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Innocent III

Innocent III

Innocent III, né Lotario de' Conti (Gavignano, near Anagni, ca. 1161 – Perugia, June 16, 1216), was Pope from January 8, 1198 until his death. He was the son of Count Trasimund of Segni and nephew of Pope Clement III. His father was a member of the famous house of Conti, which has produced nine popes, including Gregory IX, Alexander IV and Innocent XIII. His mother, Claricia, belonged to the noble Roman family of Scotti. He was educated in Rome, Paris (under Peter of Corbeil), and Bologna (under Huguccio); he was considered an intellectual and one of the greatest canon lawyers of his time. After the death of Pope Alexander III, he returned to Rome and held office during the short reigns of Lucius III, Urban III, Gregory VIII, and Clement III, reaching the rank of Cardinal Deacon in 1190. During the reign of Pope Celestine III (1191–1198), a member of the House of Orsini, enemies of the counts of Segni, he left Rome to live in Anagni. Celestine III died in 1198. On the day he was buried, de' Conti was elected pope and took the name of Innocent III, at only thirty-seven years of age. The Imperial throne had become vacant by the death of Henry VI in 1197, and no successor had as yet been elected. Innocent took advantage of this vacuum to lessen German influence in Italy—his first act was the restoration of the papal power in Rome. The Prefect of Rome, who reigned over the city as the emperor's representative, swore allegiance to Innocent. He demanded the restoration of the Romagna and the March of Ancona to the Church from Markwald of Anweiler, and used papal troops to bring this about. In a similar way, the Duchies of Spoleto, Assisi and Sora were taken from the German Conrad von Uerslingen. The pope made use of the weakness of Frederick II (who was four years old) to reassert papal power in Sicily, and acknowledged Frederick II as king only after the surrender of the privileges of the Four Chapters, which William I of Sicily had previously extorted from Pope Adrian IV. The pope then invested Frederick II as King of Sicily in November, 1198. He also induced the young king to marry the widow of King Emeric of Hungary in 1209. After the death of the Holy Roman emperor Henry VI in 1197, the Ghibellines and the Guelfs had elected different emperors—Philip of Swabia (of the Hohenstaufen family) and Otto of Brunswick (of the Welf family). In 1201 the pope openly supported Otto IV, announcing that Otto had been approved as Roman king and threatened with excommunication all those who refused to acknowledge him. Innocent III made clear to the German princes by the Decree Venerabilem in May, 1202, how he considered the relationship between the Empire and the Papacy (this decree was afterwards embodied in the Corpus Juris Canonici). The chief points of the decree were: the right to decide whether a king is worthy of the imperial crown belongs to the pope; in case of a double election the electors must ask the pope to arbitrate or pronounce in favour of one of the claimants. electorInnocent changed his mind and declared in favour of Philip in 1207, and sent cardinals to Germany to induce Otto to renounce his claims to the throne. Otto murdered Philip on June 21, 1208 and at the Diet of Frankfurt of November 11, 1208, Otto was acknowledged as king and the pope invited him to Rome to receive the imperial crown. He was crowned emperor in Rome, October 4, 1209. Before his coronation Otto promised to leave the Church in possession of Spoleto and Ancona and to grant the freedom of ecclesiastical elections, unlimited right of appeal to the pope and the exclusive competency of the hierarchy in spiritual matters; he also promised to assist in the destruction of heresy (the stipulation of Neuss, repeated at Speyer, 1209). But soon after he had been crowned, Otto seized Ancona, Spoleto and other property of the Church, giving it to some of his vassals. He also invaded the Kingdom of Sicily. Otto was excommunicated on November 18, 1210. The pope managed to get most of the princes to renounce the excommunicated emperor and elect in his place Frederick II of Sicily, at the Diet of Nuremberg in September, 1211. Frederick made the same promises as Otto IV and his election was ratified by Innocent and he was crowned at Aachen on July 12, 1215. Otto allied with England (he was nephew of King John 'Lackland' of England) to fight Philip Augustus of France, but he was defeated in the Battle of Bouvines in what is now Belgium, July 27, 1214. Then he lost all influence (and died on May 19, 1218), leaving Frederick II, the undisputed emperor. Innocent played a further role in the politics of France, Sweden, Bulgaria, Spain and especially England. Innocent was a strenuous opponent of heresy. He had the Papal States cleared of the Manichean heretics, and under the leadership of Simon de Montfort a campaign was started against the Albigenses. The Church also took on the role of organising the Crusades. They were to be launched against heretics at the direction of the Pontiff and were to be used to impose the rule of the Church on the unbeliever. This was a prelude to the legitimisation of the Inquisition in 1233. Heresy was to be punished for the spiritual good of the individual as well as for the preservation of the Church. Innocent called for the Fourth Crusade in 1198, directing the call towards the knights and nobles of Europe, rather than the kings (he preferred that neither Richard I of England and Philip II of France, who were still engaged in war, nor his German enemies, participate). This call was generally ignored until 1200, when a crusade was finally organized in Champagne, which the Venetians re-directed into the sacking of Zara in 1202 and Constantinople in 1204. Innocent excommunicated the Venetians in return, and although he was not pleased with the means by which it was done, he accepted the end result of the temporary reunification of the Catholic and Orthodox churches after the Great Schism of 1054. He also summoned the Fourth Lateran Council (12th ecumenical council), in November, 1215. It decided on a general crusade to the Holy Land (the Fifth Crusade), as well as issuing seventy reformatory decrees. Innocent died at Perugia. He was buried in the cathedral of Perugia where his body remained until Pope Leo XIII had it transferred to the Lateran in December, 1891. See also: list of popes named Innocent Category:Crusades Innocent 03 Innocent 03 Innocent 03 ko:교황 인노첸시오 3세 ja:インノケンティウス3世 (ローマ教皇)

Anagni

Anagni, (Latin Anagnia) is an ancient town in Latium, Italy, in the hills east-southeast of Rome, famous for its connections with the papacy and for the picturesque monuments of its unspoiled historical center. Legend, history, and tradition have accompanied the fame of Anagni (pronounced Ah-Nah-Nyee), the historical center of Ciociaria, where there are traces of human activity through the millenniums.

The City

Anagni appears today as a small medieval town, placed on the ridge of a hill (460 meters above sea level), with small twisting streets and steep lanes everywhere. It is built inside powerful Roman boundary walls which seem to preserve, like a treasure-chest, its innumerable treasuries of art and history and its troubling modern contradictions. Initially, the built-up area included only the acropolis— that is the north-east zone comprising the Cathedral, Tufoli gate and Piazza Dante— and partially defended by walls in opus quasi-quadratum (almost squared work). Under Roman domination, the map of the city changed, starting from the modification of the boundary walls. The archaic inhabited places spread out protected by the so-called Servian walls, made with stone blocks placed in alternate lines and dating back to the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Most of the boundary walls have been subjected to rebuilding and restorations in the course of the first millennium A.D.; but the most remarkable re-arrangement took place in the XVI century. The city is divided into eight districts, or contrade: Castello, Torre, Trivio, Tufoli, Piscina, Colle Sant'Angelo, Valle Sant'Andrea, and Cerere.

History

The first human settlements date back to more than 700,000 years, according to the dating of some paleolithic hand-made fragments recently recovered; while the historical sources (Livy, Virgil, Servius, Silius Italicus) mention Anagni only once the city had already been introduced into the Roman orbit. Several objects made of bone and flinstone and also two human molars and incisors belonging to fossil Homo erectus have been found in Fontana Ranuccio. The people who lived in those places were of Ernican ancestry, migrated - as it seems - from the Aniene valley and probably descendant from the Marsi (Marsians) (or from the Sabines), at least according to the ethnical term deriving from the Marsian herna, "stone", that is: "Those who live on the stony hills". Only two words remain of their language: Samentum, a strip of sacrifical skin, and Bututti, a sort of funeral lament. The importance of Anagni as a holy city and spiritual centre of the Hernici ( Er-Nee-Chee: Ernici in Italian) is outstanding. The city was the seat of temples and sanctuaries, where in the second century A.D., many linen codices containing sacred Etruscan writings were still well conserved, according to the testimony of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Of these writings there is a sole survivor which is the Liber Linteus. Recent archaeological discoveries have revealed cultural and economic relationships between the Ernici and the Etruscans around the seventh century BC., perhaps it was commercial center which conducted trade with Magna Graecia. Probably, at the foot of the hill on which the city stands, there was the so-called Maritime Circle, where the Erniche ethnies of Alatri, Piglio, Veroli, and Ferentino, confederated under the aegis of Anagni. There they held their sacred and political meetings until the Romans, on the pretext of a presumed treason of the Ernica-Roman alliance, attacked Anagni, and defeated the Confederatio Hernicae and dissolved the Confederation in 306 BC. The Anagnini allied with Rome in the struggle against the Volscians, was then reduced to a city sine suffragio, that is, without the right to vote, although conserving a proper religious autonomy and strategic importance. In Imperial times, many emperors used to spend their summers in Anagni to escape the heat of Rome, most notably Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Commodus, and Caracalla. By the end of the Roman Empire a deep political and economic crisis caused the demographic collapse of Anagni's population. The suburban zones, which during the Roman Age had grown along the most important roads of the area were depopulated; the lower parts of the city were abandoned, vegetation gradually took possession of several spaces. As a proof of that, in the 10th century, an inner zone of Anagni was marked by the place-name Civitas Vetus (Old Town).

Christian Anagni

In spite of this, the town was achieving a more and more outstanding importance over the territory, being the seat, since the fifth century, of an important diocese. In the ninth century the first Cathedral was built on the ruins of the temple dedicated to the Goddess Ceres. The agricultural reconquest, begun in the tenth century, was supported by the ecclesiastic power, which allowed the laic lords to exploit the earth resources and to build some fortified settlements for their own peasants, and favoured a new economic and demographic growth. During the tenth and the eleventh centuries the city strengthened its link with the papal court: in fact the popes began to consider the old capital city of the Ernici a safer and healthier spot compared to Rome which was the place of frequent epidemic diseases. For this reason, even if the presence of factions inside the town cannot be excluded, Anagni remained faithful to the Roman Church, becoming more and more frequently one of the most favourite residences of the popes, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thanks to this situation the city became the cradle of several events connected with the struggle between Papacy and Empire and it was the witness of some of the most important acts in the political life of these two centuries. In 1122, in fact, Callistus II promulgated the basic Bull of the Concordat of Worms; in 1159 Pope Adrian IV received in Anagni, during the siege of Crema, the legates of Milan, Brescia, and Piacenza (the building of the Civic Palace was committed to the Ambassador of Brescia, Architect Jacopo da Iseo). In 1160 Alexander III excommunicated the Emperor Federico Barbarossa in the Cathedral; in 1176 after the Battle of Legnano, the same pope received the imperial legates, with whom he elaborated the Pactum Anagninum (Anagni's Agreement), premise to the peace which was achieved in Venice in 1177. The thirteenth century represented the real golden period of the city: in one hundred years, Anagni gave four popes to the Christianity, all members of the Conti family. The first one to ascend to the papal throne was Lotarius Conti who, as Innocent III (1198-1216), was one of the outstanding personalities of his century, together with Frederik II of whom he favoured the coronation as Emperor of Germany and Saint Francis of whom he approved the first Rule. To Innocent III credit is given for the elaboration and the most complete and concrete issue of the theocratic doctrine, principle according to which the absolute rule on every earthly power is ascribed to the Pope. He died in 1216, leaving the Church at the historical peak of its power. Innocent III's efforts were taken up by Gregory IX (Ugolino Conti 1227-1241), who belonged to the powerful Family of Conti di Anagni. On the 29th of September 1227 in Anagni's Cathedral he excommunicated Emperor Frederik II who had abandoned the Crusade that the Emperor himself had proclaimed. The suggestive ceremony took place by the lights of the torches, firstly shaken, then thrown on the ground and finally blown out by the prelates. In September 1230 after the reconciliation, Gregory IX received in Anagni Frederik of Svevia who had been able to conquer, without bloodshed but by means of his great diplomatic ability, both Jerusalem and Nazareth. During his pontificate Alexander IV (1254-1261), Gregory's relative and Anagni's third pope, had to face the raged theological dispute raised by the University of Paris against the Mendicant Orders. The leader of this dispute, by means of a pamphlet against the Dominicans, was Guillaume de Saint-Amour, whose text was burned in front of the Cathedral, the sentence having been passed in Anagni in September 1256. In 1255 the Pope canonized Chiara of Assisi in Anagni. The name of Anagni is particularly connected to the events of Boniface VIII, the fourth Pope of the city, a member of the powerful Caetani Family. His election, which occurred after the historical and dark abdication of Celestine V, was opposed by French Cardinals and by the powerful Colonna Family. In 1300 Boniface VIII, at the summit of his pontificate, set up the first Jubilee and founded the first Romnan university. Having got into a violent conflict with the King of France, Philip the Fair, who assigned himself the right to tax the French clergy, Boniface VIII emanated the famous Bull Unam Sanctam of 1302, which arrogated to the Pope's absolute supremacy over earthly power, against the king. The contrast became so harsh that Philip the Fair organized an expedition to arrest the Pope, with the purpose of removing Boniface from his office by the help of a general council. The Pope was captured in his palace at Anagni in September 1303, by the French and Italian soldiers led by Guglielmo di Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna. A Legend tells us that in such circumstances the Pope was slapped by Sciarra Colonna. The outrageous imprisonment of the Pope inspired Dante Alighieri in a famous passage of his Divine Comedy (Purgatory, XX, vv. 85-93), the new Pilate has imprisoned the Vicar of Christ. The people of Anagni rose against the invaders and released Boniface, but the old pontiff, already suffering, died in Rome about a month later. After the death of Boniface VIII, both the splendour of Anagni and the dreams of power of the Caetani Family collapsed and the doctrine of papal theocracy lost its consistence forever. The transfer of the papal court to Avignon marks for Anagni the beginning of a long period of decline which lasted through the entire XV century. Sacked by the troops of Duke Guarnieri (Werner) von Verslingen in 1348, ruined and depopulated, the city became a battlefield in the conflict between pope Paul IV and Philip II king of Spain. The Spanish army, led by the Duke of Alba sieged Anagni in 1556 bombarding it and horribly sacking it as soon as the papal troops abandoned their defenses and escaped. The damages suffered by the town, particularly by the town walls, were accentuated by the fortifying works carried out in 1564 under pope Pius IV. Around 1579 a short period of refluorishing begins, thanks to Cardinal Benedetto Lomellino, bishop and governor of the city. The planned works are made under the sign of a recovery of the architectonic structures and the medieval constructive and decorative style. The great architectonic and urbanistic reconstructions began around 1633. The works concerning the ecclesiastic buildings which determined the present look of the churches in Anagni are very interesting. The new architectonic canons which, howerver, left the existing Gothic Roman elements untouched are reflected in the transformation of the buildings. Also the ancient noble mansions embellished by magnificent portals were restructured and, toward the end of the XIX century, also the cultural level of the city rose again, thanks to the growing welfare. In fact, in this period, other institutions and congregations were born, which, together with the constitution of various schools, made Anagni an important centre of study thanks to its long cultural tradition. In 1890, in the presence of the Queen, the Queen Margaret's National Boarding-house for the education of the orphan-girls of grammar schools teachers was opened. In 1897 the Collegio Leoniano, entitled to the pontiff Leone XIII, was opened, too. In it the theological teaching is entrusted to the Jesuit fathers. The edifice is the seat of an interesting archaeological collection. Finally, in 1930, the Prince of Piedmont's Boarding-house was built for the sons of local body personnel. Since World War II the territory of Anagni has become an important industrial settlement, enriching the local economy at the expense of damage to local environment and Anagni's culture and tradition.

Anagni and the Roman Catholic Church

A measure of Anagni's importance as a religious site is that its church claims to be of apostolic foundation, a diocese not overseen by a bishop but under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See, even though a bishop of Anagni first appears in the 5th century, when Felix its bishop attended the Lateran Synod of 487 and bishop Fortunatus was among the signatories of the Acts of the Synod of 499, according to Theodor Mommsen's history of Rome. Zachary of Anagni was the legate of pope Nicholas I at the synod held in Constantinople in 851 to decide the validity of the election of Photius to the patriarchate. In 896 Stephen, bishop of Anagni became pope. Anagni was also the summer residence of the popes up until recently. It was similar to what Castel Gandolfo in the Alban Hills is to today's popes.

The Cathedral

Stephen, bishop of Anagni The Cathedral of Anagni, dedicated to the Santa Maria, is a great Romanesque monument of the wealth and importance of the city and its people. It was constructed during the years 1071-1105 a.D. The most spectacular part of the Cathedral is its cript, which contains the tomb of Saint Magno, the patron saint of Anagni, and Saint Secondina of Anagni. The frescos on the walls and ceiling are some of the most spectacular works Byzantine art in all of Italy.

Language and Dialect

The Language, or Dialect, of Anagni (called Anagnino) can be categorized as Northern Ciociaro (Choh-Chah-Roh). The Definite Articles (the) are Ju-Masculine Singular (pronounced like the English word you), La-Femine Singular, Ji-Masculine Plural (pronounced Yee), and Le-Femine Plural (pronounced like the English word Lay). The Indefinite Articles (a,an) are nu-for masculine words and na for femine words. The final vowel is always pronouced in the plural form and usually in the singular form (this is in comparison with Southern Ciociaro and Neopolitan where the final vowel of a word is usually slerred, unaccented). For those who know Italian, the Anagnino dialect preserves the u's found in Latin; for example instead of the Italian con (with), the people of Anagni use cu from the Latin cum. There are many other differences between the Italian and Anagnino. Some examples include the deletion of some n's, l's, and r's commonly found in Italian. For Linguistic Historians, the dialect is especially important for studying Pre-Roman Italic Languages and also the formation of Italian. Like Latin, the v's are pronounced like u's; for example vino (wine in Italian) is uino in Anagnino. Today's Standard Italian is heavilly influenced by German (from the Goths who invaded and assimilated into Northern Italian Culture), French (from France's political and historical influence on Northern Italy), Arabic (from the Arab rule and influence from the golden period of Sicily and Far-Southern Italy occupation), Greek (from the influence of the Holy Byzantine Empire), and Spanish (from the Royal and Dynastic Unions of Spain and Italy before 1860). While the dialect of Anagni and the others of Central Italy (south of Rome, west of the Apennines, and north of Campania) are relatively considered solely Latin and Pre-Italic, due to the limited settlement of foreign people in the area.

Coat of arms

Stephen, bishop of Anagni Its coat of arms include an eagle over the lion and the letters S.P.Q.A. The cost of arms symbolizes the forced union of Anagni and the Roman Empire in 306 b.C. The lion symbolizes the native Ernici people, and the eagle on top of the lion symbolizes the Romans conquering the Ernici. The letters S.P.Q.A. stands for Senatus Populusque Anagnia (the Senate and the People of Anagni). It is a model after the ancient acronym S.P.Q.R. for Rome, Senatus Populusque Romanus (the Senate and the People of Rome). The two keys above the eagle signify the city's papal history, in which there were four popes from Anagni, Pope Innocent III (1198-1261), Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241), Pope Alexanader IV (1254-1261), and Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303). The imperial crown above the crest and the imperial robe signifies Anagni was a famous and important residence of the Roman Emperors. The label is in Latin, HERNICA SAXA COLVNT QVOS DIVES ANAGNIA PASCIT.

Bordering communes

- Acuto
- Ferentino
- Fumone
- Gavignano
- Montelanico
- Paliano
- Piglio
- Sgurgola
- Gorga

Reference

Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages 1993. Alessandro De Magistris, La Istoria della Citta' di Anagni.

External links

- [http://www.comune.anagni.fr.it/ Official Website Comune (Italian)]
- [http://www.cittadianagni.it/ Official Website Città (Italian and English)]
- [http://www.digilander.libero.it/AnagniOnLine/ AnagniOnLine - History, Recipes, Dialect (Italian)]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1303anagni.html William of Hundlehy's contemporary pamphlet, 'The Outrage'] Category:Roman sites of the Lazio Category:Towns in the Lazio

1161

Events

- Bartholomew Iscanus becomes Bishop of Exeter.

Births

- September 23 - Emperor Takakura of Japan (died 1181)
- Constance, Duchess of Brittany (died 1201)
- Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (died 1185)
- Wincenty Kadłubek, Polish bishop and saint (died 1223)

Deaths

- April 18 - Theobald of Bec, Archbishop of Canterbury
- June 14 - Emperor Qinzong of China (born 1084)
- September 11 - Queen Melisende of Jerusalem (born 1105)
- Adam, Abbot of Ebrach Category:1161 ko:1161년

Perugia

Perugia is the capital city in the region of Umbria in central Italy, near the Tiber river, and the capital of the province of Perugia. Perugia gave its nickname to the famous painter Perugino (Pietro Vannucci), who lived and worked there. Another famous painter, Pinturicchio, lived in Perugia.

History

Perugia first appears (as Perusia) in history as one of the twelve confederate cities of Etruria. It is first mentioned in the account of the war of 310 or 309 BC between the Etruscans and the Romans. It took, however, an important part in the rebellion of 295, and was reduced, with Vulsinii and Arretium (Arezzo), to seek for peace in the following year. In 216 and 205 it assisted Rome in the Hannibalic war, but afterwards it is not mentioned until 41-40 BC, when Lucius Antonius took refuge there, and was reduced by Octavian after a long siege. A number of lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the city (Corpus inscr. lat. xi. 1212). The city was burnt, we are told, with the exception of the temples of Vulcan and Juno--the massive Etruscan terrace-walls, naturally, can hardly have suffered at all--and the town, with the territory for a mile round, was allowed to be occupied by whoever chose. It must have been rebuilt almost at once, for several bases exist, inscribed Augusta sacr(um) Perusia restituta; but, as we have seen, it did not become a colony until AD 251-253. It is hardly mentioned except by the geographers until the middle of the 6th century, when it was captured by Totila after a long siege. In the Lombard period it is spoken of as one of the principal cities of Tuscia. In the 9th century, with the consent of Charles the Great and Louis the Pious, it passed under the popes; but for many centuries the city continued to maintain an independent life, warring against many of the neighbouring lands and cities--Foligno, Assisi, Spoleto, Todi, Siena, Arezzo, etc. It remained true for the most part to the Guelphs. Guelphs On various occasions the popes found asylum within its walls, and it was the meeting-place of the conclaves which elected Honorius II (1124), Honorius IV (1285), Celestine V (1294), and Clement V (1305). But Perugia had no mind simply to subserve the papal interests. At the time of Rienzi's unfortunate enterprise it sent ten ambassadors to pay him honour; and, when papal legates sought to coerce it by foreign soldiers, or to exact contributions, they met with vigorous resistance. In the 15th century power was at last concentrated in the Baglioni family, who, though they had no legal position, defied all other authority. Gian Paolo Baglioni was lured to Rome in 1520 and beheaded by Leo X; and in 1540 Rodolfo, who had slain a papal legate, was defeated by Pier Luigi Farnese, and the city, captured and plundered by his soldiery, was deprived of its privileges. A citadel known as the Rocca Paolina, after the name of Pope Paul III, was built "ad coercendam Perusinorum audaciam." In 1797, the city was conquered by French troops. On 4 February 1798, the Tiberina Republic was formed, with Perugia as capital, and the French tricolour as flag. In 1799, the Tiberina Republic merged to the Roman Republic. In 1832, 1838 and 1854 Perugia was visited by earthquakes; in May 1849 it was seized by the Austrians; and, after a futile insurrection in the June of 1859, bloodily defeated by Pius IX's troops, it was finally united, along with the rest of Umbria, to Piedmont, in 1860. Perugia has become famous for chocolate, mostly because of a single firm, Perugina, whose Baci (kisses) are widely exported. Perugia chocolate is very popular in Italy, and the city hosts a chocolate festival in October of every year. Perugia today hosts two universities, and is a melting pot for students from all over Italy and all over the world. Baci The city symbol is the griffin, which can be seen in the form of plaques and statues on buildings around the city.

Attractions

Main attractions

- Cathedral (Duomo) S. Lorenzo
- Collegio del Cambio (Frescoes by Pietro Perugino)
- Collegio della Mercanzia (late fourteenth century wooden interior)
- Palazzo dei Priori (town hall, encompasing the Collegio del Cambio, Collegio della Mercanzia, and Galleria Nazionale)
- Church of San Pietro (late 16th century)
- Basilica of San Domenico (begun in 1394)
- Church of S. Angelo (6th century)
- Church of S. Bernardino (with façade by Agostino di Duccio)
- Fontana Maggiore, a medieval fountain designed by Fra Bevignate and sculpted by Nicolò and Giovanni Pisano
- Galleria Nazionale, the National Gallery of Perugia (works by Duccio, Piero della Francesca, Fra Angelico, Perugino)
- Ipogeo dei Volumni (Hypogeum of the Volumnus family), an Etruscan chamber tomb
- National Museum of Umbrian Archaeology
- Palazzo del Capitano del Popolo
- Porta Augusta, a Roman gate with Etruscan elements
- the Rocca Paolina, a Renaissance fortress

Other attractions

- Etruscan walls and subterranean tunnels
- medieval aqueduct
- The Tribunali
- Piazza Matteotti
- Teatro Comunale Morlacchi
- Church of Sant' Agata
- Church of Sant' Ercolano
- Church of Sant'Antonio da Padova
- Church of S. Francesco al Prato
- Church of S. Giuliana
- Church of S. Matteo in Campo Orto
- Church of SS. Stefano e Valentino

Local events

- Umbria Jazz
- EuroChocolate

Twinned towns

Perugia is twinned with
- Bratislava, Slovakia
- Tübingen, Germany
- Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA
- Aix-en-Provence, France
- Seattle, Washington, USA
- Potsdam, Germany

External links

- [http://www.comune.perugia.it/ Official Site]
- [http://www.perugia.com/ Perugia.com]
- [http://www.perugiaonline.com/ Perugia OnLine]
- [http://www.photoroma.com/archivio.php?City=pg&Search=
- &Page=1 PhotoRoma's Perugia page]
- [http://www.italianvisits.com/umbria/perugia/ ItalianVisits.com]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Umbria/Perugia/Perugia/Perugia/home.html Bill Thayer's site]

References

- Category:Hilltowns of Umbria Category:Roman sites of Umbria Category:Etruscan sites ja:ペルージャ

June 16

June 16 is the 167th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (168th in leap years), with 198 days remaining.

Events

- 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses
- 1586 - Mary Queen of Scots recognizes Philip II of Spain as her heir
- 1745 - British troops take Cape Breton Island, which is now part of Nova Scotia, Canada
- 1745 - Sir William Pepperell captures the French Fortress Louisbourg in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia during the War of the Austrian Succession.
- 1746 - War of Austrian Succession: Austria and Sardinia defeat a Franco-Spanish army at the Battle of Piacenza
- 1755 - French and Indian War: French surrender Fort Beauséjour to the British, leading to the expulsion of the Acadians
- 1774 - Formation of Harrodsburg, Kentucky.
- 1779 - Spain declares war on Britain and the siege of Gibraltar begins
- 1815 - Battle of Ligny and Battle of Quatre Bras, two days before Waterloo.
- 1836 - Formation of the London Working Men's Association begins the Chartist Movement
- 1846 - The Papal conclave of 1846 concludes. Pope Pius IX is elected pope, beginning the longest reign in the history of the post-apostolic papacy.
- 1858 - Abraham Lincoln's House Divided speech in Springfield, Illinois
- 1858 - Battle of Morar, during the Indian Mutiny.
- 1871 - University Tests Act allows students to enter the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Durham without religious tests, except for courses in theology.
- 1884 - The first roller coaster in the United States begins operation at Coney Island, New York
- 1891 - John Abbott becomes Canada's third prime minister.
- 1902 - Australia: Female British subjects (with the glaring exception of Asians, Aborigines and Africans) won the vote with the Uniform Franchise Act.
- 1903 - Ford Motor Company incorporates.
- 1903 - Roald Amundsen commences first east-west navigation of the Northwest Passage by leaving Oslo, Norway.
- 1904 - Eugen Schauman assassinates Nikolai Bobrikov, Governor-General of Finland.
- 1904 - Leopold Bloom walks around Dublin. (see Ulysses) Known as Bloomsday.
- 1911 - A 772 gram stony meteorite struck earth near Kilbourn, Columbia County, Wisconsin damaging a barn.
- 1915 - Foundation of the British Women's Institute
- 1922 - General election in Irish Free State: large majority to pro-Treaty Sinn Féin
- 1924 - Whampoa Military Academy is founded
- 1925 - The most famous Young Pioneer camp of the USSR, Artek established.
- 1940 - World War II: Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain becomes Premier of Vichy France
- 1940 - A Communist government is installed in Lithuania
- 1948 - The storming of the cockpit of the Miss Macao passenger seaplane, operated by the Cathay Pacific airline, marks the first skyjacking of a commercial plane.
- 1955 - Pope Pius XII excommunicates Juan Perón
- 1956 - Ted Hughes marries Sylvia Plath
- 1960 - Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho opens in New York
- 1961 - Rudolf Nureyev defects at Le Bourget airport in Paris
- 1962 - Two U.S. Army officers are killed in Saigon,Vietnam.
- 1963 - Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space
- 1972 - Burglars are caught breaking into the United States Democratic Party headquarters in the Watergate building
- 1972 - Red Army Faction member Ulrike Meinhof is captured by police in Langenhagen.
- 1972 - Opening of the New York Jazz Museum
- 1972 - Largest single-site hydro-electric power project starts at Churchill Falls Newfoundland
- 1976 - Apartheid: A non-violent march by 15000 students in Soweto, South Africa turns into days of rioting when police open fire on the crowd and kill 566 children.
- 1977 - Leonid Brezhnev becomes president of the USSR
- 1981 - Ken Taylor honoured for helping six Americans escape from Iran during hostage crisis
- 1983 - Yuri Andropov becomes president of the USSR
- 1994 - A Chinese operated Northwest Airlines Tupolev TU-154 crashes 10 minutes after takeoff killing 160
- 1995 - The Astronomy Picture of the Day was born
- 1996 - First round of voting in the Russian presidential election
- 1997 - Dairat Labguer massacre in Algeria; some 50 people killed.
- 1999 - Thabo Mbeki elected President of South Africa.
- 2001 - George W. Bush and Vladimir Putin meet in Brdo pri Kranju, Slovenia
- 2002 - Politically Incorrect is cancelled (from sponsors dropping the show) after host Bill Maher makes controversial comments on air regarding the integrity of President George W. Bush.
- 2003 - The Hatfields and McCoys sign a formal truce.

Births

- 1139 - Emperor Konoe of Japan (d. 1155)
- 1313 - Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian writer (d. 1375)
- 1514 - John Cheke, English classical scholar (d. 1557)
- 1583 - Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish statesman (d. 1654)
- 1591 - Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, Italian physician, mathematician, and music theorist (d. 1655)
- 1606 - Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier (d. 1675)
- 1612 - Murad IV, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1640)
- 1613 - John Cleveland, English poet (d. 1658)
- 1633 - Jean de Thévenot, French traveler and scientist (d. 1667)
- 1644 - Henrietta Anne Stuart, Princess of Scotland, England and Ireland and Duchess of Orléans (d. 1670)
- 1713 - Meshech Weare, Governor of New Hamphsire (d. 1786)
- 1738 - Mary Katharine Goddard, American printer and publisher (d. 1816)
- 1792 - John Linnell, English artist (d. 1882)
- 1792 - Sir Thomas Mitchell, Australian explorer (d. 1855)
- 1801 - Julius Plücker, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1868)
- 1806 - Edward Davy, English physician, chemist, and inventor (d. 1885)
- 1813 - Otto Jahn, German archaeologist (d. 1869)
- 1820 - Athanase Coquerel, French protestant preacher (d. 1875)
- 1826 - Constantin von Ettingshausen, Austrian geologist and botanist (d. 1897)
- 1829 - Geronimo, Apache leader (d. 1909)
- 1836 - Wesley Merritt, American soldier (d. 1910)
- 1837 - Ernst Laas, German philosopher (d. 1885)
- 1838 - Cushman Davis, American politician (d. 1900)
- 1840 - Ernst Otto Schlick, German engineer (d. 1913)
- 1858 - King Gustav V of Sweden (d. 1950)
- 1874 - Arthur Meighen, ninth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1960)
- 1880 - Otto Eisenschiml, Austrian-American chemist and historian (d. 1963)
- 1890 - Stan Laurel, British-born actor and comedian (d. 1965)
- 1896 - Murray Leinster, American author (d. 1976)
- 1897 - Georg Wittig, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)
- 1902 - Barbara McClintock, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1992)
- 1902 - George Gaylord Simpson, American paleontologist (d. 1984)
- 1903 - Helen Traubel, American soprano (d. 1972)
- 1907 - Jack Albertson, American actor (d. 1981)
- 1909 - Archie Fairley Carr, biologist (d. 1987)
- 1910 - Juan Velasco, President of Peru (d. 1977)
- 1912 - Enoch Powell, British politician (d. 1998)
- 1914 - Babe Didrikson Zaharias, American athlete (d. 1956)
- 1916 - Hank Luisetti, baseball player (d. 2002)
- 1917 - Katharine Graham, American publisher (d. 2001)
- 1917 - Irving Penn, American photographer
- 1920 - José López Portillo, President of Mexico (d. 2004)
- 1920 - John Howard Griffin, American writer (d. 1980)
- 1927 - Tom Graveney, English cricketer
- 1927 - Herbert Lichtenfeld, German author and playwright (d. 2001)
- 1929 - Ramon Bieri, American actor (d. 2001)
- 1930 - Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian cinematographer
- 1934 - Dame Eileen Atkins, English actress
- 1934 - William Forsyth Sharpe, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1935 - Jim Dine, American artist
- 1937 - Erich Segal, American author
- 1938 - James Bolam, English actor
- 1938 - Joyce Carol Oates, American novelist
- 1940 - Neil Goldschmidt, Governor of Oregon
- 1941 - Lamont Dozier, American record company executive
- 1942 - Giacomo Agostini, Italian motorcyclist
- 1947 - -minu, Swiss columnist and writer
- 1949 - Paulo César Lima, Brazilian football player
- 1951 - Roberto Durán, Panamanian boxer
- 1952 - George Papandreou, junior, Greek politician
- 1952 - Gino Vannelli, Canadian singer and songwriter
- 1955 - Laurie Metcalf, American actress
- 1966 - Jan Zelezný, Czech athlete
- 1967 - John Franklin, American actor
- 1969 - Mark Crossley, Welsh footballer
- 1970 - Phil Mickelson, American golfer
- 1970 - James Shaffer, American guitarist (KoЯn)
- 1971 - Derek R. Audette, Canadian artist and poet
- 1971 - Tupac Amaru Shakur, Born Lesan Parish Crooks (Mother changes name at early age), American West Coast Gangsta Rapper
- 1972 - Hank von Helvete, Norwegian musician
- 1977 - Kerry Wood, baseball player
- 1980 - Joey Yung, Hong Kong singer
- 1980 - Nehir Erdoğan, Turkish actress
- 1988 - Keshia Chanté, Canadian singer

Deaths

- AD 1216 - Pope Innocent III
- 1397 - Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, French soldier (b. 1358)
- 1464 - Roger van der Weyden, Flemish painter (b. 1399)
- 1468 - Jean Le Fevre, Burgundian chronicler (b. ca. 1395)
- 1622 - Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline, Chancellor of Scotland (b. 1555)
- 1623 - Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German protestant military leader (b. 1599)
- 1666 - Richard Fanshawe, English poet, translator, and diplomat (b. 1608)
- 1671 - Stenka Razin, Cossack rebel leader (executed)
- 1707 - Marie d'Orleans-Longueville, Duchess de Nemours, sovereign princess of Neuchâtel and writer (b. 1625)
- 1722 - John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, English general (b. 1650)
- 1749 - Johann Baptista Ruffini, Italian trader (b. 1672)
- 1752 - Giulio Alberoni, Spanish cardinal (b. 1664)
- 1752 - Joseph Butler, English philosopher (b. 1692)
- 1777 - Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset, French poet and dramatist (b. 1709)
- 1778 - Konrad Ekhof, German actor (b. 1720)
- 1779 - Sir Francis Bernard, Governor of New Jersey and Massachusetts (b. 1712)
- 1804 - Johann Hiller, German composer (b. 1728)
- 1849 - Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette, German theologian (b. 1780)
- 1855 - John Gorrie, American physician (b. 1803)
- 1858 - John Snow, English obstetrician (b. 1813)
- 1866 - Joseph Méry French poet (b. 1798)
- 1869 - Charles Sturt, English explorer (b. 1795)
- 1872 - Norman MacLeod, Scottish clergyman (b. 1812)
- 1878 - Crawford Long, American physician (b. 1815)
- 1881 - Sir Josiah Mason, English manufacturer (b. 1795)
- 1885 - Wilhelm Camphausen, German painter (b. 1818)
- 1894 - William Calder Marshall, Scottish sculptor (b. 1813)
- 1925 - Chittaranjan Das, Indian patriot and freedom fighter (b. 1870)
- 1925 - Emmett Hardy, American musician (b. 1903)
- 1930 - Elmer Ambrose Sperry, American inventor (b. 1860)
- 1940 - DuBose Heyward, American writer (b. 1885)
- 1944 - Marc Bloch, French historian (executed) (b. 1886)
- 1953 - Margaret Bondfield, English politician and feminist (b. 1873)
- 1958 - Imre Nagy, Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1895)
- 1959 - George Reeves, American actor (b. 1914)
- 1969 - Harold Alexander, British military commander (b. 1891)
- 1970 - Heino Eller, Estonian composer (b. 1887)
- 1970 - Brian Piccolo, American football player (b. 1943)
- 1971 - Lord Reith, British broadcast executive (b. 1889)
- 1977 - Wernher von Braun, German-born rocket scientist (b. 1912)
- 1979 - Nicholas Ray, American film director (b. 1911)
- 1981 - Jule Gregory Charney, meteorologist (b. 1917)
- 1986 - Maurice Duruflé, French composer and organist (b. 1902)
- 1988 - Kim Milford, American actor (b. 1951)
- 1993 - Lindsay Hassett, Australian cricketer (b. 1913)
- 1996 - Mel Allen, baseball announcer (b. 1913)
- 1996 - Curt Swan, American comic book artist (b. 1920)
- 2000 - Empress Nagako of Japan (b. 1903)
- 2003 - Georg Henrik von Wright, Finnish-Swedish philosopher (b. 1916)
- 2004 - Thanom Kittikachorn, Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1912)
- 2005 - Enrique Laguerre, Puerto Rican writer (b. 1906)

Holidays and observances

- South Africa - Youth Day
- Roman Catholic Church - Feast of Saint John Regis, patron of medical social workers
- Bloomsday, in honour of James Joyce's Ulysses

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 15 - June 17 - May 16 - July 16 -- listing of all days ko:6월 16일 ms:16 Jun ja:6月16日 simple:June 16 th:16 มิถุนายน

Pope

:This entry is about the Catholic Pontiff. For other uses of the word, see Pope (disambiguation). The pope is the Patriarch of the West and Bishop of Rome, and leader of the Catholic Church. The office of the pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the Holy See (Sancta Sedes). Early bishops of Rome were designated vicar (representative) of Peter; for later popes the more authoritative vicar of Christ was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman Synod of AD 495 to refer to Pope Gelasius I, an originator of papal supremacy among the patriarchs. The first Patriarch of Rome to bear the title of "Pope" was Pope Boniface III in 607, the first Bishop of Rome to assume the title of "universal Bishop" by decree of Emperor Phocas. Previous Patriarchs of Rome are called "Popes" by courtesy. In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the pope is also head of state of the independent sovereign State of the Vatican City, a city-state and nation entirely enclaved by the city of Rome. Prior to 1870, the pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of central Italy, the territory of the Papal States that was formally known as the "Patrimony of St Peter". Although the document on which the territorial powers of the Pontificate was based — the so-called Donation of Constantine — was proved a forgery in the 15th century, the papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the Italian Unification of 1870; a final political settlement with the Italian government was not reached until the Lateran Treaties of 1929. The current pope is Benedict XVI (born Joseph Ratzinger), who was elected at the age of 78 on 19 April 2005. He succeeds the late John Paul II, who was elected at the age of 58 in 1978. Pope Benedict XVI is the second non-Italian to be elected to the pontificate since Adrian VI, who was pope briefly in 1522-23 — John Paul II was the first — and is the first German to take the seat since the eleventh century (unless Adrian VI, who lived in Holland but came from German ancestors before Holland was separated from Germany, is counted as German rather than Dutch).

Office and nature

In canon law, the Catholic Pope is referred to as the Roman Pontiff (Pontifex Romanus). He is styled "Your Holiness" (Sanctitas Vestra) and is frequently referred to as the Holy Father. The title "Pope" is an informal one meaning "papa"; the formal title of the pope is "Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God". This full title is rarely used. The pope's signature is usually in the format "NN. PP. x" (e.g., Pope Paul VI signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for Papa ("Pope") (or, according to unofficial sources, Pater Patrum, "Father of Fathers"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the ancient title Pontifex Maximus, literally "Greatest Bridge-maker", but usually translated "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of Papal bulls is customarily NN. Episcopus Ecclesia Catholicae ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is NN. Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"), the latter title dating to the time of Pope Gregory I the Great. Other titles used in some official capacity include Summus Pontifex ("Highest Pontiff"), Sanctissimus Pater and Beatissimus Pater ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), Sanctissimus Dominus Noster ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the Medieval period, Dominus Apostolicus ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the pope is still refered to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer, and in some translations of it. Medieval period]] The pope's official seat is the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, and his official residence is the Palace of the Vatican. He also possesses a summer palace at Castel Gandolfo (situated on the site of the ancient city-state Alba Longa). Historically the official residence of the pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantinus I. The former Papal summer palace, the Quirinal Palace, has subsequently been the official residence of the Kings of Italy and President of the Italian Republic. It is the pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) and not his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City) which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the pope's court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church. The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle St. Peter (see Apostolic Succession). Consequently Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378 the popes lived in Avignon (the Avignon Papacy), a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Israel. Catholic tradition maintains that the institution of the Pontificate can be found in the Bible, and cites certain key passages in support of this contention. Chief among these passages is Matthew 16: 18 – 19, wherein Jesus Christ says to St. Peter: :"Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jona! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." Other important passages include Luke 22: 31 – 32, John 1: 42, and John 21: 15 – 17.

Regalia and insignia

John 21: 15 – 17 Main article: Papal regalia and insignia.
- The "triregnum" also called the "tiara" or "triple crown"; recent popes have not, however, worn the triregnum though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies popes wear an episcopal mitre (an erect cloth hat).
- Staff topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the 13th century.
- The pallium (a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, worn over the chasuble about the neck, breast and shoulders and having two twelve-inch-long pendants hanging down in front and behind, ornamented with six small, black crosses distributed about the breast, back, shoulders, and pendants).
- The "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolises the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
- The Fisherman's Ring, a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.
- The umbracullum (better known in the Italian form ombrellino) is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes).
- One of the most familiar (and now discontinued) trappings of the Papacy was the sedia gestatoria, a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (palafrenieri) in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing flabella (fans made of white ostrich-feathers). The use of the sedia gestatoria and of the flabella was discontinued by Pope John Paul II, with the former being replaced by the so-called Popemobile. In heraldry, each pope has his own Papal Coat of Arms. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns and red infulae, or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colours of the Pontificate.

Status and authority

1808, 2005.]] The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council in its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (July 18, 1870). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the apostle was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole church militant; or that it was a primacy of honour only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be anathema." The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema." The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the primacy of the Roman pontiff," states that (s.1) "the definition of the ecumenical council of Florence, which must be believed by all faithful Christians, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a world-wide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "clergy and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world." The powers of the pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgement" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgement thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of Papal infallibility, sc. such that :when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" (Pope Boniface VIII). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many popes throughout the centuries. Blessed John XXIII said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter unless he be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved." Pope Paul VI also said: "Those outside the Church do not possess the Holy Spirit. The Catholic Church alone is the Body of Christ... and if separated from the Body of Christ he is not one of His members, nor is he fed by His Spirit." However, this dogma has been misinterpreted by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Many popes stressed that those who are invincibly ignorant of the Catholic religion can still obtain salvation. Pope Pius IX stated in his encyclical Quanto conficiamur moeror (1868): "We all know that those who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the natural law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." Pope John Paul II wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation." The pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint bishops to dioceses, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman dicasteries, approve or veto their acts, modify the Liturgy and issue liturgical laws, revise the Code of Canon Law, canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the Roman Curia, with the pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the pope's discretion. See Donation of Constantine for discussion of the broader authority the papacy has argued the Catholic Church possesses in affairs of state.

Political role

Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452 and was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger donated to the pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called Papal States (properly the Patrimony of St. Peter). In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date it became the pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor or any monarch with affiliations with the church until the crowning of Napoleon. As has been hitherto mentioned, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy. In addition to the pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost prince bishop of Christianity (especially prominent with the Renaissance popes like Pope Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III), the pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 (authorising Henry II of England to invade Ireland), the Bull Inter Caeteras in 1493 (leading to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule) the Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 (excommunicating Elizabeth I of England and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), the Bull Inter Gravissimas in 1582 (establishing the Gregorian Calendar).

Death, abdication, and election

Death

The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum — i.e., a sede vacante ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the "Reading Festival", the Sacred College of Cardinals, composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that needs the assent of the pope has to wait until a new pope has been elected and takes office. It has long been claimed that a pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A doctor may or may not have already determined that the pope had passed away prior to this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the Fisherman's Ring. Usually the ring is on the pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed. The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late pope.

Abdication

The Code of Canon Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P16.HTM 332 §2] states, If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone. It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper Corriere della Sera. Nevertheless, 332 §2 gave rise to speculation that either:
- Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
- a properly manifested legal instrument had already been drawn up that put into effect his resignation in the event of his incapacity to perform his duties. Pope John Paul II did not resign. He died on 2 April 2005 after suffering from many diseases and was buried on 8 April 2005. [http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&ned=us&q=Pope+Dead&btnG=Search+News Articles on the death of John Paul II] After his death it was reported that in his last will and testament he had considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday. However the language of that passage of the will is not clear and others have interpreted it differently.

Election

The pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. Pope Urban VI, elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the Dean of the College of Cardinals before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The Second Council of Lyons was convened on May 7, 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-Sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors. Traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. Pope John Paul II abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot. The election of the pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a meeting called a "conclave" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clavi, until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Assuming the number of ballots matches the number of electors, each ballot is then read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days). conclave following his coronation, a tradition which has now been discontinued.]] One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or fumata nera. (Traditionally wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (fumata bianca) through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI, church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen. The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto," his reign as pope begins at that instant, not at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and re-emerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio"), and to receive his blessing. The senior Cardinal Deacon then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name. Until 1978, the pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly-elected pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. There the pope was crowned with the triregnum and he gave his first blessing as pope, the famous Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus fades worldly glory"). Traditionally, the new pope takes the Papal oath (the so-called "Oath against modernism") at his coronation, but Popes John Paul I, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI have all refused to do so. The Latin term sede vacante ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name Sedevacantist, which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a Sede Vacante; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the id