic that include Algebra, Geometry and Trigonometry - mathematical techniques invented by judicial astrologers. Astrologers calculate the positions of the planets and stars relative to the Earth and serve to locate the apparent location of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on tables of planets - also known as an scientific ephemeris. The opinion of the conventional materialistic scientific community is that astrology is superstition, with no actual predictive ability; yet, conventional scientists cannot account for the numerous accurate forecasts of astrologers throughout the centuries using the principles of judicial astrology. The core principles of astrology reflect a general principle, which was accepted in the ancient world, that events in the heavens have analogies on Earth. In places, such as ancient China and Babylon, the apparently untoward movement of a comet across the otherwise orderly movement of the heavens was taken as a portent of disaster. Such ancient beliefs are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim: As Above, So Below. The famous astronomer/astrologer Tycho Brahe also used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: Suspiciendo despicio — "By looking up I see downward."

Description

In past centuries astrology often relied on close observation of astronomical objects, and the charting of their movements, and might be considered a protoscience in this regard. In modern times astrologers have tended to rely on data drawn up by astronomers and set out in a set of tables called an ephemeris, which shows the changing positions of the heavenly bodies through time. It is the interpretation of these science based tables that makes astrology a target for the label pseudoscience. Central to all astrology is the horoscope. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a natal chart (other names for this diagram in English include natus, nativity, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, birth chart, sky-map, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply chart). The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from Earth during a full year is called the ecliptic by astronomers. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets is called the zodiac by astrologers. A few Western and all Jyotish (Hindu) astrologers use the sidereal zodiac, which uses the true astronomical positions of the stars and constellations which lie on the ecliptic. The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac, which aligns with the seasons but not with the actual positions of the stars. To determine the astrological signs in which the Sun, Moon, and the other celestial bodies fall on any given day, hour, minute, or second, it is necessary to consult an ephemeris or use an astrological computer program which will have a built-in ephemeris. Computer programs make it easy to calculate the horoscope so that the modern astrologer can spend more time interpreting the chart rather than calculating it. The consequence is that it is now possible for some to practice astrology with little understanding of celestial mechanics. Interpretation of a horoscope/natal chart is governed by: :
- astrological aspects: the positions of the major planetary bodies relative to each other, :
- their positions relative to the astrological signs of one of the zodiac sytems, :
- their position in one of the systems of astrological houses, :
- their positions relative to the horizon line (namely the ascendant/descendant axes, zenith/midheaven and nadir/immum coeli axes), :
- the position of deduced astronomical entities, namely the Moon's nodes. Significant traditions of astrology include but are not limited to: :
- Western astrology (using the tropical zodiac), :
- Chinese astrology, :
- Jyotish (Vedic astrology, :
- Western sidereal astrology), (using the sidereal zodiac). :
- Mesoamerican astrology, :
- Tibetan astrology, and :
- Kabbalistic astrology. Some of these can also be subdivided into specific branches, such as :
- natal astrology (the study of a person's birth, or natal chart), :
- horary astrology (a chart drawn up to answer a specific question), and :
- electional astrology (a chart drawn up ahead of time to determine the best moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking). :
- medical astrology (using the client's natal chart and/or a horary chart to diagnose and treat various illnesses) Other areas of specialized astrological study are :
- Mundane astrology that sees correlations between geological phenomena (such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc.) and astronomical phenomena. :
- Political astrology , is the ancient branch of astrology dealing with politics, and government. :
- Meteorological astrology uses methods which are supposed to be able to predict the weather.

History of astrology

The study of Western astrology and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found in a developed form among the ancient Babylonians; and directly or indirectly through the Babylonians, it spread to other nations. It came to Greece about the middle of the 4th century BC, and reached Rome before the opening of the Christian era. For a detailed description, including astrology in other cultures, see the main article.

The validity of astrology

Astrology is a very controversial subject. The case for and the case against astrology's objective validity are discussed more fully at Validity of astrology. Some astrologers argue that astrology works by a mechanism that is (yet) unknown to science and that it is validated by their personal experience when applied in real life cases. They argue that it does not make the hard predictions that science would require but informs the user of subtleties to decisions that would otherwise be missed. Skeptics see astrology as repeatedly failing to demonstrate its effectiveness in controlled studies and see those who continue to use and believe in it as gullible and deluded, or even as charlatans. charlatan]]

Effects on world culture

Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures, along with the English language. Influenza was so named because doctors once believed it to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word "disaster" comes from the Latin "dis-aster" meaning "bad star". Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.

Astrology as a descriptive language for the mind

Many writers, notably William Shakespeare [http://www.chartplanet.com/html/shakespeare.html], used astrological symbolism to add subtlety to the description of their characters' motivation. An understanding of astrological principles is needed to fully appreciate such literature, along with the work of many other writers and poets of this and many other eras. Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung, have acknowledged its descriptive powers of the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims.

Astrology and the classical elements

Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart.

Astrology and alchemy

Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ruled a certain metal. A separate article also exists on astrology and numerology.

The seven liberal arts and astrology

In medieval Europe, a university education was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the Seven Liberal Arts. They were seen as operating in ascending order, beginning with Grammar which was assigned to the quickest moving celestial body (the Moon) and culminating in Astronomia which was thought to be astrologically ruled by Saturn, the slowest moving and furthest out planet known at the time. After this sequence wisdom was supposed to have been achieved by the medieval university student. Dante Alighieri used the following associations of the seven liberal arts to the seven traditional astrological planets in the Divine Comedy and Convivio.
- Astronomia — Saturn
- Geometry — Jupiter
- Arithmetic — Mars
- Music — Sun
- Rhetoric — Venus
- Dialectic — Mercury
- Grammar — Moon

Astrology and the Days of the Week

Each day of the week was created in honor of one of the seven celestial bodies (the Sun, Moon, and five known planets); and in ancient astrology, each day of the week was said to be influenced by the traits of the celestial body it was named after. The system was symmetrical and free of complication until the discovery of Uranus in 1781. The English names, other than the obvious Sunday and Monday ("Moonday"), are taken from the Teutonic deities that were correlated with the Roman deities that were associated with the planets that the days were named after. The days of the week and celestial bodies they are named after are:
- Sunday — Sun
- Monday — Moon
- Tuesday — Mars
- Wednesday — Mercury
- Thursday — Jupiter
- Friday — Venus
- Saturday — Saturn You can learn more about planetary linguistics on [http://www.nineplanets.org/days.html this site].

See also


- List of astrologers
- Accidental dignity
- Age of Aquarius
- Ascendant (AC, ASC)
- Ascending planet
- Astrolabe
- Astrological age
- Astrological symbol
- Astrology and astronomy
- Astrology and computers
- Birthday
- Celestial mechanics
- Cosmobiology
- Cycle studies
- Descendant (DC)
- Forer effect
- Hamburg School of Astrology
- Harmonic Charts
- House (astrology)
- Immum Coeli (IC)
-