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Kauai

Kauai

Kauai (usually called Kauai outside the Hawaiian Islands) is the oldest and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, having an area of 1,446 km² . Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kauai lies 105 miles (170 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Oahu. Of volcanic origin, the highest peak on this mountainous island is Kawaikini at 1,598 m (5,243 ft). The second highest peak is Mount Waialeale near the center of the island, 1,570 m (5,148 ft) above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with an annual average rainfall of 460 inches (11,700 millimeters), is located on the east side of Mount Waialeale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountain, carving out canyons with many scenic waterfalls. There is no known meaning behind the name of Kauai. Native Hawaiian tradition indicates the name's origin in the legend of Hawaiiloa — the Polynesian navigator attributed with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates how he named the island of Kauai after a son. During the reign of King Kamehameha, the islands of Kauai and Niihau were the last Hawaiian Islands to join his Kingdom of Hawaii. Their ruler, Kaumualii, resisted Kamehameha for years, until the king arrived with a huge armada of ships to take the islands by force. Kaumualii decided to join the kingdom without bloodshed, and became Kamehameha's vassal in 1810. 1810]] The city of Līhue, on the island's southeast coast, is the seat of Kauai County and the largest city on the island. Waimea, on the island's southwest side and once the capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by explorer Captain James Cook in 1778. Waimea town is located at the mouth of the Waimea River, whose flow formed one of the most scenic canyons in the world: 3000 ft (900 m) deep Waimea Canyon. The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated feature film Lilo & Stitch. Waimea Canyon was used in the filming of the 1993 film Jurassic Park. Kauai is home to the U.S. Navy's Pacific Missile Range Facility. Kauai was known for its distinct dialect of the Hawaiian language before it went extinct there. Whereas the standard language today is based on the dialect of Hawaii island (also extinct), the Kauai dialect was known for pronouncing /k/ as /t/. Therefore, the native name for Kauai was Tauai, and the major settlement of Kapaa would have been called Tapaa.

Important towns and cities

Līhue Hanalei Poipū Princeville Wailua

Places of interest

Hanalei Bay Nā Pali Coast Waimea Canyon Iraivan temple

Bibliography


- Edward Joestring. Kauai, the Separate Kingdom. University of Hawaii Press and Kauai Museum Association. Honolulu. 1984. ISBN 0824811623

See also


- Tourism on Kauai
- Hurricane Iniki (1992)

External links


- [http://www.kauaichamber.org/ Kauai Chamber of Commerce] - Essential business information
- [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/HNL2003/Waterfalls.htm Waterfalls on Kauai]
- [http://www.kauaiexplorer.com/ Kauai Beaches] ja:カウアイ島 simple:Kauai Kauai Kauai

Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an archipelago of nineteen islands and atolls, numerous smaller islets, and undersea seamounts trending northwest by southeast in the North Pacific Ocean between latitudes 19° N and 29° N. The archipelago takes its name from the largest island in the group and extends some 1500 miles (2400 km) from the Island of Hawai‘i in the south to northernmost Kure Atoll. The archipelago represents the exposed peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, formed by volcanic activity over a hotspot in the earth's mantle. At about 3,000 km (1,860 miles) from the nearest continent, the Hawaiian Island archipelago is the most isolated grouping of islands on Earth (Macdonald, Abbott, and Peterson, 1984).

Islands and reefs of the Hawaiian archipelago

Earth A total of 19 islands and atolls comprise the Hawaiian Islands, with a total land area of 16,636 km2 (6,423.4 square miles). The eight main Hawaiian islands (all inhabited except for Kaho‘olawe) are, listed here from south to north:
- Hawai‘i (also known as the Big Island)
- Maui
- Kaho‘olawe (uninhabited; temporary residential facilities)
- Lāna‘i
- Moloka‘i
- O‘ahu
- Kaua‘i
- Ni‘ihau Smaller islands, atolls, and reefs (beyond Ni‘ihau and all uninhabited); called the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands:
- Ka‘ula
- Nihoa
- Necker (Mokumanamana)
- French Frigate Shoals (Mokupāpapa)
- Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu)
- Maro Reef (Nalukakala)
- Laysan (Kauō)
- Lisianski (Papa‘āpoho)
- Pearl and Hermes Reef (Holoikauaua)
- Midway (Pihemanu) (temporary residential facilities)
- Kure (Kānemiloha‘i)

Islets

Some information sources state that there are 137 "islands" in the Hawaiian chain. This number includes all minor islands and islets offshore of the main islands (listed above) and individual islets in each atoll. (Hawai‘i state government, undated). Following is a list of islets and small offshore islands that make up the total count beyond 19:
- Ford Island (Moku‘ume‘ume)
- Kaohikaipu
- Manana Island
- Mōkōlea Rock
- Nā Mokulua
- Molokini Except for Midway, which is an unincorporated territory of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as the State of Hawaii — the 50th state of the United States of America.

Geology

United States of America) and blue to light gray (shallowest). Historical lava flows are shown in red, erupting from the summits and rift zones of Mauna Loa, Kilauea, and Hualalai volcanoes on Hawai‘i .]] The chain of islands or archipelago formed as the Pacific plate moves slowly northwestward over a hotspot in the earth's crust. Hence the islands in the northwest of the archipelago are older and typically smaller (have been eroding far longer). Because of the composition of the magma in the hotspot, the composition of Hawaiian volcanoes is basaltic. The majority of eruptions in Hawai‘i are Hawaiian-type eruptions because basaltic magma is relatively fluid compared with andesitic eruptions. Hawai‘i (the Big Island) is the largest and youngest island in the chain, built from seven different volcanoes. Mauna Loa, comprising over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the planet. The measurement from the base locally depressing the sea floor to its peak is about 17 km (56,000 feet; [http://wwwhvo.wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/ USGS]) See also: List of Hawaii rivers

Ecology

:Related article: Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian Islands are home to a large number of endemic species. The plant and animal life of the Hawaiian Islands developed in nearly complete isolation over about 70 million years. Human contact, first by Polynesians, introduced new trees, plants and animals. The growing population also brought deforestation, forest degradation, treeless grasslands, and environmental degradation. As a result, many species which depended on forest habitats and food went extinct. Agriculture began to increase, with monocultual crop production replacing multi-species systems. The arrival of the Europeans had a significant impact, with the promotion of large-scale single-species export agriculture and livestock grazing. In turn, this led to the increased clearing of forests, and the development of towns, driving more species to extinction. Today, many of the remaining endemic species are considered endangered. [http://www.agroforestry.net/afg/]

Climate

The islands receive most rainfall from the trade winds on their north and east flanks (called the windward side) as a result of orographic precipitation. Coastal areas in general and especially the south and west flanks or leeward sides, tend to be drier. Because of the frequent build-up of Tradewind clouds and potential showers, most tourist areas have been built on the leeward coasts of the islands. In general, the Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September, but the warmer temperatures increase the risk of hurricanes (see below). Temperatures at sea level generally range from high temperatures of 85-90°F (29-32°C) during the summer months to low temperatures of 65-70°F (18-21°C) during the winter months. Very rarely does the temperature rise above 90°F (32°C) or drop below 60°F (16°C) at lower elevations. Temperatures are lower at higher altitudes; in fact, the three highest mountains of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Haleakala sometimes receive snowfall during the winter.

Hurricanes

The hurricane season in the Hawaiian Islands is roughly from June through November, when hurricanes and tropical storms are most probable in the North Pacific. These storms tend to originate off the coast of Mexico (particularly the Baja California peninsula) and track west or northwest towards the islands. Hawai‘i is protected by the vastness of the Pacific (i.e. the improbability of a direct hit); as storms cross the Pacific they tend to lose strength if they bear northward and encounter cooler water. It is thought that the topography of the highest islands (Haleakalā on Maui, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the Big Island) may protect these islands, and certainly Kaua‘i has been hit more often in the last 50 years than the others.

Tsunamis

Baja California peninsula The Hawaiian islands can be affected by tsunamis, great waves that strike the shore typically but not exclusively from the north. Tsunamis are movements of the surface layer of the ocean most often caused by earthquakes somewhere in the Pacific. The city of Hilo on the Big Island has historically been most impacted by tsunamis, where the inrushing water is accentuated by the shape of the bay on which the town is situated.

References


- [http://www2.hawaii.gov/DBEDT/images/User_FilesImages/databook/db02/sec05_a254.pdf Hawai‘i state government], Table 05.09 (.pdf file).
- Macdonald, G. A., A. T. Abbott, and F. L. Peterson. 1984. Volcanoes in the Sea. The Geology of Hawaii, 2nd edition. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 517 pp.
- [http://radlab.soest.hawaii.edu/atlas/ The Ocean Atlas of Hawai‘i] - SOEST at University of Hawai‘i.
- Category:Archipelagoes ko:하와이 제도 ja:ハワイ諸島

Hawaiian islands channels

In an archipelago like the Hawaiian Islands the water between islands is typically called a channel or passage. Described here are the channels between the islands of Hawaii, arranged from south to north.

Alenuihāhā Channel

The Alenuihāhā separates the island of Hawaii and the island of Maui. The maximum depth of this channel is 6100 feet (1900 m).

Alalākeiki Channel

Kealaikahiki Channel

Ke ala i kahiki channel is the channel between Lānai and Kahoolawe. It literally means "the road to Tahiti; if one takes a bearing off of Kealaikahiki point while in the channel and heads directly straight, one arrives in Tahiti. In practice, however, Polynesian navigators probably did not quite ply a straight route to Tahiti.

Auau Channel

The Auau Channel is one of the most protected areas of ocean in the Hawaiian Islands, lying between Lānai and Maui. The channel is also protected by Molokai to the north, and Kahoolawe to the south. The depth of the channel reaches 108 feet (33 m). The middle of the channel off Maui was known as Lāhainā Roads in the days of whaling ships. Auau channel is a whale-watching center in the Hawaiian Islands. Humpback whales migrate approximately 3,500 miles (5600 km) from Alaskan waters each autumn and spend the northern hemisphere winter months in the protected waters of the channel.

Pailolo Channel

Kalohi Channel

The Kalohi Channel is the stretch of water separating Lānai and Molokai. Depth of water in this channel is about 260 feet (79 m). This is one of the less trecherous channels between islands in the archipelago, although strong winds and choppy sea conditions are frequent. Kalolohia beach on the Lānai coast is also known as "Shipwreck Beach" because of a wreck on the reef there.

Kaiwi Channel

The Kaiwi Channel separates the islands of Oahu and Molokai. Maximum depth is 2300 feet (701 m). There is an annual paddleboarding contest which traverses this channel.

Kauai Channel

Kaulukahi Channel

Channels

Oahu

Oahu (usually Oahu outside Hawaiian and Hawaiian English), the "Gathering Place", is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands and most populous island in the State of Hawaii. Total land area is 608 mile² (1,600 km²). In greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 71 km (44 mi) long and 48 km (30 mi) across. The length of the shoreline is 366 km (227 mi). The island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes: Waianae and Koolau, with a broad "valley" or saddle (the central Oahu Plain) between them. The highest point is Mt. Kaala in the Waianae Range, rising to 1,225 m (4019 ft) above sea level (Macdonald, Abbott, & Peterson, 1983). The island is home to ~900,000 people (approximately 75% of the resident population of the state) and partly because of this, Oahu has for a long time been nicknamed "The Gathering Place". However, the term Oahu has no confirmed meaning in Hawaiian, other than that of the place itself (Pukui, et al., 1976). Ancient Hawaiian tradition attributes the name's origin in the legend of Hawaiiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates that he named the island after a son. Polynesia]Polynesia The city of Honolulu—largest city, state capital, and main deepwater marine port for the State of Hawaii—is located here. As a jurisdictional unit, the entire island of Oahu is in the City & County of Honolulu, although as a place name, Honolulu occupies only a portion of the southeast end of the island (essentially, the Honolulu District). The island extends from Kaena on the west end to Makapuu on the east. Well-known features found on Oahu include Waikīkī, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kāneohe Bay, and the North Shore.

History

Kamehameha III moved his capital from Lāhainā, Maui to Oahu in 1845. Iolani Palace, built later by others of the royal family, still remains as evidence of the only monarchy now on American soil. Oahu was apparently the first of the Hawaiian Islands sighted by the crew of HMS Resolution on 18 January 1778 during Capt. James Cook's third Pacific expedition. Escorted by HMS Discovery, the expedition was surprised to find high islands this far north in the central Pacific. Oahu was not actually visited by Europeans until 28 February 1779 when Captain Clerke aboard HMS Resolution stepped ashore at Waimea Bay. Clerke had taken command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay (Island of Hawaii) on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific. Today, Oahu has become a tourism and shopping haven as over 5 million visitors (mainly from the American mainland and Japan) flock there every year to enjoy the quintessential island holiday experience that the Hawaiian Islands and her multicultural people now personify.

Tourist attractions


- Ala Moana
- Hanauma Bay
- Honolulu
- North Shore
- Pearl Harbor
- USS Arizona Memorial
- USS Missouri

Miscellaneous

Oahu has been featured in hundreds of movies and TV shows, including Magnum P.I., Hawaii Five-O, and Jake and the Fatman to name but a few. Lost is filmed on Oahu, and more recently, a television series called North Shore was filmed there.

Sources


- Macdonald, Gordon A., Agatin T. Abbott, and Frank L. Peterson. 1983. Volcanoes in the Sea. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 517 pp.
- Pukui, M.K., S.H. Elbert, and E.T. Mookini. 1976. Place names of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. 289 pp.

External links


- [http://www.terragalleria.com/pacific/oahu Photos of Oahu - Terra Galleria] Oahu ko:오아후 섬 ja:オアフ島 simple:Oahu

Volcano

:Eruption redirects here. For other meanings of the word eruption, see eruption (disambiguation) A volcano is a geological landform (usually a mountain) where a substance, usually magma (rock of the Earth's interior made molten or liquid by extremely high temperatures along with a reduction in pressure and/or the introduction of water or other volatiles) erupts through the surface of a planet. Although there are numerous volcanoes (some very active) on the solar system's rocky planets and moons, on Earth at least, this phenomenon tends to occur near the boundaries of the continental plates. However, important exceptions exist in hotspot volcanoes. hotspot volcanoes.]] The name "volcano" originates from the name of Vulcan, a god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called vulcanology (or volcanology in some spellings). Mud volcanoes are formations which are often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes, except when a mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano. This article describes igneous volcanoes.

Volcano classification

Erupted material

One way of classifying volcanoes is by the type of material erupted, which affects the shape of the volcano. If the erupting magma contains a high percentage (65%) of silica the lava is called felsic or acidic and tends to be highly viscous (not very fluid) and is pushed up in a blob that will solidify relatively quickly. Lassen Peak in California is an example. This type of volcano has a tendency to explode because it retains the volatiles or gases and easily plugs. Mount Pelée on the island of Martinique is another example. If, on the other hand, the magma contains a relatively low percentage of silica, the lava is called mafic or basic and will be very fluid as it erupts, capable of flowing for long distances. Due to the low viscosity the volatiles are able to escape. A good example of a mafic lava flow is the Great flow produced by an eruptive fissure almost in the geographical center of Iceland roughly 8,000 years ago; it flowed to the sea, a distance of 130 kilometers, and covered an area of 800 square km.

Explosivity

The behaviour of volcanoes range from rare collossally explosive events to common cases of long term, gradual and gentle flow of magma. The Volcanic Explosivity Index is an attempt to categorise these into clear types, with low VEI values corresponding to gentle flows and high VEIs indicating a cataclysmic event with severe global consequences.

Shape

Shield volcanoes

Hawaii and Iceland are examples of places where volcanoes extrude huge quantities of lava that gradually build a wide mountain with a shield-like profile. Their lava flows are generally very hot and very fluid, contributing to long flows. The largest lava shield on Earth, Mauna Loa, is 9,000 m tall (it sits on the sea floor), 120 km in diameter and forms part of the Island of Hawai. Olympus Mons is a shield volcano on Mars, and the tallest mountain in the known solar system. Smaller versions of the "lava shield" include the 'lava dome' (tholoid), 'lava cone', and 'lava mound'. Volcanic cones or cinder cones result from eruptions that throw out mostly small pieces of rock that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 300 m high.

Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes

These are tall conical mountains composed of both lava flows and ejected material, which form the strata that give rise to the name. Classic examples include Mt. Fuji in Japan and Mount Mayon in the Philippines. Volcanoes on land often take the form of flat cones, as the expulsions build up over the years, or in short-lived volcanic cones, cinder cones.

Supervolcanoes

Supervolcano is the popular term for large volcanoes that usually have a large caldera and can potentially produce devastation on a continental scale and cause major global weather pattern changes. Potential candidates include Yellowstone National Park and Lake Toba, but are hard to identify given that there is no formal definition of the term.

Submarine volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes are common features on certain zones of the ocean floor. Some are active at the present time and, in shallow water, disclose their presence by blasting steam and rock-debris high above the surface of the sea. Many others lie at such great depths that the tremendous weight of the water above them results in high, confining pressure and prevents the formation and explosive release of steam and gases. Even very large, deepwater eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface. Under water, volcanoes often form rather steep pillars and in due time break the ocean surface in new islands.

Active, Dormant, or Extinct?

Supervolcano Volcanoes are usually situated either at the boundaries between tectonic plates or over geology hotspots. Volcanoes may be either dormant (having no activity) or active (near constant expulsion and occasional eruptions), and change state unpredictably. Surprisingly, there is no consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano. The lifespan of a volcano can vary from months to several million years, making such a distinction sometimes meaningless when compared to the lifespans of humans or even civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoes have erupted dozens of times in the past few thousand years but are not currently showing signs of activity. Given the long lifespan of such volcanoes, they are very active. By our lifespans, however, they are not. Complicating the definition are volcanoes that become restless but do not actually erupt. Are these volcanoes active? Scientists usually consider a volcano active if it is currently erupting or showing signs of unrest, such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Many scientists also consider a volcano active if it has erupted in historic time. It is important to note that the span of recorded history differs from region to region; in the Mediterranean, recorded history reaches back more than 3,000 years but in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, it reaches back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii, little more than 200 years. Dormant volcanoes are those that are not currently active (as defined above), but could become restless or erupt again. Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since calderas have lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera (considered a Supervolcano) in Yellowstone National Park is at least 2 million years old and hasn't erupted violently for approximately 640,000 years — although there has been some minor activity as relatively recent as 70,000 years ago. For this reason, scientists do not consider the Yellowstone Caldera as extinct. In fact, because the caldera has frequent earthquakes, a very active geothermal system (i.e., the entirety of the geothermal activity found in Yellowstone National Park), and rapid rates of ground uplift, many scientists consider it to be a very active volcano.

Notable Volcanoes

Volcanoes on Earth

:Main article: List of volcanoes List of volcanoes
- Mount Baker (Washington, USA)
- Cold Bay Volcano (Alaska, USA)
- El Chichon/El Chichonal, (Chiapas, Mexico)
- Citlaltépetl/Pico de Orizaba, (Veracruz/Puebla, Mexico)
- Cotopaxi (Ecuador)
- Mount Fuji (Honshu, Japan)
- Mount Hood (Oregon, USA)
- Mount Erebus (Ross Island, Antarctica)
- Etna (Sicily, Italy)
- Krafla (Iceland)
- Hekla (Iceland)
- Kick-'em-Jenny, (Grenada)
- Kilauea (Hawaii, USA)
- Kluchevskaya (Kamchatka, Russia)
- Krakatoa (Rakata, Indonesia)
- Mauna Kea (Hawaii, USA)
- Mauna Loa (Hawaii, USA)
- El Misti (Arequipa, Peru)
- Novarupta (Alaska, USA)
- Paricutín (Michoacán, Mexico)
- Mount Pinatubo (Luzon Island, Philippines)
- Popocatépetl (Mexico-Puebla state line, Mexico)
- Santorini (Santorini islands, Greece)
- Soufriere Hills volcano, (Montserrat)
- Stromboli (Aeolian Islands, Italy)
- Mount Rainier (Washington, USA)
- Mount Shasta (California, USA)
- Mount St. Helens (Washington, USA)
- Surtsey (Iceland)
- Tambora (Sumbawa, Indonesia)
- Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain)
- White Island (Bay of Plenty, New Zealand)
- Mount Vesuvius (Bay of Naples, Italy)

Volcanoes elsewhere in the solar system

Italy, "Mount Olympus") is the tallest known mountain in our solar system, located on the planet Mars.]] The Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes, but does have many volcanic features such as rilles and domes. The planet Venus is believed to be volcanically active, and its surface is 90% basalt, indicating that volcanism plays a major role in shaping its surface. Lava flows are widespread and many of its surface features are attributed to exotic forms of volcanism not present on Earth. Other Venusian phenomena, such as changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning, have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions. There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth:
- Arsia Mons
- Ascraeus Mons
- Hecates Tholus
- Olympus Mons
- Pavonis Mons These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well. Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanic object in the solar system, due to tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt sulfur, sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, with the result that the moon is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures exceeding 1800 K (1500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the solar system occurred on Io [http://www2.keck.hawaii.edu/news/archive/eruption/]. See the list of geological features on Io for a list of named volcanoes on the moon. list of geological features on Io In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed ice volcanoes (cryovolcanism) on Triton, a moon of Neptune and in 2005 the Cassini-Huygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles erupting from Saturn's moon Enceladus. The ejecta are believed to consist of liquid nitrogen, dust, or methane compounds. Cassini-Huygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian moon Titan, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7489] It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.

Volcanology

Volcano formation

Quaoar Like most of the interior of the earth, the movements and dynamics of magma are poorly understood. However, it is known that an eruption usually follows movement of magma upwards into the solid layer (the earth's crust) beneath a volcano and occupying a magma chamber. Eventually, magma in the chamber is forced upwards and flows out across the planet surface as lava, or the rising magma can heat water in the surrounding landform and cause explosive discharges of steam; either this or escaping gases from the magma can produce forceful ejections of rocks, cinders, volcanic glass, and/or volcanic ash also known as tephra. While always displaying powerful forces, eruptions can vary from effusive to extremely explosive. Most volcanoes on the land are formed at destructive plate margins: where oceanic crust is forced below the continental crust because oceanic crust is denser than continental crust. Friction between these moving plates will cause the oceanic crust to melt, and reduced density will force the newly formed magma to rise. As the magma rises through weak areas in the continental crust it may eventually erupt as one or more volcanoes. For example, Mount St. Helens is found inland from the margin between the oceanic Juan de Fuca Plate and the continental North American Plate. North American Plate A volcano generally presents itself to the imagination as a mountain sending forth from its summit great clouds of smoke with vast sheets of flame. The truth is that a volcano seldom emits either smoke or flame, although various combinations of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sulfur do sometimes ignite. What is mistaken for smoke consists of vast volumes of fine dust, mingled with steam and other vapors, chiefly sulfurous. Most of what appears to be flames is the glare from the erupting materials, glowing because of their high temperature; this glare reflects off the clouds of dust and steam, resembling fire. Perhaps the most conspicuous part of a volcano is the crater, a basin of a roughly circular form within which occurs a vent (or vents) from which magma erupts as gases, lava, and ejecta. A crater can be of large dimensions, and sometimes of vast depth. Very large features of this sort are termed calderas. Some volcanoes consist of a crater alone, with scarcely any mountain at all; but in the majority of cases the crater is situated on top of a mountain (the volcano), which can tower to an enormous height. Volcanoes that terminate in a principal crater are usually of a conical form. Volcanic cones are usually smaller features composed of loose ash and cinder, with occasional masses of stone which have been tossed violently into the air by the eruptive forces (and are thus called ejecta). Within the crater of a volcano there may be numerous cones from which vapours are continually issuing, with occasional volleys of ashes and stones. In some volcanoes these cones form lower down the mountain, along rift zones or fractures. When the cone is eroded these rifts or lava filled fractures remain as radial near vertical dikes of volcanic rock. For example the radiating dikes at Shiprock in NW New Mexico.

Tectonic environments of volcanoes

Volcanoes can principally be found in three tectonic environments. New Mexico
Constructive plate margins
These are by far the most common volcanoes on the Earth. They are also the least frequently seen, because most of their activity takes place beneath the surface of the oceans. Along the whole of the oceanic ridge system are irregularly spaced surface eruptions, and more frequent sub-surface intrusions without surface expression. The large majority of these are only known about at surface because of earthquakes as part of the eruptions/ intrusions, or occasionally if passing shipping happens to notice unusually high water temperatures or chemical precipitates in the seawater. In a few places oceanic ridge activity has lead to the volcanoes coming up to the surface - Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha in the Atlantic Ocean; the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean, allowing them to be studied in some detail. But most activity takes place in considerable water depths. Iceland is also on a ridge, but has different characteristics than a simple volcano. It could be argued that the volcanoes of the Great Rift Valley system of East Africa are modified constructive margin volcanoes. However the modifications caused by the presence of thick continental crust are very substantial, and the magmas produced are very different from the typically very homogenous MORB (Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt) that makes up the huge majority of constructive margin volcanoes.
Destructive plate margins
These are the most visible and well-known types of volcanoes on earth, forming above the subduction zones where (oceanic) plates dive into the Earth to their destruction. Their magmas are typically "calc-alkaline" as a result of their origins in the upper parts of altered ocean plate materials, mixed with sediments, and processed through variable thicknesses of more-or-less continental crust. The heavier plate sinks under the lighter one and the friction from the melting plate causes magma to force it's way out through a crack in the crust. Unsurprisingly, their compositions are much more varied than at constructive margins.
Hotspot situations
subduction zones, Iceland]] Hotspots were originally a catch-all for volcanoes that didn't fit into one of the above two categories, but these days this refers to a more specific circumstance - where an isolated plume of hot mantle material intersects the underside of crust (oceanic or continental), leading to a volcanic center that is not obviously connected with a plate margin. The classic example is the Hawaiian chain of volcanoes and seamounts; Yellowstone is cited as another classic example, in this case the intersection is with the underside of continental crust. Iceland is sometimes cited as yet a third classical example, but complicated by the coincidence of a hotspot intersecting an oceanic ridge constructive margin. There are debates about the simple "hotspot" concept, since theorists cannot agree on whether the "hot mantle plumes" originate in the upper mantle or in the lower mantle. Meanwhile, field geologists and petrologists see considerable variation in the detailed chemistry of one hotspot's magmas versus a second hotspot's magmas. On the third hand, high-resolution seismology of different hotspots is yielding different pictures of the deep sub-structure of Hawaii versus Iceland. There is no detailed consensus about how to interpret these varied results, and it seems plausible that eventually several different sub-types of hotspots will be identified.

Predicting eruptions

Science has not yet been able to predict with absolute certainty when a volcanic eruption will take place, but significant progress in judging when one is probable has been made in recent time. Iceland, 1980 at 8:32 a.m. PDT]] Volcanologists use the following to forecast eruptions.

Seismicity

Seismic activity (small earthquakes and tremors) always occurs as volcanoes awaken and prepare to erupt. Some volcanoes normally have continuing low-level seismic activity, but an increase can signify an eruption. The types of earthquakes that occur and where they start and end are also key signs. Volcanic seismicity has three major forms: short-period earthquakes, long-period earthquakes, and harmonic tremor.
- Short-period earthquakes are like normal fault-related earthquakes. They are related to the fracturing of brittle rock as the magma forces its way upward. These short-period earthquakes signify the growth of a magma body near the surface.
- Long-period earthquakes are believed to indicate increased gas pressure in a volcano's "plumbing system." They are similar to the clanging sometimes heard in your home's plumbing system. These oscillations are the equivalent of acoustic vibrations in a chamber, in the context of magma chambers within the volcanic dome. Patterns of seismicity are complex and often difficult to interpret. However, increasing activity is very worrisome, especially if long-period events become dominant and episodes of harmonic tremor appear. In December 2000, scientists at the National Center for Prevention of Disasters in Mexico City predicted an eruption within two days from Popocatépetl, on the outskirts of Mexico City. Their prediction used research done by Dr. Bernard Chouet, a Swiss vulacanologist working at the United States Geological Survey, into increasing long-period oscillations as an indicator of an imminent eruption. The government evacuated tens of thousands of people. Forty eight hours later, bang on time, the volcano erupted spectacularly. It was Popocatépetl's largest eruption for a thousand years and yet no one was hurt.

Gas emissions

United States Geological Survey As magma nears the surface and its pressure decreases, gases escape. This process is much like what happens when you open a bottle of soda and carbon dioxide escapes. Sulfur dioxide is one of the main components of volcanic gases, and increasing amounts of it herald the arrival of more and more magma near the surface. For example, on May 13, 1991, 500 tonnes of sulfur dioxide were released from Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. On May 28, just two weeks later, sulfur dioxide emissions had increased to 5,000 tonnes, ten times the earlier amount. Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 12, 1991. On several occasions, such as before the Mount Pinatubo eruption, sulfur dioxide emissions have dropped to low levels prior to eruptions. Most scientists believe that this drop in gas levels is caused by the sealing of gas passages by hardened magma. Such an event leads to increased pressure in the volcano's plumbing system and an increased chance of an explosive eruption.

Ground deformation

Swelling of the volcano signals that magma has accumulated near the surface. Scientists monitoring an active volcano will often measure the tilt of the slope and track changes in the rate of swelling. An increased rate of swelling, especially if accompanied by an increase in sulfur dioxide emissions and harmonic tremors is a high probability sign of an impending event.

Effects of volcanoes

There are many different kinds of volcanic activity and eruptions:
- phreatic eruptions (steam)
- explosive eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite)
- effusive eruption of low-silica lava (e.g., basalt)
- pyroclastic flows
- lahars (debris flow)
- carbon dioxide emission All of these activities can pose a hazard to humans. Volcanic activity is often accompanied by earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots and geysers. Low-magnitude earthquakes often precede eruptions. The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to the next. Water vapor is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example: hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and volatile metal chlorides. carbon monoxide carbon monoxide carbon monoxide Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 10-20 miles above the Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The aerosols increase the reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space and thus cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years. The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles. Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year. Volcanic eruptions may inject an aerosol of particles and chemicals in the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may have visual effects and affect global climate through climate forcing.

Past beliefs

Before it was understood that most of the Earth's interior is molten, various explanations existed for volcano behavior. For decades after awareness that compression and radioactive materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically discounted. Volcanic action was often attributed to chemical reactions and a thin layer of molten rock near the surface. Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680), witnessed eruptions of Aetna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal. coal

See also


- Supervolcano
- Iceland hotspot
- Prehistoric volcano
- List of volcanoes
- List of famous volcanic eruption deaths
- Volcanic Explosivity Index
- Black smoker (deep sea vent)
- Magma
- Lava
- Pacific Ring of Fire
- Geomorphology
- Earth science
- Io
- Triton (moon)
- Tsunami
- Top 10 most deadly Volcanic Eruptions
- Haroun Tazieff (famous volcanologist)

References


- Macdonald, Gordon A., and Agatin T. Abbott. (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 441 p.
- Ollier, Cliff. (1988). Volcanoes. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK, ISBN 0-631-15664-X (hardback), ISBN 0-631-15977-0 (paperback).

Further reading


- Haraldur Sigurðsson, ed. (1999) Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN 012643140X. This is a reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.

External links


- [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/pglossary.html Glossary of Volcanic Terms from USGS]
- [http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/glossary.html Volcanic and Geologic Terms] from [http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/ Volcano World]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3183047.stm Television program (BBC) on the prediction of Popocatepetl's 2000 eruption]
- [http://www.volcano.si.edu Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program]
- [http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work Explore the geologic causes of an eruption]
- [http://science.howstuffworks.com/volcano.htm/printable How Volcanoes Work by Tom Harris]
- [http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/ How Volcanoes Work] - Educational resource on the science and processes behind volcanoes, intended for university students of geology, volcanology and teachers of earth science.
- [http://www.geonet.org.nz/volcanocam.html Volcano Cam Geonet's live pictures of 4 of New Zealand's volcanoes]
- [http://facweb.bhc.edu/academics/science/harwoodr/GEOL101/Labs/VolcanicMaterials/ Volcanic Materials Identification] Category:Landforms Category:Plate tectonics Category:Volcanology
- Category:Geological hazards Category:Climate forcing agents als:Vulkanismus ms:Gunung berapi ja:火山 simple:Volcano th:ภูเขาไฟ

Mount Waialeale

Mount Wai‘ale‘ale (Hawaiian for "rippling waters"), elevation 5,208 ft (1,578 m), is the highest point on the island of Kaua‘i in the Hawaiian Islands. Averaging more than 460 inches (11,680 mm) of rain over the last 32 years, with a record 683 inches (17,340 mm) in 1982, its summit is considered one of the rainiest spots on earth. (It has been promoted in tourist literature for many years as the wettest spot, but 38-year averages at Mawsynram, India records 11,873 mm (467.4 inches) over a period of 39 years.) Several factors give the summit of Wai‘ale‘ale more potential to create precipitation as the rest of the island chain: # Its northern position relative to the main Hawaiian Islands provides more exposure to frontal systems that bring rain during the winter. # It has a relatively round and regular conical shape, exposing all sides of its peak to winds and the moisture that they carry. # Its peak lies just below the so-called trade wind inversion layer of 6,000 feet (1,800 m), above which trade-wide-produced clouds cannot rise.

External link


- [http://starbulletin.com/2002/05/27/news/story3.html Honolulu Star-Bulletin article on Wai‘ale‘ale]

Hawaiiloa

Hawai‘iloa is the hero of an ancient Hawaiian legend about the settling of the Hawaiian Islands. After having accidentally stumbled upon the islands, he returned to his homeland which he called Ka 'aina kai melemele a Kane, "the land of the yellow sea of Kane". He then organized a colonizing expedition that included his family and eight other skilled navigators. They settled on what is now the Island of Hawai‘i, named in his honor. The legend contains reference to his sons: Kaua‘i, O‘ahu, and Mau‘i, who settled on the islands that bear their names. The story of Hawai‘iloa has received a great deal of attention from modern Hawaiians, as a realistic depiction of the settling of the islands, consonant with current anthropological and historical beliefs. Many people believe it is a validation of the veracity of ancient Hawaiian oral traditions. It is perhaps from such a motive that the voyaging canoe Hawai‘iloa, was named after the legendary navigator. This canoe was built and sailed to prove that Polynesians were bold, intentional navigators, not the hapless voyagers blown off course that some theories of Polynesian migration claimed. The canoe Hawai‘iloa is now docked at Honolulu Harbor. It is often sailed on long voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean in hopes of studying voyaging techniques used in antiquity. However, the story of Hawai‘iloa is attested only by late sources, such as the antiquarians Fornander and Thrum. As they did not give their original Hawaiian sources, but only digests and compilations, we cannot be sure that the tale has not been slanted towards proof of Fornander's now discredited migration theories, or that it has not been elaborated by 19th century Hawaiians eager to stress the validity of their own beliefs. Hawai‘iloa is not mentioned in early Hawaiian sources like Malo or Kamakau. Malo says that there are many stories of the origin of the Hawaiians, and cites some migration tales, some legends of indigenous origin. He does not mention Hawai‘iloa. Kamakau says that the first man and woman were Hulihonua and Keakahuilani, and that they were created on O'ahu.

See also


- Hawaii
- Hokulea
- Polynesian Navigation
- Polynesian Voyaging Society

References


- [http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/buildloa.html Polynesian Voyaging Society] website on the building of Hawai'iloa Category:Culture in Hawaii Category:Sailboat Names Category:School ships Category:Symbols_of_Hawaii

King Kamehameha

: ---- Kamehameha is a political reference to:
- Albert Kamehameha
- House of Kamehameha
- Kamehameha I
- Kamehameha II
- Kamehameha III
- Kamehameha IV
- Kamehameha V ---- Kamehameha is an artistic reference to:
- Kamehameha Statue ---- Kamehameha is a civil reference to:
- Kamehameha Day, a Hawaiian public holiday
- Kamehameha Schools, the largest private school in the United States
- King Kamehameha Celebration, a Hawaiian cultural festival established in 1872
- Royal Order of Kamehameha I, a Hawaiian royal society established in 1865 ---- Kamehameha is a military reference to:
- Fort Kamehameha, now the Fort Kamehameha Historic District, a United States defense installation
- USS Kamehameha, a historic nuclear submarine of the United States Navy ---- Kamehameha is a scientific reference to:
- Kamehameha butterfly or Vanessa tameamea ---- Kamehameha is a popular culture reference to:
- Kamehameha Wave a special attack in the mangas and anime series Dragon Ball, Dragon Ball Z and the anime Dragon Ball GT. It is part of the Turtle school of martial arts taught by Master Roshi, the Turtle Hermit.

Kingdom of Hawaii

The Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was established in 1810 upon the unification of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi and the Big Island of Hawaiʻi

Formation

Through swift and bloody battles, led by a warrior chief later immortalized as Kamehameha the Great he failed to secure a victory in Kauaʻi, his effort hampered by a storm. Eventually, Kauaʻi's chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha's rule. The unification ended the feudal society of the Hawaiian islands transforming it into a "modern", independent constitutional monarchy crafted in the tradition of European empires.

Government

feudal Government in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was transformed in phases, each phase created by the promulgation of the constitutions of 1840, 1852, 1864 and 1887. Each successive constitution can be seen as a decline in the power of the monarch in favor of popularly elected representative government. The head of state and head of government in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was the monarch. He or she oversaw the Privy Council which was charged with administration. A royal cabinet, the Privy Council consisted of ministers in charge of departments much like that of the American system. These ministers also acted as the monarch's primary advisors. The 1840 Constitution created a bicameral parliament in charge of legislation. The two houses of the legislature were the House of Representatives (directly elected by popular vote) and the House of Nobles (appointed by the monarch with the advice of the Cabinet). The same constitution created a judiciary, charged with overseeing the courts and interpretation of laws. The Supreme Court was led by the Chief Justice, appointed by the monarch with the advice of the Cabinet. The islands of Hawaiʻi were divided into smaller administrative divisions: Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Maui, and Hawaiʻi. Kauaʻi region included Niʻihau, while Maui region included Kahoʻolawe, Lānaʻi and Molokaʻi. Each administrative region was governed by a governor appointed by the monarch.

Kamehameha Dynasty

From 1810 to 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi would be ruled by two major dynastic families, the Kamehameha Dynasty and the Kalākaua Dynasty. Five members of the Kamehameha family would lead the government as its king. Two of them were direct sons of Kamehameha the Great himself. They were Liholiho (Kamehameha II) and Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III). For a period between Liholiho and Kauikeaouli's reigns, Kamehameha the Great's primary wife, Queen Kaʻahumanu, would rule as Queen Regent and Kuhina Nui, or Prime Minister. Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha family tragically ended in 1872 with the death of Lot (Kamehameha V). Upon his deathbed, he summoned Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop to declare his intentions of making her heir to the throne. She was the last direct Kamehameha family member surviving. She refused the crown and throne in favor of a private life with her husband, Charles Reed Bishop. Lot died before naming an alternative heir.
- Kamehameha I, (1795-1819)
- Kamehameha II, Liholiho, (1819-1824)
- Kamehameha III, Kauikeaouli, (1825-1854)
- Kamehameha IV, Alexander Liholiho, (1854-1863)
- Kamehameha V, Lot Kapuāiwa, (1863-1872)

Elected monarchy

The refusal of Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop to take the crown and throne as Queen of Hawaiʻi forced the legislature of the Kingdom to declare an election to fill the royal vacancy. From 1872 to 1873, several distant relatives of the Kamehameha line were nominated. In a popular vote, William C. Lunalilo became Hawaiʻi's first of two elected monarchs.
- William C. Lunalilo, (1873-1874)

Kalākaua Dynasty

Like his predecessor, Lunalilo failed to name an heir to the throne. He died unexpectedly after less than a year as King of Hawaiʻi. Once again, the legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was forced to declare an election to fill the royal vacancy. Queen Emma, widow of Kamehameha IV, was nominated along with David Kalākaua. The 1874 election was opined to be one of the nastiest political campaign seasons ever in Hawaiʻi history. Both candidates resorted to mudslinging and rumors. David Kalākaua was elected the second elected King of Hawaiʻi. Hoping to avoid uncertainty in the monarchy's future, Kalākaua proclaimed several heirs to the throne and defined a royal line of succession. His sister Liliʻuokalani would succeed the throne upon Kalākaua's death. It was indicated that Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani would follow. If she could not produce an heir by birth, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole would rule after her.
- David Kalākaua, (1874-1891)
- Liliʻuokalani, (1891-1893)

Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai'i

1893, President Bill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103-150 apologizing for the illegal action.]] Queen Liliʻuokalani was selected as the successor to King Kalakaua by the House of Nobles and House of Commons which was in accordance with the Hawaiian Kingdom constitution. She was selected to head a monarchy that was left impotent by her brother's Bayonet Constitution of 1887. David Kalākaua's Royal Cabinet forced him at gunpoint to sign the constitution stripping the monarchy of much of its power in favor of an administration controlled by Hawaiian citizens of European descent. Some claim this constitution was the opening salvo to the end of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. In 1893, American businessmen seeking to protect their industrial profits in the exportation of goods like sugar to the United States of America organized the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. American troops aboard the USS Boston landed in Honolulu to help Sanford B. Dole and Lorrin A. Thurston's Committee of Safety, a 13 member council of businessmen plotting to depose Queen Liliʻuokalani. At the gunpoint of American soldiers, Queen Liliʻuokalani was removed from ʻIolani Palace under arrest, tried by the American Judge Advocate General's Corps and then imprisoned in her own home. Dole and his committee declared itself the provisional government and in 1894 proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Hawaiʻi. Dole became its president. As a republic, it was the intention of the provisional government to campaign for annexation with the United States of America. With annexation, their goods and services exported to the mainland would not be subject to American tariffs. The provisional government succeeded when in 1898, Congress approved a joint resolution of annexation creating the U.S. Territory of Hawaiʻi. This followed the precendent of Texas which was also annexed by a joint resolution of Congress. Dole was appointed its first governor.
- Committee of Safety
- Republic of Hawaiʻi

Royal estates

Early in its history, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was governed from several locations including coastal towns on the islands of Hawaiʻi and Maui (Lahaina). It wasn't until the reign of Kamehameha III that a capital was established in Honolulu on the Island of Oʻahu. Lahaina By the time Kamehameha V was king, he saw the need to build a royal palace fitting of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi's new found prosperity and standing with the royals of other nations. He commissioned the building of the palace at Aliʻiolani Hale. He died before it was completed. Today, the palace houses the Supreme Court of the State of Hawaiʻi. David Kalākaua shared the dream of Kamehameha V to build a palace for all the same reasons. He commissioned the construction of ʻIolani Palace from which he and his successor would govern. In later years, the palace would become his sister's makeshift prison under guard by the U.S. Armed Forces, the site of the official raising of the U.S. flag during annexation, and then the site of the territorial governor's and legislature's offices.

Palaces


- ʻĀinahau, Home of Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani
- Aliʻiolani Hale, Originally designed as a Palace for Kamehameha V, although Kamehameha V later decided to convert the building into a government building during construction
- Hanaiakamalama, Summer Palace of Queen Emma
- Huliheʻe Palace, Palace of Princess Ruth
- Keōua Hale, Palace of Princess Ruth
- ʻIolani Palace, Palace of the Kalākaua Dynasty

Royal grounds


- Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew
- Kawaiahaʻo Church
- Royal Mausoleum
- Washington Place

Other notable Hawaiian royals

Washington Place

Kamehameha Dynasty


- Bernice Pauahi Bishop, Princess of Hawaiʻi
- Kaʻahumanu, Queen Regent of Hawaiʻi
- Kalama Hakaleleponi Kapakuhaili, Queen Consort of Hawaiʻi
- Victoria Kamamalu, Queen Consort of Hawaiʻi
- Ruth Keʻelikōlani, Princess of Hawaiʻi
- Keopuolani, Queen Consort of Hawai'i
- Kinaʻu, Queen Regent of Hawai'i
- Emma Rooke, Queen Consort of Hawai'i
- Elizabeth Kekaaniau, Princess of Hawai'i
- Theresa Owana Kaohelelani, Princess of Hawai'i

Kalākaua Dynasty


- Victoria Kaʻiulani, Princess of Hawaiʻi
- Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaʻole, Prince of Hawaiʻi
- Julia Kapiʻolani, Queen Consort of Hawaiʻi
- Abigail Campbell Kawananakoa, Princess of Hawaiʻi
- David Kawananakoa, Prince of Hawaiʻi
- William Pitt Leileiohoku, Prince of Hawaiʻi
- Miriam K. Likelike, Princess of Hawaiʻi

Other notable royal subjects

Miriam K. Likelike

Authors and artists


- Henri Berger, composer
- Robert Louis Stevenson, author

Civil leaders


- John Adams Kuakini, governor
- Charles Reed Bishop, businessman and philanthropist
- James Campbell, businessman and philanthropist
- Archibald Cleghorn, businessman and royal consort
- Sanford B. Dole, chief justice
- John Owen Dominis, governor and royal consort
- Gerrit P. Judd, royal advisor
- Kuini Liliha, governor
- Lorrin A. Thurston, lawyer and publisher
- Robert William Wilcox, soldier
- John Young, royal advisor
- Benjamin Dillingham, businessman and industrialist

Religious leaders


- Father Damien, Catholic missionary
- Louis Maigret, Catholic bishop
- Thomas Nettleship Staley, Anglican bishop

References


- Lydia Liliʻuokalani Dominis, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=0935180850&TXT=Y&itm=1 Hawaiʻi's Story by Hawaiʻi's Queen Liliʻuokalani], Mutual Publishing Co., 1994
- Michael Dougherty, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=096334840X&TXT=Y&itm=3 To Steal a Kingdom: Probing Hawaiian History], Hawaiian Style Press, 1994
- Gerard Manley Hopkins, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=0710307810&itm=7 Hawaiʻi: The Past, Present, and Future of Its Island Kingdom: An Historic Account of the Sandwich Islands of Polynesia], Kegan Paul International Ltd., 2003
- Ralph Simpsin Kuykendall, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=0758160720&itm=36 Hawai'i: A History, from Polynesian Kingdom to American State], Textbook Publishers, 2003
- Ralph Simpson Kuykendall, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=087022431X&itm=16 Hawaiian Kingdom: Foundation and Transformation, 1778-1854, Vol. 1], University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1995
- Ralph Simpson Kuykendall, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=0870224328&itm=17 Hawaiian Kingdom: Twenty Critical Years, 1854-1874, Vol. 2], University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1995
- Ralph Simpson Kuykendall, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&pwb=1&ean=9780870224331 Hawaiian Kingdon Volume 3: 1874-1893, the Kalakaua Dynasty], University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1995
- Aldyth Morris, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=0824815432&itm=4 Liliʻuokalani], University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1995
- Juri Mykkanen, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=082481486X&itm=5 Inventing Politics: A New Political Anthropology of the Hawaiian Kingdom], University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2003
- Niklaus R. Schweizer, [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=z0s1KLi1XP&isbn=0820425877&itm=13 His Hawaiian Excellency: The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy and the Annexation of Hawaiʻi], Lang, Peter Publishing, Inc., 1994

External links


- [http://www.hawaii-nation.org/soa.html Overthrow of the Monarchy], Article by Pat Pitzer, Spirit of Aloha, May 1994 Hawaii, Kingdom of Category:Hawaii history ja:ハワイ王国

1810

1810 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 10 - Marriage of Napoleon and Josephine is annulled
- January 20 - Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer executed
- March 11 - Napoleon marries Marie-Louise of Austria
- April 19 - Venezuela achieves home rule: Emparan, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a Junta is installed.
- May 10 - Revolutionary occupation of Buenos Aires town hall.
- May 25 - Armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy from Spain and establish a provincial government for Argentina.
- June 8 - Birth of Robert Schumann, German composer.
- June 23 - John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company.
- July - Napoleon annexes the Kingdom of Holland.
- July 20 - Colombia declares independence from Spain.
- August 6 - City of Mompos in modern-day Colombia is declares independence from the Spanish Empire
- September 8 - The Tonquin sets sail from New York Harbor with 33 employees of John Jacob Astor's newly created Pacific Fur Company on board. After a six month journey around the tip of South America, the ship will arrive at the mouth of the Columbia River and Astor's men will establish fur-trading town of Astoria.
- September 16 - Dieciséis de septiembre, the Mexican War of Independence of the Republic of Mexico
- September 18 - Chile forms the National Junta, which is their first passage towards independency.
- September 26 - A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne.
- October 12 - First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen.
- October 27 - USA annexes West Florida from Spain
- November 10 - the Berners Street Hoax - Theodore Hook manages to attract dozens of people to 53 Berners Street in London
- King George III of the United Kingdom recognized as insane
- Amadou Lobbo initiates his jihad in present-day Mali.
- Russia acquires Sukhumi through a treaty with Abkhazian dukes, and declares a protectorate over the whole of Abkhazia.
- Macon's Bill No. 2
- First steamboat on the Ohio River

Ongoing events


- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)-Peninsular War

Births


- January 3 - Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie, Irish-French geographer (d. 1897)
- February 5 - Ole Bull, Norwegian violinist (d. 1880)
- February 22 - Frédéric Chopin, Polish composer and pianist (d. 1849)
- March 2 - Pope Leo XIII (d. 1903)
- May 23 - Margaret Fuller, American journalist and feminist (d. 1850)
- June 8 - Robert Schumann, German composer and pianist (d. 1856)
- July 21 - Henri Victor Regnault, French chemist and physicist (d. 1878)
- September 2 - William Seymour Tyler, American educator and historian (d. 1897)
- September 29 - Elizabeth Gaskell, British novelist (d. 1865)
- October 10 - James W. Marshall, American contractor and builder of Sutter's Mill (d. 1885)
- December 11 - Alfred de Musset, French poet (d. 1857)

Deaths


- January 20 - Benjamin Chew, Chief Justice of colonial Pennsylvania (b. 1722)
- February 20 - Andreas Hofer, Tyrolean national hero (executed) (b. 1767)
- February 24 - Henry Cavendish, British scientist (b. 1731)
- March 7 - Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood, British admiral (b. 1750)
- June 7 - Luigi Schiavonetti, Italian engraver (b. 1765)
- July 19 - Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen of Prussia (b. 1776)
- August 12 - Etienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (b. 1725)
- November 11 - Johann Zoffany, German-born painter (b. 1733)
- November 11 - John Laurance, American attorney, statesman, and judge (b. 1750) Category:1810 ko:1810년 ms:1810

Lihue, Hawaii

Līhu‘e is the largest town on the Hawaiian Island of Kaua‘i in Hawai‘i. Līhu‘e means literally "cold chill" in Hawaiian. It is a census-designated place (CDP) and the county seat of Kaua‘i County. As of the 2000 Census, the CDP had a total population of 5,674 . Līhu‘e is served by the Līhu‘e Airport. The main seaport for Kaua‘i is at Nāwiliwili Bay, directly southeast of town. The town is home to the county administration building; Kauai‘s largest shopping center, Kukui Grove Center, which houses the island's only big department store, Macy's; and several big-box stores including a K-Mart and a Home Depot. There are also several car dealerships and restaurants. Most of the island's traffic lights can be found here. However, Līhu‘e does not have a monopoly on island commerce. There is a cluster of several shopping centers to the north in Kapaa.

Geography

Līhu‘e is located at 21°58'29" North, 159°21'56" West (21.974810, -159.365576). Kapaa According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 18.4 km² (7.1 mi²). 16.4 km² (6.3 mi²) of it is land and 2.0 km² (0.8 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 11.11% water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 5,674 people, 2,178 households, and 1,420 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 346.6/km² (898.3/mi²). There were 2,399 housing units at an average density of 146.6/km² (379.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 22.75% White, 0.21% Black or African American, 0.23% Native American, 49.24% Asian, 6.43% Pacific Islander, 0.67% from other races, and 20.46% from two or more races. 6.52% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 2,178 households out of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.8% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.16. In the CDP the population was spread out with 22.8% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 22.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $44,906, and the median income for a family was $56,875 in 2000. Males had a median income of $38,713 versus $28,032 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $22,619. 4.6% of the population and 1.7% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 1.4% of those under the age of 18 and 7.3% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

External links

Category:Kauai County, Hawaii Category:Census-designated places in Hawaii

Kauai County, Hawaii

Kauai County is a county located in the state of Hawai‘i. It consists of the islands of Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, in the state of Hawai‘i. As of 2000 Census the population was 58,463. The county seat is Līhu‘e.

Geography

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 3,280 km² (1,266 mi²). 1,612 km² (622 mi²) of it is land and 1,668 km² (644 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 50.85% water (Pacific Ocean surrounding the island).

Government

Kauai County has a mayor-council form of municipal government. Executive authority is vested in the Mayor of Kauai, elected by the voters on a non-partisan basis to a four-year term. Legislative authority is vested in the seven-member County Council. All members of the County Council are elected on a non-partisan, at-large basis to two-year terms.

Demographics

As of the census2 of 2000, there are 58,463 people, 20,183 households, and 14,572 families residing in the county. The population density is 36/km² (94/mi²). There are 25,331 housing units at an average density of 16/km² (41/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 29.51% White, 0.30% Black or African American, 0.36% Native American, 35.99% Asian, 9.12% Pacific Islander, 0.86% from other races, and 23.84% from two or more races. 8.22% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 20,183 households out of which 34.00% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.90% are married couples living together, 12.80% have a female householder with no husband present, and 27.80% are non-families. 21.40% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.70% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.87 and the average family size is 3.34. In the county the population is spread out with 26.40% under the age of 18, 7.10% from 18 to 24, 27.20% from 25 to 44, 25.50% from 45 to 64, and 13.80% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 100.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.50 males.

Cities and towns


- Anahola
- Eleele
- Hanalei
- Hanamaulu
- Hanapepe
- Kalaheo
- Kalihiwai
- Kapaa
- Kaumakani
- Kekaha
- Kilauea
- Koloa
- Lawai
- Lihue
- Omao
- Pakala Village
- Poipu
- Princeville
- Puhi
- Wailua Homesteads
- Wailua
- Waimea Category:Hawaii counties

Waimea, Hawaii

Waimea may refer to more than one place in the United States:
- Waimea in Hawai‘i
  - Waimea, Hawaii County, Hawaii
  - Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii
  - Waimea Bay on O‘ahu
  - Waimea Canyon State Park on Kaua‘i or
- Waimea, New Zealand Waimea may also refer to:
- Waimea, a window manager for the Unix X Window System

James Cook

This article refers to the British navigator and cartographer. For alternative meanings, see Captain James Cook (disambiguation). Captain James Cook (disambiguation) Captain James Cook (disambiguation) James Cook (October 27, 1728 (O.S.) – February 14, 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, and map maker. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which large areas were accurately charted, and several islands and coastlines recorded for the first time on European maps. His most notable accomplishments were the British discovery and claiming of the east coast of Australia, the European discovery of the Hawaiian Islands, and the first circumnavigation and mapping of New Zealand.

Early Life

James Cook was born in relatively humble circumstances at Marton in North Yorkshire, near what is today recognised as the town of Middlesbrough. Cook was one of five children born to a local woman and a Scottish immigrant farm labourer, Grace and James Sr. As a child, Cook moved with his family to a farm at Great Ayton where he was educated at the local school, his studies financed by his father's employer. At 13 he began work with his father, now the farm's manager. In 1745 when he was 16, Cook left home to be apprenticed in a grocer/haberdashery in the fishing village of Staithes. According to legend, Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out the shop window. After about a year and a half in Staithes, the shop's owner (Mr Anderson) found James unsuited to the trade. Mr Anderson took James to the nearby port town of Whitby and introduced him to John and Henry Walker. John and Henry were prominent local ship-owners and Quakers, and were in the coal trade business. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this, and various other coasters sailing between the Tyne and London. For this new apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, trigonometry, navigation, and astronomy, skills he would need one day to command his own ship. His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. He soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his 1752 promotion to Mate (officer in charge of navigation) aboard the collier brig Friendship. In 1755 he was offered command of this vessel, but within the month he volunteered for service in the British Royal Navy. In