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Korea

Korea

— For other places called Korea, see: Korea (disambiguation) Korea refers to South Korea and North Korea together, which were a unified country until 1948. It is situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia, bordering China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast. It is populated by a homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak a distinct language (Korean). Korea was partitioned into two halves following World War II. South Korea, supported by the United States, is now a capitalist liberal democracy, and sometimes referred to simply as "Korea". North Korea, supported by the former Soviet Union, remains a Communist state, often described as Stalinist and isolationist. The Unification Flag may represent Korea at international sporting events, but is not an official flag of either country.

Overview

In ancient Chinese texts Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries, land and sea trading networks connected Korea and Arabia. Koreans used wooden printing blocks by 751. Metal movable type was invented in Korea as early as 1232 (although clay prints were earlier invented in China), before Johann Gutenberg developed metal letterset type. During the Goryeo period, the silk was considered by China to be the best in the world, and pottery made with blue-green celadon glazes became a coveted Korean specialty. In the Joseon era, Korea presided over progress in traditional arts and crafts, such as white celadon glazes, finer silk and paper, and the creation of the Korean alphabet, hangul. Also during this time the first ironclad warships in the world were developed and deployed in Korea. Korea is currently divided into the capitalist South Korea and the communist North Korea. After the Korean War, North Korea's economy rebounded relatively quickly, stronger than that of the South until the 1970s. Since the 1990s, the loss of communist markets in Eastern Europe, poor management, and natural disasters have left the country largely dependent on foreign aid. A famine in the late 1990s likely killed about a million people, although reliable statistics are difficult to come by (Meredith Woo-Cummings, The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons, Tokyo: Asian Dev. Bank Inst., 2001). 1990s In contrast, South Korea after the war remained impoverished into the 1960s, when the dictator-president Park Chung Hee began to funnel investment into chaebol, or family-controlled conglomerates. His rule was marked by the violation of human rights (although on a far smaller scale than in North Korea) as well as by record-breaking economic growth. South Korea now is the 11th largest economy in the world. Presidential elections are held every five years. Both Korean states proclaim eventual reunification as a goal, and a united Korea is very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural identity.

Geography

Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the north, the Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the South China Sea is to the south, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Liancourt Rocks (Dok-do). The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This series of mountains is named Beakdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m) and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW. As opposed to the old mountains on the mainland, some important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the recent Cenozoic. Jeju Island, situated off the south coastline of the Korean Peninsula, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain is Mt. Halla (1950 m). Ulleung-do and the Liancourt Rocks (Dok-do) are volcanic islands in the East Sea (Sea of Japan), whose composition is more feslic than Jeju. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward. Because the mountainous regions are biased toward the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow to westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, Cheongcheon River, Daedong River, Han River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for rice cultivation. The southern and southwestern coastline of the Korean Peninsula is a well-developed Lias coastline. It is known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast, it is as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats are developing on the south and west coastline of the Korean Peninsula.

Demographics

(see also: Demographics of South Korea) The Korean Peninsula is populated almost exclusively by ethnic Koreans, although a significant minority of ethnic Chinese (about 20,000 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html]) exists in South Korea, and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are said to exist in North Korea ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kn.html]). Foreign workforce in South Korea is estimated at over half a million. The combined population (including North and South Korea) of the Korean Peninsula is about 71,000,000 people.

History

Main article: History of Korea There is archaeological evidence that people were living on the Korean peninsula 700,000 years ago. The Palaeolithic period began around 70,000 BC, and earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 7000 BC, and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. Eventually (2333 BC according to the Dangun legend), Gojoseon was founded, encompassing northern Korea and Manchuria. In 108 BC, Gojoseon fell to the Chinese Han dynasty, who installed four commanderies in northern Korea, three of which quickly fell to Korean resistance. In this period, southern Korea was occupied first by the Jin state, and later the Samhan, three loose confederacies. In the north, the expanding Goguryeo reunited Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye in the former Gojoseon territory, and destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313.

The Three Kingdoms

The three kingdoms Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje (the latter two arising from the Samhan) competed with each other as minor statelets fell or merged with these regional powers. Sophisticated state organizations developed under Confucian and Buddhist paradigms. Goguryeo was the most dominant power, but was at constant war with the Chinese Sui and Tang. Emperor Yang-ti of Sui, with one million troops, invaded Goguryeo, but in 612 CE, General Eulji Mundeok pushed the Chinese force into retreat. The Sui fall from power in China was partly due to Goguryeo. Silla was the least advanced of the Three Kingdoms, but had established a fierce military. Silla first annexed Gaya, then conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with Tang assistance. Silla warriors were called the Hwarang.

Balhae and Unified Silla

Silla eventually repulsed Tang from Goguryeo territory, although the northern part regrouped as Balhae. Silla ("Unified Silla" hereon) thus came to control most of the Korean peninsula by the 8th century. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla gave way to the brief Later Three Kingdoms period. After the fall of Goguryeo, General Dae Joyeong led a group of his people to the Jilin area in Manchuria. The general founded the state of Balhae (Bohai in Chinese) as the successor to Goguryeo and regained control of lost northern territory. Eventually, Balhae's territory would extend from the Sungari and Amur Rivers in northern Manchuria all the way down to the northern provinces of modern Korea. In the 10th century Balhae was conquered by the Khitans.

Goryeo

The kingdom of Goryeo (918 CE–1392 CE) replaced Silla as the dominant power in Korea. Many members of the Balhae ruling class joined the newly founded Goryeo Dynasty, which established boundaries of Korea to a little more than where they exist today (See Gando region which is now occupied by the Chinese). During this period, laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished throughout the peninsula. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Goryeo continued to be plagued by attacks from Jurchen and Khitan tribes on the northern borders. Conflict increased between civil and military officials in Goryeo as the latter were degraded and poorly paid. This led to an uprising by military and forced some military officials to migrate to other areas. In 1238 the Mongols invaded Goryeo and laid the kingdom in ruins as resistance continued on and off for almost thirty years. Eventually, a treaty was signed between the two kingdoms in favor of the Mongols. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal struggles. Korea was at last able to forge political reform with out mongol interference. At this time a General named Yi Seong-gye distinguishes himself by repelling Japanese pirates who were constantly stealing mainland technology from Korean and Chinese merchant ships. Yi Seong-gye

Joseon

In 1392 Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty, moving the capital to Hanseong (now Seoul). Hangul was created by King Sejong in 1443. During the late 1500s, Japan invaded Korea in two failed attempts, known together as the Seven-Year War, inflicting great destruction and suffering on Korea. The Manchus then successfully invaded China and forced Korea in 1627 to recognize the Manchu government. Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to acquire western technology then forced Korea away from China's sphere of influence. In 1895, Empress Min of Korea was murdered by the Japanese under Miura Goro. Japan further increased its control over Korea following the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).

Japanese occupation

Main article: Korea under Japanese rule In 1910, Korea was annexed by Japan. Japanese occupation lasted until 1945 when Japan was defeated by the Allied Forces at the end of World War II. Many Koreans were forcibly sent all around the empire, men as slave laborers and women as military sex slaves called "comfort women". During the suppression of independence movement in 1919, 7,000 Koreans were killed by Japanese police and soldiers. Although statistics are difficult to obtain and verify, around 60,000 Korean laborers in Japan are known to have died between 1939 and 1945. Anti-Japanese sentiment still runs strong in Korea , as a result of Japanese war crimes and what Koreans see as continuing unrepentant actions.

Division

Main articles: Division of Korea, Korean War, Korean reunification In 1945, in the aftermath of WWII, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the United States effectively began administering the peninsula south of the 38th parallel and the Soviet Union administering north. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments. In June 1950, North Korea invaded the South, beginning the Korean War. After three devastating years of fighting that involved China, Soviet Union, the US, and several United Nations countries (including Canada, Great Britain, and Turkey to name a few), the war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the same boundary. The two countries never signed a peace treaty. Since the 1990s, with progressively liberal South Korean administrations, as well as the death of North Korean founder Kim Il-sung, the two sides have taken halting, symbolic steps towards cooperation, in international sporting events, reunification of separated family members, and tourism.

Names of Korea

Main article: Names of Korea While "North Korean" and "South Korea" are the most commonly used internationally, the formal names are Republic of Korea (ROK) for South Korea and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) for North Korea. "Korea" derives from the Goryeo (Koryŏ, 고려) period of Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ, 고구려). See also Korean-Japanese disputes for the spelling issue of "Corea" and "Korea." In the Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as Han-guk (한국, Han Nation) by South Korea and Chosŏn (조선) by North Korea.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Korea The nation uses vibrant colors for its festivities which is said to be due to Mongolian influences. It is common to see bright hues of red, yellow, and green on objects and material that define traditional Korean motifs [http://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/calendar/kcostumes.htm]. Family ties are an important aspect of familial relations, including business relations. Bowing is a custom that is expected among Koreans as a way of greeting one another. Although about half of the population is non-religious, Korean values spring from a large number of influences, including Shamanism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and more recently Christianity. [http://www.seoulsearching.com/culture/]. Korea is sometimes described as a Confucian society. Korean cuisine is marked by its traditional dish called kimchi which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables. Chili peppers are also commonly used in Korean cuisine, which has given it a reputation for being spicy. See also Korean cuisine.

Korea in sporting events

South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, giving the country an economical boost through increased tourism and greater world recognition. At the time, North_Korea boycotted the event on the grounds that it was not made co-host. North_Korea A unified Korean team competed under the Unification Flag in 1991 in both the 41st World Table Tennis Championship in Chiba, Japan and in the 6th World Youth Soccer Championship in Lisbon, Portugal. A unified Korean team marched under the Unification Flag in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, and the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, but competed separately in sporting events. As of the 2006 Asian Games, South Korean officials have announced the countries shall compete in the same unified sporting teams as well. In the summer of 2002, the FIFA World Cup was hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, at 10 stadiums in each country. They competed separately, however.

Represented Airport

- [http://www.airport.or.kr/Eng/home.jsp Incheon International Airport]

External links

- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html CIA World Factbook Entry for South Korea]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kn.html CIA World Factbook Entry for North Korea]
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/krtoc.html Country study South Korea]
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/kptoc.html Country study North Korea]
- [http://www.koreaherald.co.kr Korea News]
- [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~yisei/backissues/fall_98/mark_byington.html Korea in Manchuria]
- [http://www.sfkorean.com/eng/main_yp.jsp?grp=K&lp=N Korean communities in the US]
- [http://www.lifeinkorea.com/Information/history1.cfm Pre-20th-Century Korea]
- [http://gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/publication/paekche/eng/paekch_e.html Paekche of Korea and the origin of Yamato Japan]
- [http://www.shinmiyangyo.org/ Shinmiyangyo, The 1871 U.S. Korea Campaign]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/koreas.htm Teaching about the two Koreas]
- [http://www.learn-korean.net Learn Korean]
- [http://www.kpopmusic.co.uk Korean Music]
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Special characters

Category:Asia Category:East Asia Category:East Asian countries
- Korea Category:Disputed territories zh-min-nan:Tiâu-sián (Khu-pia̍t-ia̍h) ko:한국 ja:朝鮮 simple:Korea

Korea (disambiguation)

A number of places are called Korea:
- Korea a region in East Asia, now politically divided into North Korea and South Korea. Korea largely coincides with the Korean Peninsula.
- Korea a town in Côte d'Ivoire 6.82N 6.65W
- Korea a town in India 23.15N 83.97E
- Korea a town in Pakistan 34.42N 72.62E
- Korea a town in Puerto Rico 18.38N 65.78W
- Korea a town in the Sudan 4.76N 33.60E
- Korea a place in Culpeper, Virginia, USA 38.63N 73.01W
- Korea a place in Menifee County, Kentucky, USA 37.94N 83.48W In addition, the name Korea may be applied to:
- Korea, a German cocktail.
- For an extensive list of topics beginning with the word "Korea," see that section of the List of Korea-related topics.

South Korea

South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a country located in East Asia, in the southern half of the Korean Peninsula. To the north, it is bordered by North Korea, with which it formed a single nation until 1948. In Korean, it is called Daehan Minguk (대한민국, 大韓民國). Its short name is Hanguk (한국, Han nation, usually referring to Korea) or Namhan (남한, South Han, referring to South Korea.) See Names of Korea.
History
At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into the Soviet Union-occupied northern half and the United States-occupied southern half, each forming its own government in 1948. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out. The United Nations-backed South and the Communist-backed North eventually reached a stalemate and an armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along the demilitarised zone at about the original demarcation line. After the war, the autocratic government of Syngman Rhee was thrown out of power by student uprising and a brief period of civil rule was established in 1960. However, a military coup led by general Park Chung-hee, in the next year the nation turned into a dictatorship that lasted 18 years, during which period it achieved rapid economic growth. Park was assassinated in 1979, and general Chun Doo-hwan seized power with another coup. Massive student demonstrations in the spring of 1980 resulted in a military crackdown and the Gwangju Massacre. Civil unrest forced the end of military rule, and progressively democratic reforms continued under the presidencies of Roh Tae-woo, Kim Young-sam, and Kim Dae-jung. In the 1990s, South Korea became one of the world's largest economies. In 1996 South Korea joined the OECD. Although the nation suffered severe economic hardship during the Asian financial crisis, South Korea today is a fully functioning modern democracy and one of Asia’s most affluent nations. A potential Korean reunification has remained a prominent topic; no peace treaty has yet been signed with the North. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took place, part of the South's continuing Sunshine Policy of engagement. Since then, regular contacts have led to a cautious thaw.
Government and Politics
Main articles: Politics of South Korea, Elections in South Korea Elections in South Korea The Republic of Korea is a developed, stable, democratic republic with powers shared between the president and the legislature. The head of state of the Republic of Korea is the president, who is elected by direct popular vote for a single five-year term. In addition to being the highest representative of the republic and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, the president also has considerable executive powers and appoints the prime minister with approval of the National Assembly, as well as appointing and presiding over the State Council or cabinet. cabinet] The unicameral Korean legislature is the National Assembly or Gukhoe (국회/), whose members serve a four-year term of office. The legislature currently has 299 seats, of which 243 are elected by regional vote and the remainder are distributed by the proportional representation ballot. The highest judiciary body is the Supreme Court, whose justices are appointed by the president with the consent of the National Assembly. Since 1948, South Korea has been governed under six constitutions. Each constitution signifies a new South Korean republic. The current government is known as the Sixth Republic under the 1988 constitution. The main political parties in South Korea are the Uri Party, the Grand National Party (GNP), the Democratic Labor Party (DLP), and the Democratic Party (DP). In late 2003 a faction of the Millennium Democratic Party (later DP) split from the party and formed the liberal Uri Party, which gained a slim majority in the National Assembly in the April 2004 legislative elections but failed to secure it after subsequent reelections. The conservative GNP and centrist DP form the political opposition. The left-wing DLP, which is aligned with labour unions, represents the interests of the working class.
Geography
labour unions Main article: Geography of South Korea Korea forms a peninsula that extends some 1,100 km from the Asian mainland, flanked by the Yellow Sea (West Sea) and the Sea of Japan (East Sea), and terminated by the Korea Strait and the East China Sea to the south. The southern landscape consists of partially forested mountain ranges to the east, separated by deep, narrow valleys. Densely populated and cultivated coastal plains are found in the west and south. About 3,000 islands, most of which are small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts. The total area of South Korea is 99,268 km². South Korea is a mountainous country. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30 percent of the total land area. South Korea can be divided into three general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; and a southern region, where a maze of mountains and valleys in the west contrasts with the broad basin of the Nakdong River in the southeast. Halla-san, an extinct volcano that forms Jeju Island, is the country's highest point at 1,950 m (6,398 ft). Jeju Island is located about 100 km (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 km² (712 sq mi).
Climate
The local climate is relatively temperate, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma, and winters that can be bitterly cold on occasion. In Seoul the average January temperature range is -7 °C to 1 °C (19 °F to 33 °F), and the average July temperature range is 22 °C to 29 °C (71 °F to 83 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains. The average annual precipitation in Seoul is 1370 millimeters (54 inches). In Busan, it is 1470 mm (58 inches). precipitation, 2004]]
Wildlife
Most of South Korea's forests were cleared over many centuries for use as firewood and building materials. However, they have rebounded since the 1970s as a result of intensive reforestation efforts. The country's few remaining old-growth forests are protected in nature reserves. South Korea also has more than a dozen national parks. One of the world's most interesting wildlife sanctuaries has developed in the DMZ, having been virtually untouched since 1953. The uninhabited zone has become a haven for many kinds of wildlife, particularly migrating birds. The national flower of South Korea is the Rose of Sharon, a species of hibiscus that blooms continually from July through October. In South Korea, it is known as mugunghwa, meaning "eternal flower". Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and overhunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. The peninsula has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer. See also: Regions of Korea
Provinces and cities
Main article: Administrative divisions of South Korea. South Korea consists of 1 Special City (Teukbyeolsi; 특별시; 特別市), 6 Metropolitan Cities (Gwangyeoksi, singular and plural; 광역시; 廣域市), and 9 Provinces (do, singular and plural; 도; 道). The names below are given in English, Revised Romanization, Hangul, and Hanja.
Special City

- Seoul Special City (Seoul Teukbyeolsi; 서울 특별시)
Metropolitan Cities

- Busan Metropolitan City (Busan Gwangyeoksi; 부산 광역시; 釜山廣域市)
- Incheon Metropolitan City (Incheon Gwangyeoksi; 인천 광역시; 仁川廣域市)
- Daegu Metropolitan City (Daegu Gwangyeoksi; 대구 광역시; 大邱廣域市)
- Daejeon Metropolitan City (Daejeon Gwangyeoksi; 대전 광역시; 大田廣域市)
- Gwangju Metropolitan City (Gwangju Gwangyeoksi; 광주 광역시; 光州廣域市)
- Ulsan Metropolitan City (Ulsan Gwangyeoksi; 울산 광역시; 蔚山廣域市)
Provinces

- Gyeonggi-do (경기도, 京畿道)
- Gangwon-do (강원도, 江原道 or 남-강원도, 南江原道)
- Chungcheongbuk-do (충청북도, 忠清北道)
- Chungcheongnam-do (충청남도, 忠清南道)
- Jeollabuk-do (전라북도, 全羅北道)
- Jeollanam-do (전라남도, 全羅南道)
- Gyeongsangbuk-do (경상북도, 慶尚北道)
- Gyeongsangnam-do (경상남도, 慶尚南道)
- Jeju-do (제주도, 濟州道) See also: Provinces of Korea and Special cities of Korea for historical information.
Economy
Main article: Economy of South Korea As one of the East Asian Tigers, South Korea has achieved an impressive record of growth and integration into the high-tech modern global economy, making South Korea the 10th largest economy in the world. In the aftermath of WWII, GDP per capita was comparable with levels in the poorer countries of Africa and Asia. Then the Korean War made conditions in Korea even worse. Today its GDP per capita is roughly 20 times North Korea's and equal to the medium economies of the European Union. Calculating the GDP with Purchasing power parity in 2004, South Korea joined the trillion dollar club of world economies. This success through the late 1980s was achieved by a system of close government-business ties, including directed credit, import restrictions, sponsorship of specific industries, and a strong labour effort. The government promoted the import of raw materials and technology at the expense of consumer goods and encouraged savings and investment over consumption. From the late 1950s to the mid-1980s, South Korean exports grew at a rate of 25 percent per year. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 exposed longstanding weaknesses in South Korea's development model, including high debt/equity ratios, massive foreign borrowing, and an undisciplined financial sector. Growth plunged by 6.6% in 1998, then strongly recovered to 10.8% in 1999 and 9.2% in 2000. Growth fell back to 3.3% in 2001 because of the slowing global economy, falling exports, and the perception that much-needed corporate and financial reforms have stalled. Led by industry and construction, growth in 2002 was an impressive 5.8%, despite anemic global growth. As of 2005, in addition to its global leadership in high-speed Internet service, memory semiconductors, flat-panel screens and mobile phones, South Korea ranks first in shipbuilding, third in tire production, fourth in synthetic fiber output, fifth in automotive production and sixth in steel output. The nation also ranked 12th globally in terms of nominal gross domestic product, trade and exports. South Korea's solid economy is characterised by moderate inflation, low unemployment, an export surplus, and fairly equal distribution of income.
Chaebol
A distinctive feature of the South Korean economy is the long-dominant position of the chaebol (government-assisted, family-controlled conglomerates), most of which were established after the Korean War. In 1995, the top four chaebols were Hyundai, Samsung, Daewoo, and LG. Since the economic crisis of late 1990s, the corporate landscape has changed considerably, partly as a result of government reforms. In 2003, only 4 of the 18 largest chaebol remained. However, they continue to dominate economic activity. South Korea's chaebol are often compared with Japan's keiretsu business groupings, the successors to the pre-war zaibatsu ("chaebol" and "zaibatsu" are Korean and Japanese pronunciations of the same Chinese characters). However, the chaebol are still largely controlled by their founding families, unlike the keiretsu, which are run by professional corporate managers. Additionally, the government prevented the chaebol from owning private banks, partly in order to increase its own leverage over the banks in areas such as credit allocation. The keiretsu, in contrast, usually work with an affiliated bank, giving the affiliated companies almost unlimited access to credit.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of South Korea
The Korean people
Korea's population is one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world, with the only significant minority being a small Chinese community. Koreans have lived in Manchuria for many centuries, and are now a minority in China. Joseph Stalin forced thousands of ethnic Koreans residing in or near Vladivostok and Khabarovsk to relocate to the Central Asian part of the U.S.S.R., fearing Korean collaboration with the Japanese, while the majority of the Korean population in Japan was brought/kidnapped there as forced labour during the colonial period. Political, social and economic instability of South Korea in the past has driven many South Koreans to emigrate to foreign countries, particularly the United States and Canada. California has a large number of Koreans and Korean-Americans, numbering well over one million people. In recent years the migration levels for South Korean people leaving and returning to South Korea were relatively equal. The annual rate of population increase in South Korea has dropped steadily from more than 3 percent in the late 1950s to 0.38 percent in 2005 as a result of people choosing to have fewer children than in the past. Urbanisation of the country has proceeded rapidly since the 1960s, with substantial migration from rural to urban areas; 85 percent of the population is now classified as urban. Following the division of the Korean peninsula after WWII, about 4 million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This sudden population increase was partly offset over the next 40 years by emigration from South Korea, especially to the United States and Canada. However, South Korea’s burgeoning economy and improved political climate in the early and mid-1990s slowed the high emigration rates typical of the late 1980s. Many of those who emigrated chose to return to South Korea. Currently, the migration rate for South Koreans is close to zero. There are many thousands of foreign workers in South Korea. A news article from the newspaper 'Korean Herald' (dated the sixth of June, 2005) states this:
- "According to the ministry data, as of the end of April, the total size of the alien work force (in South Korea) stands at 378,000, 52 percent of which, or 199,000, are here illegally. " This 378,000 figure is considered by many to be low and only represents the number of known foreign workers, illegal or not. Some estimates put the total foreign population at over half a million. Because of the high number of illegal foreign workers in South Korea, it is difficult to get exact figures on the number of foreigners. This large workforce and foreign population mainly comes from South Asian countries, such as India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and the Philippines. There are also many workers from the former Soviet Union countries. Many migrant workers also come from Nigeria. Along with these workers from South Asia and elsewhere, there are also about 11,000 foreign ex-pat English teachers from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.
Cities
About 85 percent of South Koreans live in urban areas. The capital city of Seoul had 10.3 million inhabitants in 2003, making it the most populated single city (excluding greater metropolitan areas) in the world. Seoul is also the country's largest city and chief industrial centre. Its density has allowed it to become one of the most "digitally-wired" cities in today's globally connected economy. Other major cities include Busan (3.9 million), Incheon (2.9 million), Daegu (2.65 million), Daejeon (1.48 million), Gwangju (1.38 million) and Ulsan (1.15 million). Busan is the country's principal seaport.
Language
seaport by King Sejong ]] South Korea's national language is Korean. As with Japanese, with which it shares some grammatical features, Korean is sometimes called an isolate, and sometimes an Altaic language. Like Japanese and some other East Asian languages, Korean has historically borrowed many words from neighboring China. For thousands of years, a system based on borrowed Chinese characters (hanja) was used in Korea to read and write Korean. However, hanja fit poorly with the Korean language's grammar and phonetics, and was difficult to learn. A new writing system, hangul, was invented in 1446 by King Sejong the Great, with the intention to foster wider literacy among the Korean people. Hangul was promulgated in the Hunmin Jeongeum (훈민정음/訓民正音). Unlike Chinese characters, hangul is a phonetically based alphabet and can be learned very quickly. Hangul's adoption was long resisted by the Korean elite, but it is now used exclusively in North Korea. In South Korea, Chinese loan words are sometimes still written in hanja, but the strong trend is one of ever-decreasing use of hanja. In 2000 the government adopted the Revised Romanisation of Korean. Revised Romanisation of Korean World Heritage Site list in 1995.]]
Religion
According to 2003 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46 percent of citizens profess to follow no particular religion. Christians account for 27.3% of the population and Buddhists 25.3%. Buddhism is stronger in the more conservative east of the country, namely the Yeongnam and Gangwon regions, where it accounts for more than half of the religious population. There are a number of different "schools" in Korean Buddhism, including the Seon (imported from Chan Buddhism in China, then later taught to the Japanese as Zen Buddhism). Many adherents of Buddhism combine Buddhist practice and shamanism. Christianity initially got a foothold in Korea in the 19th century, then in the 1970s and early 1980s grew exponentially, and despite slower growth in the 1990s, caught up to Buddhism as a significant faith. Protestant churches including Presbyterians, Pentecostals, and Methodists make up about 19.8% of the total population, while Roman Catholics occupy about 7.4%. Christians are especially strong in the west of the country including Seoul, Gyeonggi and Honam regions. Seoul is home to Yoido Full Gospel Church, the largest single church in the world. Various other religions account for about 2.5 percent of the religious population. These include the Wonbulgyo movement, which emphasises the unity of all things. Another notable minor religion is Cheondogyo, an indigenous faith combining elements of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Christianity. Confucianism is also small in terms of self-declared adherents, but the great majority of South Koreans, irrespective of their formal religious affiliation, are strongly influenced by Confucian values, which continue to permeate Korean culture.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Korea, Contemporary culture of South Korea Contemporary culture of South Korea Korean cultural development is generally divided into periods coinciding with political development: the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C. - 668 A.D.), the Unified Silla dynasty (668-935), the Koryo dynasty (918-1392), the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910), and the modern period (1910-present). South Korea shares its traditional culture with that of North Korea, but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture since its division into two separate states. Historically, Korea was strongly influenced by Chinese culture and acted as a conduit of culture from China to Japan. Koreans adapted many Chinese art forms with innovation and skill, creating distinctively Korean forms. For many centuries, metalwork, sculpture, painting, and ceramics flourished throughout the Korean peninsula. Buddhism provided one of the most significant sources for artistic expression. Confucianism, also prominent, emphasised the importance of literature and calligraphy, as well as portrait and landscape painting. Western influence began to dominate Korean society in the late 1800s, when Korea opened itself to the Western world. During the Japanese colonial rule, indigenous traditions were sometimes violently suppressed. Since then, however, Koreans have made a concerted effort to keep their cultural traditions alive. The South Korean government actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs as well as sponsorship of an annual national competitive exhibition. Many great scholars and philosophers lived in Korea, but are not well known to outsiders due to the country's early isolationism. One example is King Sejong the Great, who invented the world's first rain gauge and water clock. Despite China's historical influence on Korean culture, the roles are reversed today, with an increased Korean influence in China in terms of popular music, fashion and television drama. In recent years, Korean pop culture has gained massive popularity in many parts of Asia (and in more recent years, Western Cultures as well), earning the name Hanryu (or sometimes romanized as Hallyu) or "Korean Wave". Korean pop culture has also made way into Japan, with Television drama such as Winter Sonata is gaining massive popularity in Japan. Many have viewed the popularity of Korean pop culture in Japan as a path to reconciliation between the two countries. South Korea today, with government facilitation, has the highest penetration of high-speed internet access to households in the world. Its infatuation with technology, including feature-rich cell phones and online gaming, has become a part of its modern culture. See also: List of Koreans, Korean cuisine, Taekwondo, Music of Korea, Korean painting, Korean dance, Korean ceramics

Foreign relations

South Korea and Japan share a complex and sometimes adversarial history. Several contentious remnants of Japan's role in World War II still make headlines, including the Sea of Japan naming dispute, Yasukuni Shrine visits, and ownership of the Dok-do/Takeshima. Refer to the Korean-Japanese disputes for other disputes.

Tourism

Domestic tourism is quite popular among Koreans, but is still catching on with non-Koreans. Seoul is the principal tourist destination for non-Koreans. Popular tourist destinations for Koreans include Seorak-san national park, the historic city of Gyeongju, and semi-tropical Jeju Island. Travel to North Korea is not normally possible except with special permission, but in recent years organised group tours have taken South Koreans to Kŭmgang-san mountain in the North.

Notes

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1123668.stm BBC News - Country Profile: South Korea]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ks.html CIA World Factbook - South Korea]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/korea/0,2759,331519,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: North and South Korea]
- [http://www.kois.go.kr/ Korea.net: Gateway to Korea] portal from the KOIS government agency
- [http://www.nso.go.kr/eng/index.shtml Korea National Statistical Office]
- [http://www.koreapeacenetwork.info/index.htm Korea Peace Network] summary of past/current American policy towards Korea
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/krtoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: South Korea] data as of June 1990
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559967/us559996 LookSmart - South Korea] directory category
- [http://korea.assembly.go.kr/index.jsp National Assembly] official site
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/South_Korea/ Open Directory Project - South Korea] directory category
- [http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/abacus-stocks-South-Korea.html South Korea Stock Market] summary of the South Korea stock market
- [http://english.president.go.kr/warp/app/home/en_home?_sso_id_=92186551bedfcc4f9fe89055e599b422 The Blue House] official presidential site
- [http://www.tour2korea.com/ Tour2Korea] operated by Korea National Tourism Organization
-
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Korea__South/ Yahoo! - South Korea] directory category
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc/World/South_Korea Yahoo! News - Full Coverage: South Korea]
- [http://korea.wikicities.com Korea Wiki on Wikicities] Category:East Asian countries zh-min-nan:Hân-kok ko:대한민국 ms:Korea Selatan ja:大韓民国 simple:South Korea th:ประเทศเกาหลีใต้

Korean Peninsula

The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 1,100 kilometres from the continental Asian mainland into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan/East Sea on the east, the East China Sea to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water. It is currently divided into the countries of South Korea in the south and North Korea in the north. The single term Korean Peninsula is therefore often used to refer to these two states at the same time. Up until the division of the peninsula following the end of World War II, Korea was a single political entity for many centuries whose territory roughly coincided with the Korean Peninsula. The northern boundaries for the Korean Peninsula is commonly (and tacitly) taken to coincide with today's political borders between North Korea and her northern neighbours, China (1,416 km) and Russia (19 km). These borders are formed naturally by the rivers Yalu/Amnok and Tumen/Tuman/Duman. Taking this definition, the Korean Peninsula has an area of approximately 220,000 km². By the inhabitants, it is called Han bando (Hangul: 한반도; Hanja: ) in South Korea, or Choson bando (조선반도; ) in North Korea, due to the different names for Korea.

Physical geography

Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are generally small and far in between the successive mountain ranges. The peninsula becomes more mountainous towards the north and the east, with the highest mountains (including Paektu-san/Baekdu-san which stands at 2,744 m) found in the north. The peninsula has 8,460 kilometres of coastline, and the south and west coasts are highly irregular in particular; most of the 3,579 islands off the peninsula are found along the south and the west coasts.

Climate

The climate of the Korean Peninsula differs dramatically from north to south. The southern regions experience a relatively warm and wet climate similar to that of Japan, affected by warm ocean waters including the East Korea Warm Current. The northern regions experience a colder and to some extent more inland climate, in common with Manchuria. For example, the annual precipitation of the Yalu River valley (600 mm) is less than half of that on the south coast (1500 mm). Likewise, there is a 20 °C difference in January temperature between the peninsula's southern and northern tips. The entire peninsula, however, is affected by similar general patterns, including the East Asian monsoon in midsummer and the frequent incidence of typhoons in autumn. The majority of rainfall takes place during the summer months, with nearly half during the monsoon alone. Winters are cold, with January temperatures typically below freezing outside of Jeju Island. Winter precipitation is minimal, with little snow accumulation outside of mountainous areas.

Biogeography

Surveys of Korean flora have identified more than 3,000 species on the peninsula, of which more than 500 are endemic. The peninsula's floristic provinces are commonly divided between warm-temperate, temperate, and cold-temperate zones. The warm-temperate zone prevails over the southern coast and islands, including Jeju. It is typified by a larg number of broad-leaved evergreens. The temperate zone covers the great majority of the peninsula, away from the southern coast and high mountains. It is dominated by the Korean pine and various broad-leaved deciduous trees. Cold-temperate vegetation is found along the peninsula's northern fringe and in the high mountains, including the upper reaches of Hallasan on Jeju. Evergreens in this area include larch and juniper. Much of this vegetation is shared with Manchuria.

Geology

The terrain of the Korean peninsula is rumpled, covered with low mountains. Most rocks are of Precambrian origin, although isolated pockets of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rock can also be found. There are no active volcanoes on the peninsula. However, Baekdu Mountain in the north and Hallasan in the south have crater lakes, indicating that they were active not long ago. In addition, Ulleung Island in the Sea of Japan is believed to have been of volcanic origin. Furthermore, hot springs indicative of low-level volcanic activity are widespread throughout the peninsula. Roughly two earthquakes are recorded per year, but few have any major impact.

Symbolism

The Unification Flag has a blue map of the Korean Peninsula on a white background. The flag was introduced in 1991 to represent the joint North and South Korean team at the table tennis world championships. The athletes from the two Koreas marched together under this flag at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the 2004 Athens Olympics.

Notes

# KOIS 2003, p. 17.

References

China

to protect the north from nomadic invaders and has been rebuilt several times since.]] China () refers to a number of states and cultures that have existed and are viewed as having succeeded one another in continental East Asia, dating back at least 3,500 years. China as it exists today has been variously described in different points of view as a single civilization or multiple civilizations, as a single state or multiple states, and as a single nation or multiple nations. With one of the world's longest periods of mostly uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace and war, and violent imperial dynastic change. The country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in the North China Plain, and varied according to its moving fortunes to include multiple regions of East, Northeast, and Central Asia. For centuries, Imperial China was also one of the world's most technologically advanced civilizations, and East Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an impact lasting to the present day throughout the region. By the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, China's political, economic, and military influence declined relative to growing regional power Japan and the influence of Western powers. Semi-colonialism developed by the late nineteenth century in parts of China, and the country was invaded by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The imperial system in China ended with the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) under Sun Yat-sen in 1912; however, the next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord control, the Second Sino-Japanese War (WWII), and the Chinese Civil War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against the Communist forces. After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Republic of China (ROC) to retreat to the island of Taiwan, which it had governed since the end of World War II. Since then, the ROC has maintained administrative control over Taiwan, the Pescadores, several islands off the coast of Fujian province, and some islands in the South China Sea.

Terminology

"Zhongguo"

South China Sea China is called Zhongguo in Mandarin Chinese (Simplified: 中国, Traditional: 中國; also romanized as Jhongguo or Chung-kuo), which is usually translated as "Middle Kingdom", but could also be translated as "Central State" or "Central Country". Zhong (中) means "middle" or "center" while guo (国 or 國) means "country," "kingdom," "state," or "land", referring to the claim that China stood at the centre of that society's "known world", surrounded by lesser tributary states. The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and carries certain cultural and political connotations both positive and negative, some ideological, and early states considered part of Chinese history are not called "Zhongguo". During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the Western Zhou Dynasty, in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as Chu and Qin. The "Chinese" thus defined their nation as culturally and politically distinct from - and as the axis mundi of surrounding nations; a concept that continued well into the Qing Dynasty, although being continually redefined while the central political influence expanded territorially, and its culture assimilated alien influences. Thus Zhongguo quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" or "country" in the modern sense) spread in a southerly direction, including the Yangtze River and Pearl River systems, and by the Tang Dynasty it even included "barbarian" regimes such as the Xianbei and Xiongnu. Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, and the island of Taiwan, over time, came to be dominated (to a greater or lesser extent) by, or officially ruled by, imperial China, and are often included as a part of Zhongguo, though acceptance or denial of such claims remains politically controversial, especially where Zhongguo means PRC. During the Han Dynasty and before, Zhongguo had three distinctive meanings: # The area around the capital or imperial domain. The Book of Poetry explicitly gives this definition. # Territories under the direct authority of the "central" authorities. The Historical Records states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians. Five are in Zhongguo." # The area now called the North China Plain. The Sanguo Zhi records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of Wu and Yue (the area of southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) to oppose Zhongguo, then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term is synonymous with Hua (華) and Xia (夏). During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term Zhongguo was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their Northern Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it with the Southern Dynasties, which they called the Yi (夷), meaning "barbarian". The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei Lu (虏), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way Zhongguo came to represent political legitimacy. It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song. The term Zhongguo came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin. The Republic of China, as it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used Zhongguo as an entity existing theoretically to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control as well as those outside of it (people in the Republic of China on Taiwan now usually use Zhongguo to refer to the PRC and use Taiwan to refer to itself). Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are Zhongguo ren (中國人), or Zhongguo people. Their disparate histories are collectively the history of Zhongguo.

"China"

Song in ancient times, was the imperial capital of 13 different historical dynasties (including the Han and Tang dynasties) in China.]] English and many other languages use forms of the name China (and the prefix Sino-), which is believed to have derived from the name of the Qin dynasty that first unified the country, even though it is not completely resolved and the origins are still controversial to an extent [http://www.bartleby.com/61/80/C0298000.html]. Despite the fact that the Qin dynasty was short-lived and was often regarded as overly tyrannical it unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor", hence, the subsequent Silk Road traders would identify themselves by that name. Alternate theories on the origin of the word "China" exist. In any circumstance, the word China passed through many languages along the Silk Road before it finally reached Europe and England. The Western "China", transliterated to Shina (支那) has also been used by Japanese since the nineteenth century, and has since evolved into a derogatory term in that language. The term "China" can narrowly mean China proper, or, often, China proper and Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st century political entity China; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow provincial boundaries. In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. Informally, in economic or business contexts, "the Greater China region" (大中華地區) refers to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, or to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", who make up the bulk of Mainland China. In many contexts it may be more appropriate to speak of "mainland China" (中國大陸,zhōngguó dàlù in Mandarin), especially when contrasting it with other, politically different regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan).

History

:Main articles: History of China, History of the Republic of China (1912–1949; 1949–Present on Taiwan), History of People's Republic of China (1949–Present) History of People's Republic of China China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), the Mayans, and, some hold, Ancient Egypt—though it may have been learned from the Sumerians. The first dynasty according to Chinese historical sources was the Xia Dynasty. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. However, the first confirmed dynasty is the Shang, who settled along the Huang He river, dating from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. The Shang were in turn invaded by the Zhou (12th to 5th centuries BC), whose centralized authority was slowly eroded by the ceding of state-like authority to warlords ruling small states; eventually, in the Spring and Autumn period, many strong independent states, in continuous war, paid but nominal deference to the Zhou state as the Imperial centre. They were all unified under one emperor in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin Dynasty, the first unified centralized Chinese state. This state, however, did not last for long, as it was way too authoritarian, destroying many sources of competition for power that were also sources of good governance and development, such as scholars and intellectuals. After the fall of authoritarian Qin Dynasty in 207 BC came the Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. A period of disunion followed again. In 580, China was reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China reached its golden age. For a long period of time, especially between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in technology, literature, and art. The Song Dynasty fell to the invading Mongols in 1279. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. After the Ming dynasty, came the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911. Oftentimes regime change was violent and strongly opposed and the ruler class needed to take special measures to ensure their rule and the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example, after the foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. However, these restrictions proved ineffective against the assimilation of Manchus into the Chinese identity and culture. In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central Asia, which it had been at war with for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe in that respect. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. See Imperialism in Asia. However the primary cause of the decline of the Chinese empire was not European and American interference, as the ethnocentric Western historians would lead many to believe. On the contrary it was a series of internal upheavals. Most prominent of these was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The civil war was started by an extremist believer in a school of thought partly influenced by Christianity who believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War). Prior to this conflict a number of Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred. Later, a second major rebellion took place, although this latter uprising was considerably smaller than the cataclysmic Taiping Civil War. This second conflict was the Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting the rebels, the Empress, Ci Xi, aided foreign forces in suppressing the uprising. Ci Xi, 1949.]] In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared and the Republic of China was established. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War. The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of mainland China. The CPC established a communist state—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the successor state of the Republic of China. Meanwhile, the disorganized and potentially corrupt ROC government of the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the Western bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when most nations and the UN switched recognition to the PRC. The United Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong Kong and Macau on the southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively. China used in a modern context often refers to just the territory of the PRC, or to "Mainland China" (the territory of the PRC excluding Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC does not recognize the ROC, as it claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. On the other hand, the ROC—while never formally renouncing its earlier claims or changing official maps that show its territory as including both the modern-day PRC, Mongolia and Tibet—has moved away from this former identity representing its rule over all of China, and increasingly identifies itself as Taiwan. The PRC has historically resisted the ROC's identification of itself as Taiwan, especially in light of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan and others who advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. Significant disputes persist as to the nature and extent of China, possible Chinese reunification and the political status of Taiwan.

Chinese Pre-history

Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative (hominin) known as Homo erectus. One particular cave in Zhoukoudian (now known as Peking) has fossilised evidence dating to 300,000 and 550,000 years old. Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones in association to H. erectus have been studied since the late 18th century to 19th century in various areas of Eastern Asia including Indonesia (in particular the Island of Java) and Malaysia. Originally it is thought that these early hominis first evolved in Africa during the Pleistocene. It is thought that human evolution first took place in Africa expanding 7 million years. By 2 million years ago the first wave of migration from the species in association with H. erectus settled into various areas in the Old World. Fully modern humans (homo sapiens) are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in Ethiopia or Southern Africa (ei. Homo sapiens idaltu). By 100,000 to 50,000 years ago modern human beings settled in all parts of the Old world (including the New World, Americas 25,000 to 11,000 BCE). By less than 100,000 years ago all proto-human populations disappeared as modern humans took over or drove other human species into extinction. It remains a controversial subject to whether fully modern humans evolved from separate H. erectus populations (known as "multiregional") as some evidence in ancient bones show a transitional change from H. erectus to H. sapiens having archaic features. However it is now more widely accepted that all modern humans genetically share a direct ancestor, a female nicknamed "Mitochondrial Eve" from Eastern Africa 150,000 years BCE. This model is known as Mitochondrial Eve Hypothesis. The earliest evidence examples of fully modern humans in China come from Liujiang, China where a cranium dates 67,000 years BCE. Another is a partial skeleton from Minatogawa being just 18,000 years old.

Political history

Before unification by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did not exist as a coherent entity. The Chinese civilization consisted of a patchwork of several states, each ruled by a king (王), duke (公), marquess (侯), or earl (伯). Although there was a central king who held nominal power, and powerful hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, each state was ruled as an independent political entity. This is also the time of the beginnings of Confucian philosophy and that of many other philosophies that greatly influenced Chinese philosophy-political thought. This ended with the Qin Dynasty unification, during which the office of the emperor was set up, and a system of bureaucratic administration established. After the Qin, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. The territory varied with several expansions and contractions depending on the strength of each emperor and dynasty. However the emperor had ultimate, supreme, and unquestionable authority as the political and religious leader of China. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the prime minister. Political power sometimes fell into the hands of powerful officials, eunuchs, or imperial relatives, often at the expense of a child heriditary emperor. This happened especially since the emperor often was many layers of power removed from the outside world, making him susceptible to manipulation because his sources for information could manipulate that information causing him to make incorrect decisions, especially when their age at becoming emperor often had no bottom limit, with rule passing heriditarily but also given "in trust" to another relative. Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, treaties, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples), Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most commonly designated as capitals of China over the course of history. Chinese was the official language, though periods of Mongol and Manchu conquest saw the arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate official languages. On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established, signaling the end of the Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside for what was then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan). Before long, Yuan attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he died soon of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire. After Yuan's downfall, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit the definition of a state). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. state In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang with heavy Leninist influences. Ironically, both the Kuomintang and the CCP have heavy Leninist influences. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CPC), many provisions of the 1947 ROC constitution were never put into actual practice on the mainland. By early 1950, the CPC had defeated the Kuomintang on the mainland, and the ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under ROC control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the political scene in the ROC is vibrant, with active participation by all sectors of society. But rather than the usual conservative-liberal policy distinctions that are the hallmarks of most democracies around the world, the main cleavage in ROC politics is the unification with China in the long-run vs. formal independence issue. However, Greens are generally more liberal (i.e. more environmentally friendly) and Blues are generally regarded as more conservative. environmentally friendly Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, the leader of the communists, proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing, saying China had stood up. From the beginning, the PRC has been a dictatorial one-party state under the Communist Party. However, post-1978 reforms have led to the relaxation, in varying degrees, of party control over many areas of society. Nonetheless, the Communist Party still has absolute control over political aspects of society, and it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to its rule. Examples of this include the jailing of political opponents and journalists, general control of the press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, censorship of the press, literature and film, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, a popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen Square was violently put to an end by the Chinese government. Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989 The attempted eradication of the Falun Gong movement is also held by its supporters to be motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence. Today, however, there is much more freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas and propaganda, while still continuing, has lessened.

Territory

Historical overview

propaganda The Zhou Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Shi Huangdi, was originally the region around the Yellow River. Since then, the territory has expanded outward in all directions, and was largest during the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. The Qing Dynasty included parts of modern Russian Far East and Central Asia (west of Xinjiang). Xinjiang Along with provincial administrators, some foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to the Emperor of China and the Emperor returned compliments to them. The Chinese thought that the barbarians attached themselves to the virtue of the Emperor, while the foreign governments sometimes disagreed. Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to reinterpret this relationship as suzerainty or suzerainty-dependency, but this no longer has any real conception in modern international political theories. The Qing Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great Wall of China as a barrier of China proper after they merged their homeland (Manchuria) north of

Korea

Overview

Geography

Demographics

History

The Three Kingdoms

Balhae and Unified Silla

Goryeo

Joseon

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Division

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Represented Airport

Further Readings

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External links

Special characters

Korea (disambiguation)

South Korea

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Government and Politics

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Chaebol

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The Korean people

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Notes

See also

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Korean Peninsula

Physical geography

Climate

Biogeography

Geology

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Notes

References

See also

China

Terminology

"Zhongguo"

"China"

History

Chinese Pre-history

Political history

Territory

Historical overview