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Isma'il Al-Mansur Bi-Nasrillah

Isma'il al-Mansur Bi-Nasrillah

Isma`îl al-Mansûr (913 - 953) was the third Caliph of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and ruled from 946 to 953. Ismail was born in 913 in Raqqada near Kairouan and succeeded his father Abu l-Qasim al-Qaim (934-946 in 946. The Fatimid realm found itself deep in crisis thanks to the revolt of Abu Yazid (943-947). However, after the unity of the rebels began to crack, Ismail managed to put down the revolt with the help of the Berber Zirids. Following this victory he took the epithet al-Mansur, and built a new residence at al-Mansuriya near Kairouan. Al-Mansur concerned himself with the reorganisation of the Fatimid state until the end of his reign. He resumed the struggle with the Umayyads of Córdoba in Morocco, and re-occupied Sicily, from where raids into Italy were recommenced. Rule in Sicily was reinforced through the installation of the Kalbids as Emirs. Al-Mansur died after a severe illness on 19 March 953 and left his realm to his son Al-Muizz (953-975). Category:913 births Category:953 deaths Category:Fatimid caliphs

913

Events

- The Shiite Fatimid state in modern day Tunisia launches a failed military campaign against Egypt'

Births

Deaths

- Emperor Alexander III of Byzantium Category:913 ko:913년

953

Events

- First time that Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal appeared in a Roman map.
- Ludolf and Conrad the Red rebel against German King Otto I.

Births

Deaths

Category:953 ko:953년

Fatimids

The Fatimids or Fatimid Caliphate (Arabic الفاطميون) is the Ismaili Shiite dynasty that ruled much of North Africa from A.D. 5 January 910 to 1171. The Fatimids had their origins in the Tunisia area ("Ifriqiya"), but after the conquest of Egypt ca. 970, they moved their capital there. Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, the Yemen, and the Hejaz. Under the Fatimids Egypt flourished and developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages. The term "Fatimite" is sometimes used to refer to citizens of the Empire/Caliphate. The name Fatimid is derived from the name of the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, Fatima az-Zahra. The dynasty and its followers belonged to the Shiite branch of Islam and to a sect called Isma'ili. The dynasty was founded in 909 by Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah. He legitimized his claim by his descent from the Prophet by way of the Prophet's daughter Fatima Zahra and her husband Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shiite Imam. Soon his control extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from a newly built capital in Tunisia, named Mahdia. The Fatimids entered Egypt in 972, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a new capital at al-Qahira al-Mu'izziya (Cairo), meaning "The Victorious". They continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria, and even crossed over into Sicily and southern Italy. Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than on heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance was extended even to non-Muslims, like Christians and Jews who occupied high levels in government based solely on ability (exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance include the "Mad Caliph" Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah). In the 1040s, the Zirids (governors of North Africa under the Fatimids) declared their independence from the Fatimids and their conversion to "orthodox" Sunni Islam, which led to the devastating Banu Hilal invasions. After about 1070, the Fatimid hold on the Levant coast and parts of Syria was challenged by first Turkish invasions, then the Crusades, so that Fatimid territory shrunk until it consisted only of Egypt. After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160's, Nureddin joined Egypt to the Abbasid Caliphate in 1169 and Egypt returned to the Sunni branch of Islam, bringing the Fatimid dynasty to an end. A few years later, Nureddin's general Saladin founded the Ayyubid dynasty.

Fatimid Imams

The word "Imam" as used in Shiah Islam means a hereditary leader of the Muslim community in the direct line of Ali ibn Abi Talib. #Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (910-934; founded Fatimid dynasty) #Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah (934-946) #Isma'il al-Mansur Bi-Nasrillah (946-952) #Ma'ad al-Muizz Li-Deenillah (952-975; Egypt is conquered during his reign) #Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah (975-996) #Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (996-1021) #Ali az-Zahir (1021-1035) #Ma'ad al-Mustansir (1035-1094) #Ahmad al-Musta'li (1094-1101) Quarrels over his succession led to the Nizari split. #Mansur al-Amir Bi-Ahkamillah (1101-1130) The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Mustaali Taiyabi Imams (though they were declared to be Imams within Egypt at the time). #Taiyab abi al-Qasim the 21st Fatimid Imam in seclusion - see Mustaalis, Dawoodi Bohras.

External link

- [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/architecture/alaqmarmosque.html Al-Aqmar Mosque - Fatimids Architectural Example]
- [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/fatimids.html Fatimids Dynasty] Shiite counter-caliphate ---- Category:History of the Maghreb Category:Caliphates Category:Ismailism Category:Jewish Islam topics ja:ファーティマ朝

Ifriqiya

In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah (Arabic: إفريقية) was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. This area included what had been the Roman province of Africa. Ifriqiya was bounded on the south by the semi-arid areas and salt marshes called el-Djerid. At various times, the rulers of this area also conquered Sicily and parts of mainland Italy, and the western boundary was in continual flux but usually went as far as Bejaia. Its capital was Qayrawan (Kairouan) in central Tunisia. In modern Arabic, the term simply means "Africa". It derives from the Latin term Africa of uncertain (either Berber, Punic, or Greek) origin.

953

Events

- First time that Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal appeared in a Roman map.
- Ludolf and Conrad the Red rebel against German King Otto I.

Births

Deaths

Category:953 ko:953년

913

Events

- The Shiite Fatimid state in modern day Tunisia launches a failed military campaign against Egypt'

Births

Deaths

- Emperor Alexander III of Byzantium Category:913 ko:913년

Kairouan

::Two sources of its name exist. Kairouan (Kairwan, Al Qayrawan) is a city in Tunisia, about 160 kilometres south of Tunis. " In 2003 the city had about 150,000 inhabitants. Founded in about the year 670, the original name was derived from Arabic kairuwân, from Persian Kârawân, meaning "camp", "caravan", or "resting place". See caravanserai.

History

Kairouan was founded in about the year 670 when the Muslim general Uqba ibn Nafi selected a site in the middle of a dense forest, then infested with wild beasts and reptiles, as the location of a military post. It was to keep in check the Berber hordes and was located far from the sea where it was safe from attack. A city soon developed, with luxuriant gardens and olive groves. Ibn Nafi was killed in battle by the Berbers about fifteen years after the military post was established. The city was soon recaptured and remained for four centuries the "holy city", the Mecca of North Africa. In the tenth century, the city was embellished by the Aghlabites. It was the capital in the eleventh century, and was famous for its wealth and prosperity. About the middle of the eleventh century, the Fatimites of Egypt instigated the Egyptian Bedouins to invade this part of Africa. The city was so utterly destroyed that it would never regain its former position. Then Mahdia became the capital under the Fatimites. Under the Ottomans, Tunis became, and remains, the capital. In 1881, Kairouan was taken by the French, after which non-Muslims were allowed access to the city.

Religion

Kairouan is a holy city for many Muslims, and many Sunni Muslims consider it the fourth holiest city of Islam, after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem, and the holiest city of the Maghreb. There are very many mosques in the city, among which the great mosque. For a long time, non-muslims were not allowed to enter the city, in more recent times this is allowed. Pilgrimages are made to this holy city.

Sights

The souk (market place) of Kairouan is very famous, it is in the medina, which is surrounded by walls, and of which the entrance gates can be seen from far. Products that are sold here are carpets, vases and goods made of leather. As with merchants in most major Tunisian cities, Kairouan merchants rely on tourism for much of their income.

Miscellaneous

Amongst Tunisians, Kairouan is famous for its pastries (eg, zlebia and makroudh). In Raiders of the Lost Ark, the street scenes in "Cairo" were actually filmed in Kairouan.

External links

- [http://www.tourismtunisia.com/togo/kairouan/kairouan.html Kairouan], tourismtunisia.com
- [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=499 Kairouan World heritage Site], whc.unesco.org
- [http://www.flshk.rnu.tn/ Kairouan University]
- [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=33&letter=K#82 Kairwan], jewishencyclopedia.com Category:Cities in Tunisia Category:World Heritage Sites in Tunisia

Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah

Imam Muhammad al-Qaim Bi-Amrillah (893 - 17 May, 946) was the second Caliph of the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and ruled from 934 to 946. Imam Al-Qaim was born in Salamya in Syria in 893 with the name Abd ar-Rahman. After his father Imam Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (910-934) seized power in Ifriqiya he was named heir to the throne in 912, and helped put down several revolts. However campaigns into Egypt faltered against the resistance of the Abbasids (914-915 and 919-921), with heavy casualties. In 934 Imam Al-Qaim succeeded his father as Caliph, after which he never again left the royal residence at Mahdia. Nevertheless, the Fatimid realm became an important power in the Mediterranean. After the re-conquest of Sicily the Byzantine province of Calabria and the coast of Italy and France were plundered. But from 944 to 947 the realm was plunged into crisis by the revolt of Abu Yazid, who had united the Kharijite Berber tribes of the Aurès Mountains of eastern Algeria and overrun Ifriqiya.Imam Al-Qaim was able to hold out in Mahdia with the help of the navy for over a year, but died (17th May 946) before the revolt could be put down. He was succeeded by his son Imam Ismail al-Mansur (946-953). Category:893 births Category:946 deaths Category:Fatimid caliphs

934

Events

- The Goryeo army defeats Hubaekje forces in present-day Hongseong County.

Births

Deaths

Category:934 ko:934년

946

Events
- Eadred I succeeds his brother as king of England
- End of the reign of Emperor Suzaku, emperor of Japan
- Emperor Murakami ascends the throne of Japan Births Deaths
- May 26 - King Edmund I of England
- Abu-Bakr Muhammad ben Yahya as-Suli
- Tsuraguki, Japanese poet. Category:946 ko:946년

946

943

Events
- King Constantin II of Scotland retires and becomes a monk, succeeded by his cousin Malcolm I of Scotland Births Deaths
- Harald I of Norway
- Wang Kon, founder of the Koryo dynasty. Category:943 ko:943년

947

Events

Births

Deaths

- Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl, Toltec ruler Category:947 ko:947년

Berber

The Berbers (also called Imazighen, "free men", singular Amazigh) are an ethnic group indigenous to Northwest Africa, speaking the Berber languages of the Afroasiatic family. There are between 14 and 25 million speakers of Berber languages in North Africa (see population estimation), principally concentrated in Morocco and Algeria but with smaller communities as far east as Egypt and as far south as Burkina Faso. Their languages, the Berber languages, form a branch of the Afroasiatic linguistic family comprising many closely related varieties, including Kabyle, Tashelhiyt, and Central Atlas Tamazight, with a total of roughly 14-25 million speakers.

Origin

There is no complete certitude about the origin of the Berbers; however, various disciplines shed light on the matter.

Genetic evidence

While population genetics is a young science still full of controversy, in general the genetic evidence appears to indicate that most northwest Africans (whether they consider themselves Berber or Arab) are predominantly of Berber origin, and that populations ancestral to the Berbers have been in the area since the Upper Paleolithic era. The genetically predominant ancestors of the Berbers appear to have come from the east - from East Africa, the Middle East, or both - but the details of this remain unclear. However, significant proportions of both the Berber and Arabized Berber gene pools derive from more recent migration of various Italic, Semitic, Germanic, and black sub-Saharan African peoples, all of whom have left their genetic footprints in the region. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through the paternal line. According to [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v68n4/002582/002582.html Bosch et al. 2001], "the historical origins of the NW African Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows: 75% NW African Upper Paleolithic (H35, H36, and H38), 13% Neolithic (H58 and H71), 4% historic European gene flow (group IX, H50, H52), and 8% recent sub-Saharan African (H22 and H28)". They identify the "75% NW African Upper Paleolithic" component as "an Upper Paleolithic colonization that probably had its origin in eastern Africa." The interpretation of the second most frequent "Neolithic" haplotype is debated: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15202071 Arredi et al. 2004], like Semino et al. 2000 and Bosch et al. 2001, argue that the H71 haplogroup and North African Y-chromosomal diversity indicate a Neolithic-era "demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic-speaking pastoralists from the Middle East", while [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=379148#RF17 Nebel et al. 2002] argue that H71 rather reflects "recent gene flow caused by the migration of Arabian tribes in the first millennium of the Common Era." Bosch et al. also find little genetic distinction between Arabic and Berber-speaking populations in North Africa, which they take to support the interpretation of the Arabization and Islamization of northwestern Africa, starting during the 7th century A.D., as cultural phenomena without extensive genetic replacement. [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n5/40866/40866.html Cruciani et al. 2004] note that the E-M81 haplogroup on the Y-chromosome correlates closely with Berber populations. The mtDNA, by contrast, is inherited only from the mother. According to [http://www.stats.gla.ac.uk/~vincent/papers/980656.web.pdf Macaulay et al. 1999], "one-third of Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa ∼50,000 years ago, and one-eighth have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East." [Maca-Meyer et al. 2003] analyze the "autochthonous North African lineage U6" in mtDNA, concluding that: : The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity. Subgroup U6a reflects the first African expansion from the Maghrib returning to the east in Paleolithic times. Derivative clade U6a1 signals a posterior movement from East Africa back to the Maghrib and the Near East. This migration coincides with the probable Afroasiatic linguistic expansion. A genetic study by [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15180702 Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. 2004] argues concerning certain exclusively North African haplotypes that "expansion of this group of lineages took place around 10500 years ago in North Africa, and spread to neighbouring population", and apparently that a specific Northwestern African haplotype, U6, probably originated in the Near East 30,000 years ago but has not been highly preserved and accounts for 6-8% in southern Moroccan Berbers, 18% in Kabyles and 28% in Mozabites. Rando et al. 1998 (as cited by http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v68n4/002582/002582.html) "detected female-mediated gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa to NW Africa" amounting to as much as 21.5% of the mtDNA sequences in a sample of NW African populations; the amount varied from 82% (Touaregs) to 4% (Rifains). This north-south gradient in the sub-Saharan contribution to the gene pool is supported by [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15204363 Esteban et al.]

Archaeological

The Neolithic Capsian culture appeared in North Africa around 9,500 BC and lasted until possibly 2700 BC. Linguists and population geneticists alike have identified this culture as a probable period for the spread of an Afroasiatic language (ancestral to the modern Berber languages) to the area. The origins of the Capsian culture, however, are archeologically unclear. Some have regarded this culture's population as simply a continuation of the earlier Mesolithic Ibero-Maurusian culture, which appeared around ~22,000 BC, while others argue for a population change; the former view seems to be supported by dental evidence[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11006048]

Linguistic

The Berber languages form a branch of Afro-Asiatic, and thus descended from the proto-Afro-Asiatic language; on the basis of linguistic migration theory, this is most commonly believed by historical linguists (notably Igor Diakonoff and Christopher Ehret) to have originated in east Africa no earlier than 12,000 years ago, although Alexander Militarev argues instead for an origin in the Middle East. Ehret specifically suggests identifying the Capsian culture with speakers of languages ancestral to Berber and/or Chadic, and sees the Capsian culture as having been brought there from the African coast of the Red Sea. It is still disputed which branches of Afro-Asiatic are most closely related to Berber, but most linguists accept at least one of Semitic and Chadic as among its closest relatives within the family (see Afro-Asiatic languages#Classification history.) The Nobiin variety of Nubian contains several Berber loanwords, according to Bechhaus-Gerst, suggesting a former geographical distribution extending further southeast than the present.

Phenotype and genotype by region

The appearance and the genetic make-up of Berbers is best examined together with that of their fellow Arabic-speaking inhabitants of North Africa; both share a predominant Berber ancestry.

Coastal Northwest Africans

genotype About 75% of Northwest Africans live on the coast. Berber groups such as the Rifains and Kabyles have the least sub-Saharan admixture (~2%) and the highest European admixture (~15%); Arabic-speaking groups have about 7% sub-Saharan admixture overall. Berber groups in this zone include:
- Kabyles
- Chawis
- Rifains
- Amazighs
- Chenwas

Northwest Africans of the interior

Chawis About 20% of Northwest Africans live between the Atlas Mountains and the Sahara; these groups have a moderate sub-Saharan admixture (~20%), including:
- Mozabites.
- Shleuhs.

Saharan Northwest Africans

Shleuhs About 5% of Northwest Africans live in the Sahara; these groups have the highest West African admixture, sometimes reaching 80-90% among the Tuaregs. They include:
- Touaregs
- Saharan Berbers, Oasis Berbers.

Religions and beliefs

Berbers are predominantly Sunni Muslim, most belonging to the Maliki madhhab, while the Mozabites, Djerbans, and Nafusis of the northern Sahara are Ibadi Muslim. Sufi tariqas are common in the western areas, but rarer in the east; marabout cults were traditionally important in most areas. Before their conversion to Islam, some Berber groups had converted to Christianity (often Donatist ) or Judaism, while others had continued to practice traditional polytheism. Under the influence of Islamic culture, some syncretic religions briefly emerged, as among the Berghouata, only to be replaced by Islam.

History

The Berbers have lived in North Africa for as far back as records of the area go. References to them occur frequently in ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman sources. Berber groups are first mentioned in writing by the ancient Egyptians during the Predynastic Period, and during the New Kingdom the Egyptians later fought against the Meshwesh and Lebu (Libyans) tribes on their western borders. Many Egyptologists think that from about 945 BC the Egyptians were ruled by Meshwesh immigrants who founded the Twenty-second Dynasty under Shoshenq I, beginning a long period of Berber rule in Egypt, although others posit different origins for these dynasties, including Nubian ones. The Byzantine chroniclers often complain of the Mazikes (Amazigh) raiding outlying monasteries, and berbers long remained the main population of the Western Desert well into the Nineteenth century. For many centuries the Berbers inhabited the coast of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. In historical times, they have expanded south into the Sahara (displacing earlier black African populations such as the Azer and Bafour), and have in turn been mainly culturally assimilated in much of North Africa by Arabs, particularly following the incursion of the Banu Hilal in the 11th century.

Berbers and the Islamic conquest

Unlike the conquests of previous religions and cultures, the coming of Islam, which was spread by Arabs, was to have pervasive and long-lasting effects on the Maghrib. The new faith, in its various forms, would penetrate nearly all segments of society, bringing with it armies, learned men, and fervent mystics, and in large part replacing tribal practices and loyalties with new social norms and political idioms. Nonetheless, the Islamization and Arabization of the region were complicated and lengthy processes. Whereas nomadic Berbers were quick to convert and assist the Arab conquerors, not until the twelfth century under the Almohad Dynasty did the Christian and Jewish communities become totally marginalized. The first Arab military expeditions into the Maghrib, between 642 and 669, resulted in the spread of Islam. These early forays from a base in Egypt occurred under local initiative rather than under orders from the central caliphate. When the seat of the caliphate moved from Medina to Damascus, however, the Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty ruling from 661 to 750) recognized that the strategic necessity of dominating the Mediterranean dictated a concerted military effort on the North African front. In 670, therefore, an Arab army under Uqba ibn Nafi established the town of Al Qayrawan about 160 kilometers south of present-day Tunis and used it as a base for further operations. Abu al Muhajir Dinar, Uqba's successor, pushed westward into Algeria and eventually worked out a modus vivendi with Kusayla, the ruler of an extensive confederation of Christian Berbers. Kusayla, who had been based in Tilimsan (Tlemcen), became a Muslim and moved his headquarters to Takirwan, near Al Qayrawan. This harmony was short-lived, however. Arab and Berber forces controlled the region in turn until 697. By 711 Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had conquered all of North Africa. Governors appointed by the Umayyad caliphs ruled from Al Qayrawan, capital the new wilaya (province) of Ifriqiya, which covered Tripolitania (the western part of present-day Libya), Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. Paradoxically, the spread of Islam among the Berbers did not guarantee their support for the Arab-dominated caliphate. The ruling Arabs alienated the Berbers by taxing them heavily; treating converts as second-class Muslims; and, at worst, by enslaving them. As a result, widespread opposition took the form of open revolt in 739-40 under the banner of Kharijite Islam. The Kharijites objected to Ali, the fourth caliph, making peace with the Umayyads in 657 and left Ali's camp (khariji means "those who leave"). The Kharijites had been fighting Umayyad rule in the East, and many Berbers were attracted by the sect's egalitarian precepts. For example, according to Kharijism, any suitable Muslim candidate could be elected caliph without regard to race, station, or descent from the Prophet Muhammad. After the revolt, Kharijites established a number of theocratic tribal kingdoms, most of which had short and troubled histories. Others, however, like Sijilmasa and Tilimsan, which straddled the principal trade routes, proved more viable and prospered. In 750 the Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads as Muslim rulers, moved the caliphate to Baghdad and reestablished caliphal authority in Ifriqiya, appointing Ibrahim ibn al Aghlab as governor in Al Qayrawan. Although nominally serving at the caliph's pleasure, Al Aghlab and his successors, the Aghlabids, ruled independently until 909, presiding over a court that became a center for learning and culture. Just to the west of Aghlabid lands, Abd ar Rahman ibn Rustam ruled most of the central Maghrib from Tahert, southwest of Algiers. The rulers of the Rustamid imamate, which lasted from 761 to 909, each an Ibadi Kharijite imam, were elected by leading citizens. The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice. The court at Tahert was noted for its support of scholarship in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, as well as theology and law. The Rustamid imams, however, failed, by choice or by neglect, to organize a reliable standing army. This important factor, accompanied by the dynasty's eventual collapse into decadence, opened the way for Tahert's demise under the assault of the Fatimids.

Berbers in Al-Andalus

The Muslims who entered Iberia in 711 were mainly Berbers, and were led by a Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, though under the suzerainty of the Arab Caliph of Damascus Abd al-Malik and his North African Viceroy, Musa ibn Nusayr. A second mixed army of Arabs and Berbers came in 712 under Ibn Nusayr himself, and are claimed to have formed approximately 66% of the Islamic population in Iberia, and supposedly that is the reason why they helped the Umayyad caliph Abd ar-Rahman I in Al-Andalus, because his mother was a Berber woman. During the Taifa era, the petty kings came from a variety of ethnic groups; some - for instance the Zirid kings of Granada - were of Berber origin. The Taifa period ended when a Berber dynasty - the Almoravids from modern-day Western Sahara and Mauritania - took over Al-Andalus; they were succeeded by the Almohad dynasty from Morocco, during which time al-Andalus flourished. In the power hierarchy, Berbers were situated between the Arabic aristocracy and the Muladi populace. Ethnic rivalries were one of the factors of Andalusi politics. Initially they settled the Cantabric Mounts, the Central System and the Andalusian mountains. After the fall of the Caliphate, the taifa kingdoms of Toledo, Badajoz, Málaga and Granada had Berber rulers.

Modern-day Berbers

Málaga The Berbers live mainly in Morocco (between 35%- 80% of the population) and in Algeria (about 15%-33% of the population), as well as Libya and Tunisia, though exact statistics are unavailable[http://www.ethnologue.com/]; see Berber languages#Population. Most North Africans who consider themselves Arab also have significant Berber ancestry[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v68n4/002582/002582.text.html]. Prominent Berber groups include the Kabyles of northern Algeria, who number approximately 4 million and have kept, to a large degree, their original language and culture; and the Cleuh (francophone plural of Arabic "Shalh" and Tashelhiyt "ašəlḥi") of south Morocco, numbering about 8 million. Other groups include the Riffians of north Morocco, the Chaouia of Algeria, and the Tuareg of the Sahara. There are approximately 3 million Berber immigrants in Europe, especially the Riffians and the Kabyles in the Netherlands and France. Some proportion of the inhabitants of the Canary Islands are descended from the aboriginal Guanches - usually considered to have been Berber - among whom a few Canary Islander customs, such as the eating of gofio, originated. Although stereotyped in the West as nomads, most Berbers were in fact traditionally farmers, living in the mountains relatively close to the Mediterranean coast, or oasis dwellers; the Tuareg and Zenaga of the southern Sahara, however, were nomadic. Some groups, such as the Chaouis, practiced transhumance. Political tensions have arisen between some Berber groups (especially the Kabyle) and North African governments over the past few decades, partly over linguistic and cultural issues; for instance, in Morocco, giving children Berber names was banned.

The Arabization of Northwest Africa

Before the 9th century, most of Northwest Africa was a Berber-speaking area. The process of Arabization only became a major factor with the arrival of the Banu Hilal, a tribe sent by the Fatimids of Egypt to punish the Berber Zirid dynasty for having abandoned Shiism. The Banu Hilal reduced the Zirids to a few coastal towns, and took over much of the plains; their influx was a major factor in the Arabization of the region, and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant. Soon after independence, the countries of North Africa established Arabic as their official language, replacing French (except in Libya), although the shift from French to Arabic for official purposes continues even to this day. As a result, most Berbers had to study and know Arabic, and had no opportunities to use their mother tongue at school or university. This may have accelerated the existing process of Arabization of Berbers, especially in already bilingual areas, such as among the Chaouis. Berberism had its roots before the independance of these countries but was limited to some Berber elite. It only began to gain success when North African states replaced the colonial language with Arabic and identified exclusively as Arab nations, downplaying or ignoring the existence and the cultural specificity of Berbers. However, its distribution remains highly uneven. In response to its demands, Morocco and Algeria have both modified their policies, with Algeria redefining itself constitutionally as an "Arab, Berber, Muslim nation". Currently, Berber is a "national" language in Algeria and is taught in some Berber speaking areas as a non-compulsory language. In Morocco, Berber has no official status, but is now taught as a compulsory language regardless of the area or the ethnicity. Berberism Berbers are not discriminated based on their Ethnic or mother tongue. As long as they share the reigning ideology they can reach high positions in the social hierarchy; good examples are the former president of Algeria, Liamine Zeroual, and the current prime minister of Morocco, Driss Jettou. In Algeria, furthermore, Chaoui Berbers are over-represented in the Army for historical reasons. Berberists who openly show their political orientations rarely reach high hierarchical positions. However, Khalida Toumi, a feminist and Berberist militant, has been nominated as head of the Ministry of Communication in Algeria.

Famous Berbers

In ancient times

- Shoshenq I, (Egyptian Pharaoh of Libyan origin)
- Masinissa, King of Numidia, North Africa, present day Algeria and Tunisia
- Jugurtha, King of Numidia
- Juba II, King of Numidia
- Terence, (full name Publius Terentius Afer), Roman writer
- Apuleius, Roman writer ("half-Numidian, half-Gaetulian")
- Tacfarinas, who fought the Romans in the Aures Mountains
- Saint Augustine of Hippo, (from Tagaste, was Berber, although he grew up speaking Punic)
- Saint Monica of Hippo, Saint Augustine's mother
- Arius, (who proposed the doctrine of Arianism)
- Donatus Magnus, (leader of the Donatist schism)
- Macrinus

In medieval times

- Dihya or al-Kahina
- Aksil or Kusayla
- Salih ibn Tarif of the Berghouata
- Tariq ibn Ziyad, one of the leaders of the Moorish conquest of Iberia in 711.
- Ibn Tumart, founder of the Almohad dynasty
- Yusuf ibn Tashfin, founder of the Almoravid dynasty
- Ibn Battuta (1304 - 1377), Moroccan traveller and explorer
- al-Ajurrumi (famous grammarian of Arabic)
- Fodhil al-Warthilani, traveler and religious scholar of the 1700's
- Abu Yaqub Yusuf I, who had the Giralda in Seville built.
- Abu Yaqub Yusuf II, who had the Torre del Oro in Seville built.
- Ziri ibn Manad founder of the Zirid dynasty
- Sidi Mahrez Tunisian saint
- Ibn Al Djazzar famous doctor of Kairouan, 980.
- Muhammad Awzal (ca. 1680-1749), prolific Sous Berber poet (see also Ocean of Tears)
- Muhammad al-Jazuli, author of the Dala'il ul Khairat, Sufi

In modern times

Kabyles

Politicians

- Saïd Sadi, secularist politician.
- Hocine Aït Ahmed, Algerian revolutionary fighter and secularist politician.
- Sidi Said, Leader of the Algerian syndicat of workers : UGTA.
- Khalida Toumi, Algerian feminist and secularist, currently spokesman of the Algerian goverment.
- Ahmed Ouyahia, Prime Minister of Algeria
- Belaïd Abrika, one of the spokesmen of the Arouch.
- Ferhat Mehenni, politician and singer who militates for the autonomy of Kabylie.
- Nordine Ait Hamouda, secularist politician and son of Colonel Amirouche.

Figures of the Algerian resistance and revolution

- Abane Ramdane, Algerian revolutionary fighter, assassinated in 1957.
- Krim Belkacem, Algerian revolutionary fighter, assassinated in 1970.
- Colonel Amirouche, Algerian revolutionary fighter, killed by french troops in 1959.
- Lalla Fatma n Soumer, woman who led western Kabylie in battle against French colonizers.

Artists

- Takfarinas - Kabyle singer
- Ait Menguellet - Kabyle singer
- Khalid Izri - Singer from Rif
- Lounes Matoub, Berberist and secularist singer assassinated in 1998.
- Idir - Kabyle singer
- Sliman Azem - singer
- Si Mohand, Kabyle folk poet.
- Aît Ouarab Mohamed Idir Halo (Al Anka), Chaabi Singer in Both Kabyle and Algerian Arabic.
- Karim Ziad - singer
- El Hachemi Guerouabi, Chaabi Singer from Mostaghanem, North of algéria.

Writers

- Mouloud Feraoun, writer assassinated by the OAS.
- Tahar Djaout, writer and journalist assassinated by the GIA in 1993.
- Salem Chaker, Berberist, linguist, cultural and political activist, writer, and director of Berber at the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris

Sport

- Zinedine Zidane (1972 - ), French football superstar.
- Rabah Madjer, Algerian football superstar, Winner of the European Champion's League in 1987 with Porto FC

Others

- Abd el-Krim, leader of the Rif guerrillas against the Spanish and French colonizers.
- Walid Mimoun - Protest Singer from Rif
- Ali Lmrabet, Moroccan journalist.
- Kateb Yacine, Algerian Writer.
- Mohamed Choukri (famous writer)
- Liamine Zeroual, President of Algeria between 1994-1999.
- Mohamed Chafik
- Abdallah Oualline Berber Warrior & freedom fighter. Fought against the Spanish occupation in Ait Baamrane, south of Agadir.
- Driss Jettou, Prime Minister of Morocco
- Didouche Mourad
- Cherif Khedam - composer
- Cheikh El Hasnaoui - singer
- Abdallah Nihrane -Scientific Investigator, Assistant Professor, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York USA
- Tinariwen - critically acclaimed band of Tuareg musicians
- M. Toufali - Writer and composer from the Rif (Melilla)

Famous people who were either Berber or Punic

- Septimus Severus (Roman emperor from the mainly Punic Libyan city of Lepcis Magna, founded by Phoenicians)
- Caracalla, his son
- Tertullian, an early Christian theologian (born in the highly multiethnic, Phoenician-founded city of Carthage)
- Vibia Perpetua (early Christian martyr, also born in Carthage)
- Cyprian (also born in Carthage)

Famous people who may have had some Berber ancestors

Nearly all North Africans - and many Andalusi Moors - fall and fell into this category, but do not in general identify themselves as Berber. For lists of them, look under the respective countries.

References

- Brett, Michael; & Fentress, Elizabeth (1997). The Berbers (The Peoples of Africa). ISBN 0631168524. ISBN 0631207678 (Pbk).
- The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 by Christopher Ehret
- Egypt In Africa by Celenko
- Stone Age Races of Northwest Africa by L. Cabot-Briggs
- The people of Africa (People of the world series) by Jean Hiernaux
- Britannica 2004
- Encarta 2005

External links

- [http://imazighen.vze.com/ Imazighen] Pictures of Berbers, Genetics and History.
- [http://amazigh.startkabel.nl Amazigh Startkabel] interesting
- [http://amazighworld.net/history/index.php Amazigh links] some of which are in English
- [http://www.fortunecity.com/skyscraper/ballard/168/ North African Kingdom of Numidia] (Warning: Popup trap, tries to install spyware)
- [http://www.tawalt.com/ Tawalt]
- [http://www.tamazight.biz Tamazight]
- http://berber.startkabel.nl/
- [http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=6&selected_feed=185 Rachid Aadnani on the problem with the term "Berber"] Category:Ethnic groups of Morocco Category:History of the Maghreb Category:Maghreb Category:Ethnic groups of the Middle East Category:Indigenous peoples of Africa Category:Indigenous peoples of North Africa Category:Ethnic groups Category:Muslim communities ja:ベルベル人

Al-Mansuriya

Al-Mansuriya (Arabic: المنصوريه ) was a royal residence near Kairouan, and the seat of Fatimid government from the time of Ismail al-Mansur The new residence was founded in 946 by al-Mansur before the eventual victory over Abu Yazid and replaced Mahdia as the capital of the empire. The city was planned as circular construction after the model of Baghdad, with the palace of the Fatimids in the centre. The building materials were mostly taken from the old Aghlabid residence of Raqadda. It was completed under Al-Muizz, who ensured the water supply with the construction of an aqueduct. Apart from the courtiers and slave troops, 14,000 Kutama tribespeople were settled there. After the Fatimids based themselves in Egypt the city remained the capital of the Zirids, although it was reduced to rubble in a Sunni uprising in 1016. During the invasion of the Banu Hilal the royal residence was finally moved to Mahdia in 1053. The city was plundered and subsequently served as a quarry for the inhabitants of Kairouan. The first French excavations took place in 1921, becoming a Franco-Tunisian project in 1972. Category:Royal residences Category:History of the Maghreb

Umayyads

The Umayyad Dynasty (Arabic بنو أمية banū umayya / الأمويون al-umawiyyūn); Persian امویان (Omaviyân), Turkish, Emevi, ) was the first dynasty of caliphs of the Prophet Muhammad who were not closely related to Muhammad himself, though they were of the same Meccan tribe, the Quraish. The first dynasty reigned from AD661 to AD750. Ironically, the clan from which the Umayyads originated had originally been bitter enemies.

Umayyad rulers

Muawiyah had been the governor of Syria under the 3rd caliph and his kinsman, Uthman ibn Affan. After the assassination of Uthman, he was replaced by the new caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib. Since the killers of Uthman had allied themselves with Ali, Muawiyah refused to accept his caliphate, and in 657 led an army against him. The two sides agreed to a conciliation procedure, resulting in an arbitration that many of Ali's partisans saw as unfair. The Muslim empire was partitioned. When Ali was assassinated in 661, his son Hasan pledged allegiance to Muawiyah and Muawiyah was declared caliph of all Muslim lands. This established the Umayyad dynasty, and the capital of the caliphate was moved to Damascus. Great waves of expansion occurred under the reign of the Umayyads. Muslim armies pushed across North Africa and Iran, through the late 600s, expanding the borders of the empire from the Iberian peninsula, in the west, to what is today Pakistan, in the east. Forces led by Tariq ibn-Ziyad crossed Gibraltar and established Muslim power in the Iberian peninsula, while other armies established power far away in Sind, in South Asia. The Muslim empire under the Umayyads was now a vast domain that ruled a diverse array of peoples. The Umayyads were overthrown in the east by the Abbasid dynasty after their defeat in the Battle of the Zab in 750, following which most of the clan was massacred by the Abbasids. An Umayyad prince, Abd-ar-rahman I, took over the Muslim territory in Al-Andalus (Hispania) and founded a new Umayyad dynasty there.

Umayyad Caliphs at Damascus

- Muawiyah I ibn Abi Sufyan, 661-680
- Yazid I ibn Muawiyah, 680-683
- Muawiya II ibn Yazid, 683-684
- Marwan I ibn Hakam, 684-685
- Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, 685-705
- al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik, 705-715
- Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik, 715-717
- Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, 717-720
- Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik, 720-724
- Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, 724-743
- al-Walid II ibn Yazid II, 743-744
- Yazid III ibn al-Walid, 744
- Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, 744
- Marwan II ibn Muhammad (ruled from Harran in the Jazira) 744-750

Umayyad Emirs of Cordoba

- Abd ar-Rahman I, 756-788
- Hisham I, 788-796
- al-Hakam I, 796-822
- Abd ar-Rahman II, 822-8
- [[Abdallah ibn Muhammad]], [[888-912
- Abd ar-Rahman III, 912-929

Umayyad Caliphs at Cordoba

- Abd ar-Rahman III, as caliph, 929-961
- Al-Hakam II, 961-976
- Hisham II, 976-1008
- Mohammed II, 1008-1009
- Suleiman, 1009-1010
- Hisham II, restored, 1010-1012
- Suleiman, restored, 1012-1017
- Abd ar-Rahman IV, 1021-1022
- Abd ar-Rahman V, 1022-1023
- Muhammad III, 1023-1024
- Hisham III, 1027-1031

Umayyad sahaba

Here is a partial list of the Companions of Muhammad who were part of the Umayyad clan:
- Marwan ibn Al-Hakam
- Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan
- Abu Sufiyan ibn Harb

Umayyad taba'een

Here is a partial list of the Taba'een (the generation that succeeded the Companions) who were part of the Umayyad clan:
- Abdul Rahman ibn Khalid ibn Walid
- Yazid bin Muawiyah
- Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan

External links

Morocco

The Kingdom of Morocco (Arabic المملكة المغربية) is a country in northwest Africa. It has a long coastline on the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Algeria to the east, though the Algerian border is closed, Western Sahara to the south, the Mediterranean Sea and Spain to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to its west. Morocco claims ownership of Western Sahara and has administered most of the territory since 1975. Its status is disputed, pending a United Nations referendum.

Name

The full Arabic name of the country translates to The Western Kingdom. Al Maghrib (meaning The West) is commonly used. For historical references, historians used to refer to Morocco as Al Maghrib al Aqşá (The Furthest West). The name Morocco in most other languages originates from the name of the former capital, Marrakech. Marrakech means in Berber "the land of God" with "mur" meaning Land and "Akush" meaning God.

History

Main article: History of Morocco Morocco's indigenous people are called the Berbers. The old name of Morocco was Mauretania. There have been several dynasties and kingdoms in Morocco before and after the rise of Islam. Morocco became a French protectorate by the signing of the Treaty of Fez on March 30, 1912. The northern area of Morocco was under a Spanish protectorate concurrently. The Alaouite dynasty lasted through this period and upon independence in 1956, Sultan Mohammed V adopted the title of 'King' and Morocco became an independent Kingdom. Morocco then recovered Tangier, formerly an international city. Morocco annexed Western Sahara in the 1970s, which had been a colony under the Spaniards since the 19th century. Previous to that it had been an area of Moroccan influence, but this annexation has not been recognized by any nation. Morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling United States in 1777 and has the oldest non-broken friendship treaty with the country, the Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship, which has been in effect since 1783. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the American signatories. The United States legation (consulate) in Tangier, is the first property the U.S. owned abroad. It now houses the Tangier American Legation Museum. Morocco was granted Major Non-NATO Ally status in June 2004 and signed free trade agreements with the United States and the European Union. In 2003, Morocco's largest city, Casablanca, was attacked in the Casablanca terrorist attacks. The attacks left 33 civilians dead and more than 100 people injured.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Morocco Morocco is a constitutional monarchy, with a popularly-elected parliament. The King of Morocco can dissolve government and deploy the military, among other responsibilities. Opposition political parties are legal and several have arisen in recent years. See also: List of political parties in Morocco

Provinces

List of political parties in Morocco List of political parties in Morocco Main article: Provinces of Morocco Morocco is divided into 37 provinces and 2 wilayas: Three additional provinces, Ad Dakhla (Oued Eddahab), Boujdour, and Es Smara, as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune, primarily fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara. As part of a 1997 decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature, 16 new regions were created, although the full details and scope of the reorganization are limited. These 16 regions are:

Geography

1997 Main article: Geography of Morocco Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast. There are also four Spanish enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera and Peñón de Alhucemas, as well as several islands including Perejil and Chafarinas. Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese.To the north, Morocco is bordered by and controls part of the Straits of Gibraltar, giving it power over the waterways in and out of the Mediterranean sea. Most of the South East portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. The High Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the south west to the north east. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south is the desert. Morocco's capital city is Rabat, and its largest city is the modern port of Casablanca. Other cities include Agadir, Essaouira, Fes, Marrakech, Meknes, Oujda, Ouarzazat, Safi, Tangier, Tiznit, Salè and Tan-Tan.
- List of cities in Morocco and Western Sahara

Economy

Main article: Economy of Morocco Economy of Morocco Morocco has signed Free Trade Agreements with the European Union (to take effect 2010) and the United States of America. The United States Senate approved by a vote of 85 to 13 on July 22, 2004 the [http://www.ustr.gov/Trade_Agreements/Bilateral/Morocco_FTA/Section_Index.html Free Trade Agreement with Morocco], which, now in effect, allows for 95% of the two-way trade of consumer and industrial products to be without tariffs. Morocco's largest industry is the mining of phosphates. Its second largest source of income is from nationals living abroad who transfer money to relatives living in Morocco. The country's third largest source of revenue is tourism. Morocco ranks among the world’s largest producers and exporters of cannabis, and its cultivation and sale provide the economic base for much of the population of northern Morocco. The cannabis is typically processed into hashish. This activity represents 0.57 per cent of Morocco's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), estimated at US$ 37.3 billion. A UN survey^{[http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2003/unisnar826.html]} estimated cannabis cultivation at about 134,000 hectares in Morocco's five northern provinces. This represents 10 per cent of the total area and 27 per cent of the arable lands of the surveyed territory and 1.5 per cent of Morocco's total arable land. Morocco is a party to the 1988 UN Drug Convention and in 1992 Morocco passed legislation designed to implement the Convention. Morocco has an unemployment rate of 12.1% (2004 Data) and a 1999 estimate by the CIA puts 19% of the Moroccan population under the poverty line^{[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mo.html]}. Though working towards change, Morocco historically has utilized child labor on a large scale. In 1999 the Moroccan Government admitted that over 500,000 children under the age of 15 were in the labor force^{[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/369753.stm]}.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Morocco Morocco is the third most populous Arab country, after Egypt and Sudan. Most Moroccans are Sunni Muslims of Arab, Berber, or mixed Arab-Berber stock. The Arabs invaded Morocco in the 7th and 11th centuries and established their culture there. Morocco's Jewish minority has decreased significantly and numbers about 7,000 (See History of the Jews in Morocco). Most of the 100,000 foreign residents are French or Spanish; many are teachers or technicians. Morocco's official language is classical Arabic. The country's distinctive Arabic dialect is called Moroccan Arabic. Approximately 10 million (1 third of the population), mostly in rural areas, speak Berber --which exists in Morocco in three different dialects (Tarifit, Tashelhiyt, and Tamazight)-- either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect. French, which remains Morocco's unofficial second language, is taught universally and still serves as Morocco's primary language of commerce and economics. It also is widely used in education and government. About 20,000 Moroccans in the northern part of the country speak Spanish as a second language in parallel with Tarifit. English, while still far behind French and Spanish in terms of number of speakers, is rapidly becoming the foreign language of choice among educated youth. As a result of national education reforms entering into force in late 2002, English will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on. Most people live west of the Atlas Mountains, a range that insulates the country from the Sahara Desert. Casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port; Rabat is the seat of government; Tangier is the gateway to Morocco from Spain and also a major port; Fez is the cultural and religious center; and the dominantly "Berber" Marrakech is a major tourist center. Education in Morocco is free and compulsory through primary school (age 15). Nevertheless, many children --particularly girls in rural areas-- still do not attend school. The country's illiteracy rate has been stuck at around 50% for some years but reaches as high as 90% among girls in rural regions. Morocco has about 230,000 students enrolled in 14 public universities. The oldest and in some ways the most prestigious is "Mohammed V University" in Rabat -along with Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane (a private university)-, with faculties of law, sciences, liberal arts, and medicine. Al-Akhawayn, founded in 1993 by King Hassan II and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, is an English-medium, American-style university comprising about 1,000 students. University of Karueein, in Fez, has been a center for Islamic studies for more than 1,000 years. On October 6, 2005 six Sub-Saharan Africans were killed trying to climb the barrier to the Spanish enclave of Melilla, on Morocco’s Mediterranean coast. This followed a related incident a week earlier in the neighbouring Spanish enclave of Ceuta, when an apparent combination of police gunfire and a mass stampede of 600 people led to the death of five immigrants^{[http://www.opendemocracy.net/people-migrationeurope/melilla_2905.jsp]} UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan asked the two countries to treat the immigrants humanely^{[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4326670.stm]}.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Morocco Culture of Morocco
- Cuisine of Morocco
- List of writers from Morocco
- Music of Morocco
- List of newspapers in Morocco
- Military of Morocco
- Moroccan Wall
- Transportation in Morocco

External links

CIA World Factbook]

Government

- [http://www.mincom.gov.ma/english/e_page.html Kingdom of Morocco] official portal
- [http://www.parlement.ma/ Parliament of Morocco] official site (Arabic)

News

- [http://allafrica.com/morocco/ allAfrica - Morocco] news headline links
- [http://www.map.ma/eng Maghreb Arabe Presse] government news agency
- [http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] financial news

Overviews

- [http://www.al-bab.com/maroc/ Arab Gateway – Morocco]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791867.stm BBC News – Country Profile: Morocco]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mo.html CIA World Factbook – Morocco]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2416.htm US State Department – Morocco] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.globaladrenaline.com/africa/morocco/ GlobalAdrenaline – Morocco]

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Morocco.html Columbia University Libraries – Morocco] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://www.moroccolinks.com/ MoroccoLinks.com] directory
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Morocco/ Open Directory Project – Morocco] directory category
- [http://www.willgoto.com/324/1/categories.aspx WillGoTo.com – Morocco] directory category

Tourism

-
- [http://www.triotours.com/faq/ma Morocco FAQ]

Other

- [http://www.moroccoforums.com/ Morocco Forums] Discussion Board
- [http://www.raioo.com/ Moroccan raioo culture in bits & bytes] (English)
- [http://www.morocco365.com/ Morocco365] portal
- [http://www.yabiladi.com/ Moroccans on the world] portal (French)
- [http://www.wafin.com Portal of Moroccans in the U.S.]
- [http://www.hec.ac.ma/Enseignement.html Higher education and professional training in Morocco (in French)]
- [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/morocco/intro/ The EU's relations with Morocco]
- [http://www.legation.org The American Legation in Tangier]
- [http://www.moroccanamericantrade.com Moroccan American Trade Council]
- [http://www.moroccousafta.com/index_ang.htm Description of the Moroccan-American FTA and components]
- [http://www.moroccousafta.com/ftafulltext.htm Final text of the Moroccan-American FTA]
- [http://www.moroccanamericantrade.com/FTAsummEn.pdf Description of benefits of the Moroccan-American FTA]
- [http://www.moroccousafta.com/index_ang.htm Moroccousafta] a site about the Morocco/US Free Trade Agreement
- Map: [http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/morocco.pdf] (pdf); links to more: [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/map_sites/country_sites.html#morocco]
- [http://www.marocvoyages.net/ Guest houses Guide of Morocco] travel guide
- [http://lexicorient.com/morocco/index.htm Lexicorient – Morocco] travel site
- [http://www.magicmorocco.com/ The Magic Morocco] travel guide
- [http://french.about.com/library/travel/bl-ma-index.htm Moroccan Culture Series] – observations by an American woman living in Morocco
- [http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/SpainPortugalMorocco/Morocco/index.htm Pictures from a backpacker's trip through Morocco in 2000]
- [http://rickgold.home.mindspring.com/index.htm Visting Jewish Morocco] A very complete and informative site about history and culture of Moroccan Jews
- [http://www.geopium.org/Chouvy-JIR-NOV2005-Morocco_said_to_produce_nearly_half_of_the_worlds_hashish_supply.html A recent publication on hashish production and trafficking in the Rif area of Morocco] Category:Arab League zh-min-nan:Morocco ko:모로코 ms:Maghribi ja:モロッコ simple:Morocco th:ประเทศโมร็อกโก

Sicily

:Sicilian disambiguates here; see also Sicilian language or Sicilian Defence. Sicily (Sicilia in Italian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 sq. km and 5 million inhabitants.

Towns and Cities

Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, together with the other provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (Siracusa in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, Ragusa. Other famous Sicilian towns include Cefalù, Taormina, Bronte, Marsala, Corleone, Castellammare del Golfo Francavilla di Sicilia, and Abacaenum (now Tripi).

Flag

For more information, see Flag of Sicily. The regional flag of Sicily, recognized since January 2000, is also the historical one of the island, since 1282. It is divided diagonally yellow over red, with the trinacria symbol in the center. The trinacria symbol is used also by the Isle of Man.

Geography

Isle of Man This region is faced to Calabria over the Strait of Messina, and that's the only conterminous region. The volcano Etna, is situated close to Catania. Etna is 3,320 m (10,900 ft) high, making it the tallest volcano in Europe. It is also one of the world's most active volcanos. The Aeolian islands to the north are administratively a part of Sicily, as are the Aegadian Islands and Pantelleria Island to the west, Ustica Island to the north-west, and the Pelagian Islands to the south-west. Sicily has been noted for two millennia as a grain-producing territory: olives and wine are among its other agricultural products. The mines of the Caltanissetta district became a leading sulphur-producing area in the 19th century, but have declined since the 1950s.

Transport

Vehicles Most of Sicily's motorways (autostrade) run through the north of the region - the most important ones being A19 Palermo - Catania, A20 Palermo - Messina, A29 Palermo - Mazara del Vallo and the paid-for A18 Messina - Catania. Much of the motorway network is raised on columns due to the mountainous terrain. The road network in the south of the country consists of well maintained, yet not motorway-class roads. Train Sicily is connected to the Italian peninsula by the national railway company, Trenitalia, though trains are loaded onto ferries for the crossing from the mainland. Officially, the Stretto di Messina, S.p.A. schedules to the second half of 2006 the beginning of construction on the world's longest suspension bridge, The Strait of Messina Bridge Project. If and when completed, it will mark the first time in history that Sicily has been connected by a land link to Italy. Air Sicily is served by national and international flights (mainly European) from to Palermo International Airport and Catania-Fontanarossa Airport. There are also minor national airports in Trapani and small islands of Pantelleria and Lampedusa.

Arts

Lampedusa Sicily is well known as a country of art: many poets and writers were born on this region, starting from the Sicilian School in the early 13th century, which inspired much subsequent Italian poetry and created the first Italian standard. The most famous, however, are Luigi Pirandello, Giovanni Verga, Salvatore Quasimodo, Gesualdo Bufalino and the dialectal poet Ignazio Buttitta. Other Sicilian artists include the composers Sigismondo d'India (from Palermo), Vincenzo Bellini (from Catania), as well as the sculptor Tommaso Geraci. Noto and Ragusa contain some of Italy's best examples of Baroque architecture, carved in the local red sandstone. Caltagirone is renowned for its decorative ceramics. Palermo is also a major center of Italian opera. Its Teatro Massimo is the largest opera house in Italy and the third largest in the world, seating 1400. Sicily is also home to two prominent folk art traditions, both of which draw heavily on the island's Norman influence. Donkey carts are painted with intricate decorations of scenes from the Norman romantic poems, such as The Song of Roland. The same tales are told in traditional puppet theatres which feature hand-made wooden marionettes. The 1988 movie Nuovo Cinema Paradiso was about life in a Sicilian town following the Second World War.

History

The autochthonous peoples of Sicily, long absorbed into the population, were tribes known to Greek writers as the Elymians, the Sicani and the Siculi or Siceli. Of these, the last were clearly the latest to arrive on this land and were related to other tribes of southern Italy, such as the Italoi of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones. Sicily was colonized by Phoenicians and Punic settlers from Carthage and by Greeks, starting in the 8th century BC. The most important colony was established at Syracuse in 734 BC. Other important Greek colonies were Gela, Acragas, Selinunte, Himera, and Zancle or Messene (modern-day Messina, not to be confused with the ancient city of Messene in Messenia, Greece). These city states were an important part of classical Greek civilization, which included Sicily as part of Magna Graecia - both Empedocles and Archimedes were from Sicily. Sicilian politics was intertwined with politics in Greece itself, leading Athens, for example, to mount the disastrous Sicilian Expedition during the Peloponnesian War. The Greeks came into conflict with the Punic trading communities with ties to Carthage, which was on the African mainland not far from the southwest corner of the region, and had its own colonies on Sicily. Palermo was a Carthaginian city, founded in the 8th century BC, named Zis or Sis ("Panormos" to the Greeks). Hundreds of Phoenician and Carthaginian grave sites have been found in necropoli over a large area of Palermo, now built over, south of the Norman palace, where the Norman kings had a vast park. In the far west, Lilybaeum (now Marsala) never was thoroughly Hellenized. In the First and Second Sicilian Wars, Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which was dominated by Syracuse. In the 3rd century BC the Messanan Crisis motivated the intervention of the Roman Republic into Sicilian affairs, and led to the First Punic War between Rome and Carthage. By the end of war (242 BC) all Sicily was in Roman hands, becoming Rome's first province outside of the Italian peninsula. The initial success of the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War encouraged many of the Sicilian cities to revolt against Roman rule. Rome sent troops to put down the rebellions (it was during the siege of Syracuse that Archimedes was killed). Carthage briefly took control of parts of Sicily, but in the end was driven off. Many Carthaginian sympathizers were killed-- in 210 BC the Roman consul M. Valerian told the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily". For the next 6 centuries Sicily was a province of the Roman Empire. It was something of a rural backwater, important chiefly for its grainfields which were a mainstay of the food supply of the city of Rome. The empire did