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Louis XIV Of France

Louis XIV of France

For the musical group of the same name, see Louis XIV (band). Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné) (September 5, 1638 – September 1, 1715) reigned as King of France and King of Navarre from May 14, 1643 until his death. He inherited the Crown at the age of four, but he did not actually assume personal control of the government until the death of his chief minister, Jules Cardinal Mazarin, in 1661. Louis XIV, known as The Sun King (French: Le Roi Soleil) and as Louis the Great (French: Louis le Grand), ruled France for seventy-two years — a longer reign than any other French or other "major" European monarch. Louis attempted to increase the power of France in Europe, fighting four major wars: the War of Devolution, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the Grand Alliance, and the War of the Spanish Succession. He worked successfully to create an absolutist and centralised state; historians and political scientists often cite him as an example of an enlightened despot. Louis XIV became the archetype of an absolute monarch. He is frequently claimed to have said "L'État, c'est moi" ("I am the state"), though this is considered by historians to be a historical inaccuracy and is more likely to have been attributed to him by political opponents as a way to confirm a stereotypical view of the absolutism he represented. Quite contrary to that spurious quote, Louis XIV is actually reported by Saint-Simon to have said on his death bed: "Je m'en vais, mais l'État demeurera toujours. ("I am going, but the State shall always remain")."

Early years

On his birth at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1638 his parents Louis XIII and Anne of Austria , who had been childless for twenty-three years, regarded him as a divine gift. (These circumstances have led some to postulate a different biological father for the boy, rather than Louis XIII. Anne of Austria, however, had denied these claims.) Louis came from a multicultural background since his grandparents on his father's side were Henry IV and Marie de' Medici, who were French and Italian. His other grandfather, Philip III was of Spanish descent and his grandmother, Margaret of Austria was of Austrian descent. He was christened "Louis-Dieudonné" (the latter word meaning "God-given"), and received the titles premier fils de France ("First Son of France") and the more traditional title Dauphin de Viennois. Louis XIII and Anne had a second child, Philippe I, Duc d'Orléans, in 1640. Louis XIII, however, mistrusted his wife; he sought to prevent her from gaining influence over the realm after his death. Nevertheless, when Louis XIII died and the four-year-old Louis XIV ascended the throne on May 14, 1643, Anne became Regent. She entrusted all power to her chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin, whom most French political circles despised — in part as a non-Frenchman. At the same time as the Thirty Years' War ended in 1648, a French civil war, known as the Fronde, began. Cardinal Mazarin continued the centralization policies of his predecessor, Armand Cardinal Richelieu. He attempted to augment the power of the Crown at the expense of the nobility. In 1648, he levied a tax on the members of the Parlement, a court whose judges comprised mostly nobles or high clergymen. The members of the Parlement not only refused to pay, but also pronounced all of Cardinal Mazarin’s entire earlier financial edicts to be burned. When Cardinal Mazarin arrested the members of the Parlement, Paris broke into rioting and insurrection. Louis and his courtiers had to flee from the city. Shortly thereafter, the signing of the Peace of Westphalia released the French army under Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé to return to the aid of Louis and of his royal court. By January 1649, the Prince de Condé had started besieging Paris; the subsequent Peace of Rueil temporarily ended the conflict. France had continued involvement in war, however, against Spain. The French received aid in this military effort from England, then governed by the military dictator Oliver Cromwell. The Anglo-French alliance achieved victory in 1658 at the Battle of the Dunes. The subsequent Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) fixed the border between France and Spain at the Pyrenees. Under the same treaty, Louis XIV became engaged to marry the daughter of Philip IV of Spain, Maria Theresa (Marie Thérèse). The marriage occurred in 1660; under the treaty, Maria agreed to renounce all claim to the Spanish Throne. Spain had agreed to pay a large dowry (50,000 gold écus), but failed to complete payment. écu The French treasury stood close to bankruptcy when Louis XIV assumed power in 1661. The Sun King proved an incredibly extravagant spender, dispensing huge sums of money to finance the royal court. He operated as a patron of the arts, funding literary and cultural figures such as Molière, Charles Le Brun, and Jean-Baptiste Lully. He also brought the Académie française under his control, and became its "Protector". He spent money on improving the Musée du Louvre. Jean-Baptiste Colbert gained appointment as Controller-General in 1665. He reduced the national debt through more efficient taxation. His principal taxation devices included the aides, the douanes, the gabelle, and the taille. The aides and douanes were customs duties, the gabelle a tax on salt, and the taille a tax on land. Colbert, however, did not abolish the tax exemption claimed by the nobility and the clergy. Nonetheless, he improved the methods of tax collection then in use. Colbert also had wide-ranging plans to improve France through commerce. His administration ordained new industries and encouraged manufacturers and inventors. Colbert also made improvements to the navy, to the highways and to the waterways of France. He ranks as one of the fathers of the school of thought regarding trade known as mercantilism — in fact, France called "mercantilism" Colbertisme. Louis XIV ordered the construction of the complex known as the Hôtel des Invalides to provide a home for officers who had served him loyally in the army but whom either injury or age had rendered infirm. While methods of pharmaceuticals in the time period were quite elementary, the Hôtel des Invalides pioneered new treatments frequently, and set a new standard for the rather barbarous hospice treatment styles of the period. Louis considered its construction one of the greatest achievements of his reign, though many historians defer this honourable claim to the Chateau de Versailles, which, though of dubious necessity and, it may be said, ethically unsound, is one of the largest and most extravagant monuments to a king's power in Europe.

War and the Low Countries

After Louis's father-in-law, Philip IV of Spain, died in 1665, his son (by his second wife)became Charles II of Spain. Louis claimed that Brabant, a Spanish territory in the Low Countries, had "devolved" to his wife, Maria Theresa, Charles II's half-sister. Louis made the legal argument that the custom of Brabant required that a child should not suffer from his or her father's remarriage. He personally participated in the battles of the subsequent War of Devolution, which broke out in 1667. Louis saw as his primary enemy not Spain (which had little interest in Brabant and other Belgian territories), but the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (the Netherlands). Problems internal to the United Provinces aided Louis's designs on the Low Countries. The most prominent political figure in the United Provinces at the time, Johan de Witt, feared that power might come into the hands of William III, Prince of Orange. De Witt saw a naval war with France as potentially manageable, but a war on land would have allowed William III's army to intervene. Thus, France easily conquered both Flanders and the Franche-Comté. To protect itself from further French aggression, the United Provinces joined the Triple Alliance, with England and Sweden, in 1668. Faced with the joint naval and commercial power of England and the United Provinces, Louis agreed to make peace. Under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), France retained Flanders, but surrendered the Franche-Comté to Spain. The Triple Alliance did not last very long. In 1670, Charles II secretly signed the Treaty of Dover, entering into a coalition with France; the two nations declared war on the United Provinces in 1672. Louis XIV's aggression forced Johan de Witt to resign, and allowed William III, Prince of Orange to take power. William III entered into an alliance with Spain, causing England to withdraw in 1674. William even married Mary, the niece of the English King Charles II. A peace was therefore hastened, and accomplished in 1678 with the Treaty of Nijmegen. Louis gained more territory in the Low Countries, and regained the Franche-Comté. The Treaty of Nijmegen improved France's influence in Europe, but did not satisfy Louis XIV. Louis dismissed his foreign minister, Simon Arnaud, Marquis de Pomponne, in 1679. He also kept up his army, but accomplished further increases in territory through judicial processes instead of military ones. Louis claimed that the territories ceded to him in previous treaties ought to be ceded along with all their dependencies and all lands which had formerly belonged to them, but had separated over the years. French "courts of reunion" were appointed to ascertain which territories belonged to France; the French troops later occupied them. The annexation of these lesser territories, however, was not Louis's primary aim. Louis actually desired to gain Strasbourg, an important strategic outpost. Strasbourg was a part of Alsace, but had not been ceded with the rest of Alsace in the Peace of Westphalia. It was nonetheless occupied by the French in 1681 under Louis's new legal pretext.

Height of power

During the early 1680s, Louis greatly increased his influence. French colonies abroad were growing in size. Louis was in the process of reinforcing the traditional Gallicanism, a doctrine limiting the authority of the Pope in France. Furthermore, Louis began to diminish the power of the nobility and clergy. He achieved immense control over the second estate (nobility) in France by essentially imprisoning much of the nobility in his palace at Versailles, requiring them to spend a majority of the year under his close watch instead of in their local communities. He entertained his permanent visitors with extravagant parties and other distractions, which were significant factors contributing to Louis's absolutist rule. In pursuance of his absolutist aims, Louis attempted to increase his influence over the Church. He convened an assembly of clergymen in November 1681. Before it was dissolved in June 1682, it had agreed to the Declaration of the Clergy of France. The power of the King of France was increased, and the power of the Pope reduced. The Pope was not allowed to send papal legates to France without the King's consent; those legates, furthermore, required further approval before they could exercise their power. Bishops were not to leave France without the royal approbation; no government officials could be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of their duties. The King was allowed to enact ecclesiastical laws, and all regulations made by the Pope were deemed invalid in France without the assent of the monarch. The Declaration, however, was not accepted by the Pope. Louis attempted to reduce the influence of the nobility, continuing the work of Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin. He believed that his power would prevail only if he filled the high executive offices with commoners, because while he could reduce a commoner to a nonentity by dismissing him, he could not destroy the influence of a great nobleman. Thus Louis forced the nobles to serve him ceremonially as courtiers, whilst he appointed commoners as ministers and regional governors. As courtiers, the nobles grew ever weaker. Louis had converted the Chateau of Versailles outside Paris into a lavish royal palace; he moved there along with the royal court on May 6, 1682. Court life centered on grandeur; courtiers had to display expensive luxuries, to dress with suitable magnificence and to constantly attend balls, dinners, performances, and celebrations. Thus, many noblemen had perforce either to give up all influence, or to depend entirely on the King for grants and subsidies. Instead of exercising power, the nobles vied for the honour of dining at the King's table or the privilege of carrying a candlestick as the King retired to his bedroom. Louis had several reasons for building Versailles. Most painfully obvious: he disliked Paris. During the nobility-led Fronde rebellion, insurgents captured the young Louis and held him hostage. He decided to build himself a residence outside Paris so he could observe the goings-on of all of his country. Versailles also served as a dazzling and awe inspiring setting for state affairs and for receptions of foreign dignitaries. Louis XIV's most important minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, died in 1683. Colbert exercised a tremendous influence on the royal coffers — the royal revenue tripled under his supervision. The people of France, however, generally remained poor, and did not always reap the benefits of Colbert's plans. By 1685, Louis stood at the height of his power. One of France's chief rivals, the Holy Roman Empire, was crippled whilst fighting the Ottoman Empire in the War of the Holy League. The Ottoman Grand Vizier had almost captured Vienna, but at the last moment King Jan III Sobieski led an army of Polish, German and Austrian forces to final victory at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In the meantime, Louis XIV had acquired control of several territories, including Luxembourg. After repelling the Ottoman attack on Vienna, the Holy Roman Empire's army was free, but the Emperor nevertheless did not attempt to regain the territories annexed by Louis XIV.

Decline

Luxembourg Louis's queen, Maria Theresa, also died in 1683. Louis had not remained faithful to her: his mistresses included Louise de la Valliere, Duchesse de Vaujours, Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart, Marquise of Montespan, and Marie-Angelique, Duchesse de Fontanges. He proved, however, more faithful to his last mistress and eventual second wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon. The marriage between Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon, which occurred in late 1685, was kept a secret. Madame de Maintenon, once a Protestant, had converted to Catholicism. It is believed that she vigorously promoted the persecution of the Protestants, and that she urged Louis XIV to revoke the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted a degree of religious freedom to the Huguenots (the members of the Protestant Reformed Church). Louis himself supported such a plan; he believed that, in order to achieve absolute power, he had to first achieve a religiously unified nation — specifically a Catholic one. He had already begun the persecution of the Huguenots by excluding them from public office and by quartering soldiers in their homes. Louis continued his attempt to achieve a religiously united France by issuing an Edict in March 1685. The Edict affected the French colonies, and expelled all Jews from them. The public practice of any religion except Catholicism became prohibited. The Code Noir also granted sanction to slavery, but no person could own a slave in the French colonies unless a member of the Roman Catholic Church, and a Catholic priest had to baptise each slave. In October 1685, Louis increased the persecution of the Huguenots by issuing the Edict of Fontainebleau, revoking the Edict of Nantes. The new edict banished from the realm any Protestant minister who refused to convert to Roman Catholicism. Protestant schools and institutions were banned. Children born into Protestant families were to be forcibly baptised by Roman Catholic priests, and Protestant places of worship were demolished. The Edict precluded individuals from publicly practising or exercising the religion, but not from merely believing in it. The Edict provided "liberty is granted to the said persons of the Pretended Reformed Religion [Protestantism] … on condition of not engaging in the exercise of the said religion, or of meeting under pretext of prayers or religious services." Although the Edict formally denied Huguenots permission to leave France, 200,000 of them left in any event, taking with them all their skills in commerce and trade. The Edict proved economically damaging, and Sébastien Le Prestre, Marquis de Vauban, one of Louis XIV's most influential ministers, publicly condemned the measure. Louis may have acted against the Huguenots to foster a mutual hatred between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, thereby hoping to discourage any alliances between nations of varying faiths. If he indeed had this aim, the plan failed utterly. In 1686, both Catholic and Protestant rulers joined the League of Augsburg, designed to check Louis's ambitions. The coalition included the Holy Roman Emperor and several of the German states that formed part of the Empire — most notably the Palatinate, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. The United Provinces, Spain and Sweden also joined the League. Louis sent his troops into the Palatinate in 1688. Ostensibly, the army had the task of supporting the claims of Louis's sister-in-law, Charlotte Elizabeth, Duchesse d'Orléans, to the Crown of the Palatinate. (The Duchesse d'Orléans' nephew had died in 1685, and the Crown had gone, not to her, but to the junior Neuburg branch of the family.) The invasion had the actual aim, however, of applying diplomatic pressure and forcing the Palatinate to leave the League of Augsburg. Louis's activities united the German princes behind the Holy Roman Emperor. Louis had expected that England, under the Catholic James II, would remain neutral. In 1689, however, the Glorious Revolution resulted in the deposition of James II and his replacement by his daughter, Mary II, who ruled jointly with her husband, William III (William of Orange). As William had developed an enmity with Louis XIV during the Dutch War, England joined the League of Augsburg, which then became known as the Grand Alliance The campaigns of the War of the Grand Alliance (1688 – 1697) at first proceeded generally favorably for France. The forces of the Holy Roman Emperor proved ineffective, as many Imperial troops concentrated on fighting the Ottoman Empire. Louis XIV aided James II in his attempt to retake the English crown, but unsuccessfully; James lost his last stronghold, Ireland, in 1690. England could then devote more of its funds and troops to the war on the continent. An Anglo-Dutch naval fleet decimated Louis XIV's navy at La Hougue in 1692. The war continued for five more years, but ended with the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. Louis XIV surrendered Luxembourg and all other territories he had seized since the end of the Dutch War in 1679, but retained Strasbourg. Louis also undertook to recognise William III and Mary II as Sovereigns of England, and assured them that he would no longer assist James II.

The Spanish Succession

The great matter of succession to the Spanish Throne dominated Europe following the Peace of Ryswick. The Spanish King Charles II, severely invalided, could not father an heir. The Spanish inheritance offered a much-sought prize — Charles II ruled not only Spain, but also Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Spanish Netherlands and a vast colonial empire — in all, twenty-two different realms. Both France and the Holy Roman Empire vied for the Spanish Crown. Both Louis XIV and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I had close family ties the Spanish royal family; Louis as the son of the elder daughter of Philip III of Spain and as the husband of the elder daughter of Philip IV of Spain; Leopold as the son of the younger daughter of Philip III and as the husband of the younger daughter of Philip IV. The French might have had a slight advantage because Anne of Austria and Maria Thérèse had seniority over their respective sisters. Many European powers feared that if either France or the Holy Roman Empire came to control Spain, the balance of power in Europe would be threatened. The English King William III proposed another candidate, the Bavarian Prince Joseph Ferdinand. Under the First Partition Treaty, it was agreed that the Bavarian prince would inherit Spain, with the territories in Italy and the Low Countries being divided between France and the Empire. Spain, however, had not been consulted, and vehemently resisted the dismemberment of its territories. The Spanish royal court insisted on maintaining the glory of the Spanish Empire. When the Treaty became known to Charles II in 1698, he settled on Joseph Ferdinand as his heir, assigning to him the entire Spanish inheritance. The entire issue opened up again when smallpox claimed the Bavarian prince six months later. The Spanish royal court was intent on keeping the great Spanish Empire united, and acknowledged that such a goal could be accomplished only by selecting a member of either the French Bourbon Dynasty or the Imperial Habsburg Dynasty. Charles II chose the Habsburgs, settling on the Emperor Leopold's younger son, the Archduke Charles. Ignoring the decision of the Spanish, Louis XIV and William III signed a second treaty, allowing the Archduke Charles to take Spain, the Low Countries and the Spanish colonies, whilst Louis XIV's son, Louis de France, Dauphin de Viennois would inherit the territories in Italy. In 1700, as he lay dying, Charles II unexpectedly interfered in the affair. He sought to prevent Spain from uniting with either France or the Holy Roman Empire. The whole of the Spanish territory was to go to the Dauphin's younger son, Philip, Duc d'Anjou. If the Duc d'Anjou were to inherit the French Crown, then the Spanish Crown would go to the Dauphin's next son, Charles, Duc de Berry, and thereafter to the Archduke Charles. Louis XIV thus faced a difficult choice: he could have agreed to a partition and to peace in Europe, or he could have accepted the whole Spanish inheritance but alienated the other European nations. Louis assured William III that he would fulfill the terms of their previous treaty and partition the Spanish dominions. Later on, however, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Torcy (nephew of Jean-Baptiste Colbert) advised Louis XIV that even if France accepted a portion of the Spanish inheritance, a war with the Holy Roman Empire would ensue. Louis agreed that if a war occurred in any event, it would be more profitable to accept the whole of the Spanish inheritance. Consequently, when Charles II died on November 1, 1700, Philip, Duc d'Anjou became Philip V, King of Spain. Louis XIV's opponents reluctantly accepted Philip V as King of Spain. Louis, however, acted too aggressively. In 1701, he cut off English imports to France. Moreover, Louis ceased to acknowledge William III as King of England, instead supporting the claim of James II's son and heir, James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"). England consequently entered into an alliance with the United Provinces, the Holy Roman Empire and most German states. Bavaria, Portugal and Savoy aided Louis XIV and Philip V. The subsequent War of Succession continued for most of the remainder of Louis XIV's reign. France had some initial success, but Marlborough's victory at the Battle of Blenheim (13 August 1704) forced her into a defensive posture. Bavaria ceased her involvement in the war, and Portugal and Savoy joined the opposite side. The endeavour proved costly for Louis XIV; by 1709, he had lost almost all of the power France had amassed during his reign. Whilst it became clear that France could not conquer the entire Spanish inheritance, it also seemed clear that its opponents could not overthrow Philip V in Spain. Louis XIV and Philip V made peace with Great Britain and the United Provinces in 1713 with the Treaty of Utrecht. Peace with the Holy Roman Empire came with the Treaty of Baden in 1714. The general settlement recognised Philip V as King of Spain and ruler of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain's territory in the Low Countries and Italy went to the Empire. Louis, furthermore, agreed to end his support for the Old Pretender's claims to the throne of Great Britain.

Death

Louis XIV died on September 1, 1715 of gangrene, a few days before his seventy-seventh birthday. His body lies in the Saint Denis Basilica in St Denis, a city near Paris. Almost all of Louis XIV's legitimate children died during childhood. The only one to survive to adulthood, his eldest son, Louis, Dauphin de Viennois, known as "The Grand Dauphin" died in 1711, leaving three children. The eldest of those, Louis, duc de Bourgogne, died in 1712. Thus Louis XIV's five-year-old great-grandson, the son of the duc de Bourgogne, succeeded to the throne and reigned as Louis XV. Louis XIV sought to restrict the power of his nephew, Philip II, Duc d'Orléans, who by law would become Regent for the prospective Louis XV. He instead preferred to transfer power to his illegitimate son by Madame de Montespan, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, Duc du Maine. Louis XIV's will provided that the Duc du Maine would act as the guardian of Louis XV and Commander of the Royal Guards. The Duc d'Orléans, however, ensured the annulment of Louis XIV's will in court. The Duc du Maine, stripped of the title prince du sang (Prince of the Blood) and of the command of the Royal Guards, went to prison, while the Duc d'Orléans ruled as sole Regent. Louis XIV placed France in a dominant position in Europe. Even with several great alliances opposing him, he could continue to increase French territory. For his vigorous promotion of French national greatness, Louis XIV became known as the "Sun King". Voltaire compared him to Caesar Augustus and called his reign an "eternally memorable age". The Duc de Saint-Simon offered the following assessment: "There was nothing he liked so much as flattery, or, to put it more plainly, adulation; the coarser and clumsier it was, the more he relished it … His vanity, which was perpetually nourished – for even preachers used to praise him to his face from the pulpit – was the cause of the aggrandisement of his Ministers." At the same time, however, Louis's efforts did not bring prosperity to the common people of France. His numerous wars and extravagant palaces effectively bankrupted the nation, forcing him to levy high taxes on the peasants. As the nobility and clergy had exemption from paying these taxes, the peasantry came to resent them. The peasantry also opposed the royal absolutism established by Louis. The French Revolution picked up on such sentiments in 1789. Louis XIV achieved his dream of putting a member of the Bourbon Dynasty on the throne of Spain. The House of Bourbon retained the Crown of Spain for the remainder of the eighteenth century, but experienced overthrow and restoration several times after 1808. The present Spanish monarch, Juan Carlos I, descends from Louis XIV. In 1682, the explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle named the basin of the Mississippi River in North America "Louisiane" in honour of Louis XIV. Both the Louisiana Territory and the State of Louisiana in the United States formed part of Louisiane. Louis XIV features in the d'Artagnan Romances by Alexandre Dumas. The plot of the last of the three Romances, The Vicomte de Bragelonne, involves a fictional twin brother of Louis XIV who tries to displace the King. In The Man in the Iron Mask, a 1929 movie based on The Vicomte de Bragelonne, William Blakewell portrayed Louis and his twin. Louis Hayward played the twins in a 1939 remake, and Leonardo DiCaprio did the same in a 1998 remake.

Style and arms

Louis XIV had the formal style: "Louis XIV, par la grâce de Dieu roi de France et de Navarre," or "Louis XIV, by the Grace of God King of France and Navarre." He bore the arms Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orle Or an emerald Proper (for Navarre).

Legitimate issue

References

- [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0028.php Acton, J. E. E., 1st Baron. (1906). Lectures on Modern History. London: Macmillan and Co.]
- Burke, Peter En kung blir till (Swedish translation of The fabrication of a king, 1992)
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09371a.htm Goyau, G. (1910). "Louis XIV." The Catholic Encyclopedia. (Volume IX). New York: Robert Appleton Company.]
- Holt, Mack P., "Louis XIV." The New Book of Knowledge. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005 (October 24, 2005).
- [http://www.louis-xiv.de/ Steingrad, E. (2004). "Louis XIV."]
- Wolf, J. B. (1968). Louis XIV. New York: Norton. ko:루이 14세 ja:ルイ14世 (フランス王) simple:Louis XIV of France th:พระเจ้าหลุยส์ที่ 14 แห่งฝรั่งเศส Louis 14 Louis 14 Category:Natives of Ile-de-France Louis 14 Category:House of Bourbon

Louis XIV (band)

This is the page for the band named Louis XIV, if you are looking for the French monarch of the same name please go here. go here Louis XIV is a quartet alternative rock group from San Diego, California, formed in April 2003. They were formed from the band Convoy. Their first album, The Best Little Secrets Are Kept, was released in March 2005, following the release of their EP Illegal Tender in January of that year. Their first single was titled "Finding Out True Love Is Blind," and was featured on both the EP and album. Their music features rough, primal rock and evocative lyrics replete with double entendres. The band released their second single off their debut album entitled "God Killed the Queen" in September of 2005.

Members

- Jason Hill - Vocals, Bass, Guitars
- Brian Karscig - Vocals, Guitars, Bass, Keyboard
- Mark Maigaard - Drums
- James Armbrust - Bass

Discography

- Illegal Tender (EP) (January 25, 2005)
- The Best Little Secrets Are Kept (March 22, 2005)

Singles

- Finding Out True Love is Blind
- 2005 "God Killed the Queen" #68 UK
External links

- [http://www.louisxiv.net/ Louis XIV official website]
- [http://www.staticmultimedia.com/content/music/features/feature_1112724866 Static Multimedia Interview with Louis XIV: Kings of Rock 'N Roll]
- [http://www.sdcitybeat.com/article.php?id=2390 Louis XIV are stalking me article]
- [http://www.thedeplorableword.net/archive/2005/09/19/louis-xiv-the-best-little-secrets-are-kept/ Review: The Best Little Secrets Are Kept] Category:American musical groups Category:2000s music groups

1638

Events

- March 29 - Swedish arrive on the ships Kalmare Nyckel and Fågel Grip to America to establish first settlement in Delaware, called New Sweden.
- April 15 - Shogunate forces defeat the last rebels of Shimabara Rebellion in the fortress of Hara.
- May 11 - French admiral d'Estrees runs his whole fleet aground in Curaçao.
- Dutch settle in Ceylon.
- October 21 - Great thunderstorm in Widecombe-in-the-Moor, England
- Pedro Teixeira makes the first ascent of the Amazon River, from its mouth to Quito, Ecuador. The same trip had been made in the opposite direction in 1541.
- Willem Kieft, Dutch merchant, appointed Director of New Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company.
- The Netherlands colonizes Mauritius.
- Shipwrecked sailors from England found the first known European settlement in Belize.
- The Finnish postal service, Suomen Posti, is founded.

Births

- January 1 - Emperor Go-Sai of Japan (d. 1685)
- January 24 - Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset, English poet and courtier (d. 1706)
- March 14 - Johann Georg Gichtel, German mystic (d. 1710)
- March 15 - Shunzhi Emperor of China
- March 23 - Frederik Ruysch, Dutch physician and anatomist (d. 1731)
- May 6 - Henry Capell, 1st Baron Capell, First Lord of the British Admiralty (d. 1696)
- May 13 - Richard Simon, French Biblical critic (d. 1712)
- July 10 - David Teniers III, Flemish painter (d. 1685)
- August 6 - Nicolas Malebranche, French philosopher (d. 1715)
- September 5 - King Louis XIV of France (d. 1715)
- September 10 - Maria Theresa of Spain, queen of Louis XIV of France (d. 1683)
- November 25 - Catherine of Braganza, queen of Charles II of England (d. 1705) See also :Category:1638 births.

Deaths

- January 21 - Ignazio Donati, Italian composer
- January 27 - Gonzalo de Céspedes y Meneses, Spanish novelist
- February 26 - Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac, French mathematician (b. 1581)
- April 7 - Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese ruler of Satsuma (b. 1576)
- April 13 - Henri, duc de Rohan, French Huguenot leader (b. 1579)
- May 6 - Cornelius Jansen, French bishop and religious reformer (b. 1585)
- June 25 - Juan Pérez de Montalbán, Spanish writer (b. 1602)
- September 14 - John Harvard, American clergyman (b. 1607)
- December 8 - Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet (b. 1589)
- Johann Heinrich Alsted, German theologian (b. 1588)
- Pieter Brueghel the Younger, Flemish painter (b. 1564) See also :Category:1638 deaths. Category:1638 ko:1638년

1715

Events

- July 24 - Spanish treasure fleet of ten ships under admiral Ubilla leave Havana, Cuba for Spain. Three days later nine of them sink in a storm off the coast of Florida
- September 1 - King Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years, leaving the throne of his exhausted and indebted country to his great-grandson Louis XV. Regent for the new, five years old monarch is Philippe d'Orléans, nephew of Louis XIV.
- September - First of the major Jacobite Rebellions in Scotland against the rule of King George I. John Erskine, 22nd Earl of Mar raised the standard of James Francis Edward Stuart and marched on Edinburgh. James, the son of the deposed King James VII, briefly arrived from France, but left as it became clear that there was no support for him in England; he took Mar with him, but left most of his supporters behind. (December).
- Colony of Carolina goes to war with the Amerindian tribe of Yamasee
- December 24 - Swedish troops occupy Norway.

Ongoing events

- Great Northern War (1700-1721)

Births

- January 10 - Christian August Crusius, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1775)
- January 12 - Jacques Duphly, French composer (d. 1789)
- January 29 - Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Austrian composer (d. 1777)
- February 26 - Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosopher (b. 1771)
- March 7 - Ewald Christian von Kleist, German poet (d. 1759)
- March 7 - Ephraim Williams, American philanthropist (d. 1755)
- April 3 - John Hanson, American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. 1783)
- April 3 - William Watson, English physician and scientist (d. 1787)
- April 28 - Franz Sparry, composer (d. 1767)
- May 4 - Richard Graves, English writer (d. 1804)
- May 22 - François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, French cardinal and statesman (d. 1794)
- June 25 - Joseph-François Foulon, French politician (d. 1789)
- July 4 - Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, German poet (d. 1769)
- August 6 - Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French writer (d. 1747)
- September 15 - Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, French artillery specialist (d. 1789)
- September 22 - Jean-Étienne Guettard, French physician and scientist (d. 1786)
- September 30 - Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French philosopher (d. 1780)
- October 4 - Victor Riqueti, Marquis de Mirabeau, French economist (d. 1789)
- October 8 - Michel Benoist, French Jesuit missionary and scientist (d. 1774)
- October 23 - Emperor Peter II of Russia (d. 1730)
- November 5 - John Brown, English writer (d. 1766)
- November 8 - Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern, queen of Frederick II of Prussia (d. 1797)
- November 23 - Pierre Charles Le Monnier, French astronomer (d. 1799)
- December 27 - Philippe de Noailles, duc de Mouchy, French soldier (d. 1794)
- Robert-François Damiens, attempted assassin of Louis XV of France

Deaths

- February 17 - Antoine Galland, French archaeologist (b. 1646)
- February 21 - Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, Governor of the Province of Maryland (b. 1637)
- March 17 - Gilbert Burnet, Scottish Bishop of Salisbury (b. 1643)
- May 19 - Charles Montagu, English Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1661)
- July 5 - Charles Ancillon, French Huguenot pastor (b. 1659)
- July 30 - Nahum Tate, Irish poet (b. 1652)
- September 1 - François Girardon, French sculptor (b. 1628)
- September 1 - King Louis XIV of France (b. 1638)
- October 13 - Nicolas Malebranche, French philosopher (b. 1638)
- October 14 - Thomas Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1636)
- October 15 - Humphry Ditton, English mathematician (b. 1675)
- December 15 - George Hickes, English minister and scholar (b. 1642)
- December 28 - William Carstares, Scottish clergyman (b. 1649) Category:1715 ko:1715년 simple:1715

Kingdom of Navarre

The Kingdom of Navarre traditionally evolved from the county of Pamplona, its traditional capital, when the Basque leader Eneko Aritza (Iñigo Arista in Spanish) was chosen King in Pamplona (traditionally in 824) and led a local revolt against the Franks. The name "Navarre" derives from nava a common name for a flat valley surrounded by hills (compare Las Navas de Tolosa) and Basque herri, a region or country. The name "Navarra" began to appear towards the end of the Visigoth epoch in Spain in the 7th century.

Early history

The kingdom of Pamplona and then Navarre formed part of the traditional territory of the Vascones— the Basques and Gascons— who occupied the southern slope of the western Pyrenees and part of the shore of the Bay of Biscay. Little is known of the earliest history of the country, but it is certain that neither the Romans nor the Visigoths nor the Arabs ever succeeded in permanently subjugating the inhabitants of the Western Pyrenees, who had always retained their own language. In the course of the 6th century there was a considerable emigration of Basques to the north of the Pyrenees, resulting from the pressure of attacks from the Visigoth kings to the west and south and responding to a power vacuum at the limits of Frankish control in Aquitaine. Thus the Basques maintained their independence. The population of northern and western province of Spanish Navarre is today largely of Basque stock, and the early history of the region is that of the Basques. The pass of Roncevalles in Navarrese territory was the scene of a minor defeat of Charlemagne's baggage train in 778, which features as an epic event in the Chanson de Roland. The pass of Roncesvalles, which leads from France to Navarre, made the region strategically important early in its history. The Basques defended themselves successfully against the Moorish invaders as well as against the Franks; the domination of Charlemagne, who conquered Navarre in 778, was short-lived. In 824 the Basque chieftain Iñigo Arista was chosen king of Pamplona, which was expanded under his successors and became known as the kingdom of Navarre. The capture of Pamplona by Charlemagne in 778 was not a lasting victory: in the same year the Basques and Navarrese defeated him at the Pass of Roncesvalles. In 806 and 812, Pamplona seems to have been again taken by the Franks. When, however, the Frankish emperors, on account of difficulties at home, were no longer able to give their attention to the outlying borderlands of their empire, the country, little by little, entirely withdrew from their allegiance, and about this time began the formation of a Basque dynasty which soon became very powerful. The first King of Pamplona of this dynasty was Inigo Arista, his elder brother or kinsman, Garcia Jimenez, having received the Duchy of Vasconia, the original Navarre. After the death of Inigo Arista (852), the two territories were united and Jimeno Garcez, the son of the Count of Alava, was chosen king. In 860, the united Pamplonese and Navarrese gave the Crown to the son of Arista, Garcia II Iniguez, who zealously defended his country against the encroachments of Islam, but was killed at Ayhar (882) in a battle against the Emir of Cordova. He was succeeded by his eldest son Fortun Garcez, who was held a prisoner for fifteen years by the Muslims, and who, after a reign of twenty-two years, became a monk at Leyra, the oldest convent in Navarre, to which no less than seventy-two other convents were subject. The choice of the Navarrese now fell upon his kinsman Sancho I Garcez (905-925), who fought against the Moors with repeated success and joined Ultra-Puertos, or Basse-Navarre, to his own dominions, also extending its territory as far as Najera. As a thank-offering for his victories, he founded, in 924, the convent of Albelda. Before his death, all Moors had been driven from the country. His successor, Garcia Sanchez (925-70), who had the support, of his energetic and diplomatic mother (Teuda) Toda Aznarez of the royal branch of Larraun, likewise engaged in a number of conflicts with the Moors.

Kingdom

The first historic king of Navarre was his son Sancho II Garces, nicknamed Abarca, who ruled from Pamplona as king of Navarre and count of Aragon from 970 to 994. The valley of Aragon he had inherited from his mother. The Historia General de Navarra by Jaime del Burgo says that on the occasion of the donation of the villa of Alastue by the king of Pamplona to the monastery of San Juan de la Peña in 987, he titled himself "King of Navarre," the first time that title had been used. In many places he appears as the first King of Navarre and in others the third. However, he was at least the 6th king of Pamplona, and apparently the 9th. Under Sancho and his immediate successors, Navarre reached the height of its power and its extension. Sancho III the Great (reigned 1000-1035) married the heiress of the county of Castile. The realm reached its zenith under Sancho III, who ruled over nearly all of Christian Spain. Under the sway of Sancho el Mayor, the country attained the greatest prosperity in its history. He seized the country of the Pisuerga and the Cea, which belonged to the Kingdom of Leon, conquered Castile, and ruled from the boundaries of Galicia to those of Barcelona. On his death he divided his possessions among his four sons, so that one of them, Garcia of Najera, received Navarre, Guipuzcoa, Vizcaya, and small portions of Bearn and Bigorre; Castile and the lands between the Pisuerga and the Cea went to the eldest Fernando; to Gonzalo were given Sobrarbe and Ribagorza; the County of Aragon was allotted to the bastard son Ramiro. The realm was divided thus once more, into Navarre, Aragón, and Castile. The eldest legitimate son, Ferdinand I ruled as high king having Castile as his seat, and he enlarged his realm by various means. His Navarrese line ruled as kings of Castile and Leon. The bastard son of Sancho III, Ramiro de Aragon founded the Navarrese line of Aragon. An younger legitimate son of Sancho III, Garcia de Najera founded a new line of rulers of Navarre. The kingdom of Navarre then comprised the present province of Navarre, the Basque Provinces (which were later lost to Castile), and, north of the Pyrenees, the district called Lower Navarre, now a part of France. At its greatest extent the Kingdom of Navarre included all the modern Spanish province; the northern slope of the western Pyrenees called by the Spaniards the ultra puertos ("country beyond the mountain passes") or French Navarre; the Basque provinces of Spain and France; the Bureba, the valley between the Basque mountains and the Montes de Oca to the north of Burgos; the Rioja and Tarazona in the upper valley of the Ebro. In this period of independence the ecclesiastical affairs of the country reached a high state of development. Sancho the Great was brought up at Leyra, which was also for a short time the capital of the Diocese of Pamplona. Beside this see, there existed the Bishopric of Oca, which was united in 1079 to that of Burgos. In 1035 Sancho the Great re-established the See of Palencia, which had been laid waste at the time of the Moorish invasion. When, in 1045, the city of Calahorra was wrested from the Moors, under whose dominion it had been for more than three hundred years, a see was also founded here, which in the same year absorbed that of Najera and, in 1088, that of Alava, the jurisdiction of which covered about the same ground as that of the present diocese of Vitoria. To Sancho the Great, also, the See of Pamplona owed its re-establishment, the king having, for this purpose, convoked a synod at Leyra in 1022 and one at Pamplona in 1023. These synods likewise instituted a reform of ecclesiastical life with the above-named convent, as a centre. Sancho the Great's realm was never again united (until Ferdinand the Catholic): Castile was permanently joined to Leon, whereas Aragon enlarged its territory, joining Catalonia through a marriage. The small Navarre could no longer extend its dominions, and became in a measure dependent upon its powerful neighbours. Garcia V (1035-54) was succeeded by Sancho IV (1054-76), who was murdered by his brothers. The then king of Aragon, successor of the bastard Ramiro, took much of the Navarrese lands and its royal title. King of Castile took some of the western lands. In the 12th century the kings of Castile gradually annexed the Rioja and Alava. As long as Navarre was united to Aragon (I076 – 1234) it was free from aggression on the east, but never recovered the western territory taken by Castile. About the year 1200 Alfonso VIII of Castile annexed the other two Basque provinces, Biscay (Vizcaya) and Guipúzcoa. Tarazona remained in possession of Aragon even after Navarre had regained its independence in around 1134. The Basque lordship of soberano of Vizcaya retained its near-independence even under Castilian overlordship, thus its Princes were called as Lords Sovereigns of Biscaye. After the murder of Sancho IV (1076), king Alfonso VI of Castile, and Sancho Ramirez of Aragon, ruled jointly in Navarre; the towns south of the Ebro together with the Basque Provinces fell to Castile, the remainder to Aragon, which retained them until 1134. The three Aragonese rulers, Sancho Ramirez (1076-94) and his son Pedro Sanchez (1094-1104) conquered Huesca; Alfonso el Batallador (the Fighter, 1104-1134), brother of Pedro Sanchez, secured for the country its greatest territorial expansion. He wrested Tudela from the Moors (1114), re-conquered the entire country of Bureba, which Navarre had lost in 1042, and advanced into the Province of Burgos; in addition, Roja, Najera, Logrono, Calahorra, and Alfaro were subject to him, and, for a short time, Bayonne, while his ships-of-war lay in the harbour of Guipuzeoa. As he died without issue (1134), Navarre and Aragon separated. In Aragon, Alfonso's ecclesiastic brother Ramiro became king. In Navarre, Garcia Ramirez, lord of Monzon, a grandson of Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, El Cid, and a descendant in bastard line of Garcia V of Navarre, a son of Sancho the Great, wrested the kingship from his bastard-line Aragonese cousins in 1134. He was obliged to surrender Rioja to Castile in 1136, and Taragona to Aragon in 1157, and to declare himself a vassal of King Alfonso VII of Castile. He was utterly incompetent, and at various times was dependent upon the revenues of churches and convents. His son, Sancho Garcia el Sabio (the Wise -- 1150-94), a patron of learning, as well as an accomplished statesman, fortified Navarre within and without, gave charters (fueros) to a number of towns, and was never defeated in battle. The rich dowry of Berengaria, the daughter of Sancho VI the Wise, and Blanche of Castile, made her a desirable catch for Richard I of England. His aged mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, crossed the passes to escort Berengaria to Sicily, eventually to wed Richard in Cyprus, May 12, 1191. She is the only Queen of England who never set foot in England. The reign of Sancho the Wise's successor, the last king of the male line of Sancho the Great and of kings of Pamplona, king Sancho VII the Strong (el Fuerte) (1194-1234), was more troubled. He appropriated the revenues of churches and convents, granting them instead important privileges; in 1198 he presented to the See of Pamplona his palaces and possessions in that city, this gift being confirmed by Pope Innocent III on 29 January, 1199. While he was absent in Africa, whither he had been induced to go on an adventurous expedition, the Kings of Castile and Aragon invaded Navarre, and as a consequence, the Provinces of Alava and Guipuzcoa were lost. The greatest glory of Sancho el Fuerte was the part he took in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), where, through his valour, the victory of the Christians over the Calif En-Nasir was made decisive. He retired and in 1234 he died in el Encerrado. His elder sister Berengaria, Queen of England, had died some years earlier childless. His deceased younger sister Blanca, Countess of Champagne, had left a son. After 1234 the Kingdom of Navarre, though the crown yet was claimed by the kings of Aragon, passed by marriage to a succession of French lords, firstly those who simultaneously were counts of Champagne and Brie. When in 1234 Sancho VII died in retirement (el Encerrado), the Navarrese chose to allow his closest relative in female line, Thibault de Champagne, son of Sancho's sister Blanca, to succeed as king of Navarre. Teobaldo I, from 1234 to 1253, made of his Court a centre where the poetry of the Troubadours was welcomed and fostered, and whose reign was peaceful. His son, Theobald II of Navarre (1253-70), married Isabel, the second daughter of St. Louis of France, and accompanied the saintly father-in-law upon his crusade to Tunis. On the homeward journey, he died at Trapani in Sicily, and was succeeded by his brother, Henry I of Navarre, who had already assumed the reins of government during his absence, but reigned only three years (1271-74). His daughter Joanna I of Navarre not yet being of age, the country was once more invaded from all sides, and the queen mother, Blanca, sought refuge with her daughter at the court of Philip the Bold of France, whose son, Philip the Fair, had already been engaged to the daughter and married Joanna in 1284. In 1276, at the time of the negotiations for this marriage, Navarre passed under practical French dominion. In 1305, Navarre passed to guardianship of King Philip IV of France. Navarre stayed with the French crown until the death (1328) of Charles IV of France. Navarre was until 1328, subject to Kings Philip the Fair (d. 1314), Louis X Hutin (1314-16), his brother, Philip the Tall (1316-22), and Charles the Fair (1322-28). As Charles died without male issue, and Philip of Valois became King of France, the Navarrese declared themselves independent and called to the throne Joanna II, daughter of Louis Hutin and senior niece of Charles, and her husband Philip of Evreux (1328-1343), surnamed the Wise. Joanna waived all claim to the throne of France and accepted as compensation for the counties of Champagne and Brie those of Angouleme, Longueville, and Mortain. King-consort Philip III devoted himself to the improvement of the laws of the country, and joined King Alfonso XI of Castile in battle against the Moors (1343). After the death of his mother (1349), Charles II of Navarre assumed the reins of government (1349-87), and, on account of his deceit and cruelty received the surname of the Wicked. Charles II (Charles the Bad), played an important part in the Hundred Years War and in the French civil unrest of the time. His eldest son, on the other hand, Charles III of Navarre, surnamed the Noble, gave the land once more a peaceful and happy government (1387-1425), exerted his strength to the utmost to lift the country from its degenerate condition, reformed the government, built canals, and made navigable the tributaries of the Ebro flowing through Navarre. As he outlived his legitimate sons, he was succeeded by his daughter Blanca (1425-42) and her husband John of Penafiel (1397-1479), son of king Ferdinand I of Aragon. As king-consort John II ruled Aragon in the name of his brother, king Alfonso V of Aragon, he left his son, Don Carlos (Charles) of Viana, in Navarre, only with the rank of governor, whereas Blanca had designed that Charles of Viana should be king. In 1450, John II himself regained to Navarre, and, urged on by his ambitious second wife, Juana Enriquez of bastard Castile, endeavoured to obtain the succession for their son Fernando (the future Ferdinand the Catholic). As a result a violent civil war broke out, in which the powerful party of the Agramontes supported the king and queen, and that of the Beaumonts, called after their leader, the chancellor, John of Beaumont, espoused the cause of Charles; the highlands were on the side of the prince, the plains on that of the king. The unhappy prince was defeated by his father at Aybar, in 1451, and held a prisoner for two years, during which he wrote his famous Chronicle of Navarre, the source of our present knowledge of this subject. After his release, he sought in vain the assistance of King Charles VII of France and of his uncle Alfonso V (who resided in Naples). In 1460 he was again imprisoned at the instigation of his step-mother, but the Catalonians rose in revolt at this injustice, and he was again liberated and named governor of Catalonia. He died in 1461, without having been able to reconquer his kingdom of Navarre; he named as his heir his next sister Blanca, who was, however, immediately imprisoned by John II, and died in 1464. Her claim descended to her sister Eleanor I of Navarre (Leonor), Countess of Foix and Bearn, who had been ally of her father. After her death (which occurred very soon after that of John II, she barely having time to ascend the Navarrese throne), to her grandson, Francis Phoebus of Foix (who reigned Navarre 1479-83). His sister Catherine I of Navarre, who, as a minor, remained under the guardianship of her mother, Madeleine of France, was sought by Ferdinand the Catholic as a bride for his eldest son; but she gave her hand (1494) to the French Count of Perigord, Jean d'Albret, a man of vast south-French possessions. Nevertheless, Ferdinand the Catholic did not relinquish his long-cherished designs on Navarre, and married secondly Germana, the daughter of Catherine's uncle who had attempted to claim Navarre over his deceased elder brother's underage children. As Navarre refused to join the Holy League against France, declared itself neutral, and would have prevented the passage through the country of Ferdinand's troops, the latter sent his general Don Fabrique de Toledo to invade Navarre in 1512. Jean d'Albret fled, and Pamplona, Estella, Olita, Sanguessa, and Tudela were taken. As the royal House of Navarre and all opponents of the Holy League were under the ban of the Church, the Navarrese declared for Ferdinand, who took possession of the kingdom on 15 June, 1515. Lower Navarre -- the part of the country lying north of the Pyrenees -- he generously left to his enemies. Thus in 1479, Navarre passed to Eleanor who was married with the count of Foix. Soon, in 1483, Navarre was inherited by Catherine who was married with Jean d'Albret. in the 15th century to the counts of Foix and then to the house of Albret. King Ferdinand the Catholic, after defeating Jean d'Albret, annexed most of Navarre in 1515. In 1511 or 1516 Spanish Navarra, the part of Navarre south of the Pyrenees (the majority of the Kingdom), was finally annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic. He later ceded it to his daughter Queen Joanna I of Castile whereby Spanish Navarre was regarded as dominion of Castile, not of Aragon. Spanish Navarre was governed as a viceroyalty and not formally annexed to the kingdom of Spain until 1833. The history of the two divisions of the country is identical until the year 1512, when Spanish Navarre was conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, the northern part remaining French. The tiny portion of Navarre north of the Pyrenees known as Basse-Navarre, along with the neighboring Principality of Béarn survived as an independent little kingdom which passed by inheritance. Lower, or French, Navarre, received from Henry II of Navarre, the son of Jean d'Albret, a representative assembly, the clergy being represented by the bishops of Bayonne and Dax, their vicars-general, the parish priest of St-Jean-Pied-de-Port, and the priors of Saint-Palais, d'Utziat and Haramples. The area north of the Pyrenees (Lower Navarre) remained an independent kingdom with large additional French estates until it was joined (1589) with the French crown when Henry III of Navarre became King Henry IV of France. It was united with Béarn into a French province. When, in 1589, its administration was united with that of France, it was still called a kingdom. After Henry IV, the kings of France bore also the title King of Navarre.

Later history

The last independent king of Navarre, Henry III (reigned 1572–1610), succeeded to the throne of France as Henry IV in 1589, founding the Bourbon dynasty. In 1620, French Navarre and Béarn were incorporated into France proper by Henry's son, Louis XIII of France. The title of King of Navarre continued to be used by the Kings of France until 1791, and was revived again during the Restoration, 1814 – 1830. As the Kingdom of Navarre was originally organized, it was divided into merindades, districts governed by a merino ("mayorino"), the representative of the king. They were the Ultrapuertos (French Navarre), Pamplona, Estella, Tudela and Sangüesa. In 1407 the merindad of Olite was added. The Cortes of Navarre began as the king's council of churchmen and nobles, but in the course of the 14th century the burgesses were added. Their presence was due to the fact that the king had need of their co-operation to raise money by grants and aids, a development that was being paralleled in England. The Cortes henceforth consisted of the churchmen, the nobles and the representatives of twenty-seven (later thirty-eight) "good towns"— towns which were free of a feudal lord, and, therefore, held directly of the king. The independence of the burgesses was better secured in Navarre than in other parliaments of Spain by the constitutional rule which required the consent of a majority of each order to every act of the Cortes. Thus the burgesses could not be outvoted by the nobles and the Church, as they could be elsewhere. Even in the 18th century the Navarrese successfully resisted Bourbon attempts to establish custom houses on the French frontier, dividing French from Spanish Navarre. Yet the Navarrese were loyal to their Spanish sovereigns, and no part of the country offered a more determined or more skilful resistance to Napoleon. Navarre was staunchly Catholic and much under clerical influence. This, and the resentment felt at the loss of their autonomy when they were incorporated into Spain in 1833, account for the strong support given by many Navarrese to the absolutist Carlist cause. Until the French Revolution the kings of France carried the additional title king of Navarre. Since the rest of Navarre was in Spanish hands, the kings of Spain also carried (until 1833) the title king of Navarre. During that period Navarre enjoyed a special status within the Spanish monarchy; it had its own cortes, taxation system, and separate customs laws. In 1833, Navarre became the chief stronghold of the Carlists but recognized Isabella II as queen in 1839. As a reward for their loyalty in the Spanish Civil War, Franco allowed the Navarrese to maintain their ancient fueros, which were charters handed down by the crown outlining a system of self-government.

Territory today

The territory formerly known as Navarre now belongs to two nations, Spain and France, according as it lies south or north of the Western Pyrenees. The Basque language is still spoken in most of the provinces. Today, Navarre is an autonomous community of Spain and Basse-Navarre is part of France's Pyrénées Atlantiques département.

References

- Ariqita y Lasa, Colección de documentos para la historia de Navarra (Pamplona, 1900)
- Bascle de Lagreze, La Navarre française (Paris, 1881)
- Blade, Les Vascons espagnols (Agen, 1891)
- Boissonade, Histoire de la reunion de la Navarre à la Castille (Paris, 1893)
- Chappuys, Histoire du royaume de Navarre (Paris, 1590; 1616)
- Favyn, Histoire de Navarre (Paris, 1612)
- Ferrreras, La Historia de Espana (Madrid, 1700-27)
- Galland, Memoires sur la Navarre (Paris, 1648)
- Idem, Annales del reino de Navarra (5 vols., Pamp]ona, 1684-95; 12 vols., Tolosa, 1890-92)
- Idem, Diccionario de las antiguedades de Nayanna (Pamplona, 1840-43)
- Idem, Historia compendiada del reino de Navarra (S. Sebastian, 1832)
- Jaurgain, La Vasconie (Pau, 1898)
- de Marca, Histoire de Bearn (Paris, 1640)
- Moret, Investigationes historicas del reino de Navarra (Pamplona, 1655)
- Oihenart, Notitia utriusque Vasconiae (Paris, 1656)
- Risco, La Vasconia in Espana Sagrada, XXXII (Madrid, 1779)
- Ruano Prieto, Anexión del Reino de Navarra en tiempo del Rey Catolico (Madrid, 1899)
- Yanguas y Miranda, Cronica de los reyes de Navarra (Pamplona, 1843)

External link

- [http://69.1911encyclopedia.org/N/NA/NAVARRE.htm Encyclopaedioa Britannica, 1911:] Navarre Navarre, Kingdom of Category:Navarre

May 14

May 14 is the 134th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (135th in leap years). There are 231 days remaining.

Events

- 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the de facto ruler of England.
- 1483 - Coronation of Charles VIII of France ("Charles l'Affable").
- 1509 - Battle of Agnadello: In northern Italy, French forces defeat the Venetians.
- 1607 - Jamestown, Virginia, is settled as an English colony.
- 1608 - Protestant Union founded in Auhausen.
- 1643 - Four year-old Louix XIV becomes King of France upon the death of his father, Louis XIII.
- 1747 - A British fleet under Admiral George Anson defeats the French at first battle of Cape Finisterre.
- 1787 - In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, delegates begin to meet to write a new Constitution for the United States.
- 1796 - Edward Jenner administers the first smallpox vaccination.
- 1804 - The Lewis and Clark Expedition departs from Camp Dubois and begin their historic journey by traveling up the Missouri River.
- 1811 - Paraguay gains independence from Spain.
- 1861 - The Canellas meteorite, an 859-gram chondrite-type meteorite strikes the earth near Barcelona, Spain.
- 1863 - American Civil War: Battle of Jackson (MS).
- 1870 - The first game of rugby in New Zealand is played in Nelson between Nelson College and the Nelson Rugby Football Club.
- 1889 - The children's charity the NSPCC is launched in London.
- 1900 - The 1900 Summer Olympics open in Paris.
- 1913 - New York Governor William Sulzer approves the charter for the Rockefeller Foundation, which begins operations with a $100 million donation from John D. Rockefeller.
- 1927 - Cap Arcona is launched at the Blohm + Voss shipyard in Hamburg.
- 1929 - Wilfred Rhodes takes his 4000th first-class wicket during a performance of 9 for 39 at Leyton.
- 1931 - Ådalen shootings, five people are killed in Ådalen, Sweden, as soldiers open fire on an unarmed trade union manifestation.
- 1935 - The Filipinos ratify an independence agreement.
- 1939 - Lina Medina, becomes the world's youngest confirmed mother in medical history at the age of five.
- 1940 - World War II: Rotterdam is bombed by the German Luftwaffe.
- 1940 - World War II: The Netherlands surrender to Germany.
- 1948 - Israel declared to be an independent state and a provisional government is established.
- 1948 - The murder of a three-year-old girl in Blackburn, northern England, leads to the fingerprinting of more than 40,000 men in the city in an attempt to find the murderer.
- 1955 - Cold War: Eight communist bloc countries, including the Soviet Union, sign a mutual defence treaty called the Warsaw Pact.
- 1961 - American civil rights movement: Freedom Riders bus is fire-bombed near Anniston, Alabama, and the civil rights protestors are beaten by an angry mob.
- 1967 - Mickey Mantle becomes the sixth member of the 500 home run club with a home run at Yankee Stadium in Bronx, New York.
- 1970 - The Red Army Faction is established in Germany.
- 1973 - Skylab, the United States' first space station, is launched. It is the last launch of the Saturn V rocket.
- 1978 - First round of the presidential elections in Upper Volta.
- 1981 - Concert in Caracas of El Trabuco Venezolano and Irakere (First day).
- 1985 - Popular Hong Kong actress Barbara Yung Mei-ling was found unconscious from gas inhalation in her apartment at Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong. She was declared dead on arrival at a nearby hospital.
- 1995 - Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama proclaims six-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the eleventh reincarnation of the Panchen Lama.
- 1998 - After nine years on the air, the series finale of the television sitcom Seinfeld airs on NBC.
- 2002 - Ten members of the Darwin-based Network Against Prohibition invade the Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory of Australia.
- 2004 - The marriage of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark and Mary Donaldson takes place in Copenhagen.
- 2004 - Piers Morgan is fired as editor of the Daily Mirror, when photographs that had been published in the newspaper of alleged abuse of Iraqi prisoners by British soldiers were proved to be fake.
- 2004 - Insurgents or terrorists in Iraq detonate a 155 mm shell containing several liters of binary precursors for sarin. The shell was designed to mix the chemicals as it spun during flight and the explosion failed to mix them properly. Although it only resulted in a small release of sarin, two U.S. soldiers are treated for exposure after displaying the early symptoms.
- 2005 - Pope Benedict XVI observes his first beatification, elevating Blessed Marianne of Molokai on the road to canonization into sainthood
- 2005 - Nintendo opens up its first retail store, Nintendo World, in Rockefeller Center in New York City. They celebrate the grand opening with a block party in Rockefeller Plaza.

Births

- 1265 - Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (d. 1321)
- 1316 - Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1378)
- 1553 - Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV of France (d. 1615)
- 1666 - Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia (d. 1732)
- 1686 - Gabriel Fahrenheit, Dutch scientist (d. 1736)
- 1699 - Hans Joachim von Zieten, Prussian field marshal (d. 1786)
- 1701 - William Emerson, English mathematician (d. 1782)
- 1703 - David Brearly, delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (d. 1785)
- 1710 - King Adolf Frederick of Sweden (d. 1771)
- 1727 - Thomas Gainsborough, English artist (d. 1788)
- 1771 - Robert Owen, Welsh social reformer (d. 1858)
- 1832 - Rudolf Lipschitz, German mathematician (d. 1903)
- 1867 - Kurt Eisner, German politician and publicist (d. 1919)
- 1885 - Otto Klemperer, German-born conductor (d. 1973)
- 1897 - Sidney Bechet, American musician (d. 1959)
- 1904 - Hans Albert Einstein, American professor (d. 1973)
- 1907 - Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan (d. 1974)
- 1917 - Lou Harrison, American composer (d. 2003)
- 1921 - Richard Deacon, actor (d. 1984)
- 1922 - Franjo Tuđman, President of Croatia (d. 1999)
- 1929 - Gump Worsley, Canadian hockey player
- 1931 - Alvin Lucier, American composer
- 1934 - Siân Phillips, Welsh actress
- 1936 - Bobby Darin, American singer (d. 1973)
- 1942 - Byron Dorgan, U.S. Senator
- 1942 - Tony Perez, baseball player
- 1943 - Jack Bruce, singer, songwriter and bassist (Cream, Manfred Mann)
- 1943 - Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, President of Iceland
- 1944 - George Lucas, American film director and producer
- 1946 - Eric Peterson, Canadian actor
- 1948 - Bob Woolmer, Indian-born cricket coach
- 1952 - David Byrne, American singer, songwriter, and guitarist (Talking Heads)
- 1952 - Robert Zemeckis, American film director
- 1953 - Norodom Sihamoni, King of Cambodia
- 1953 - Tom Cochrane, Canadian singer, songwriter, and guitarist (Red Rider)
- 1959 - Patrick Bruel, French singer
- 1960 - Steve Williams, American professional wrestler
- 1961 - Tim Roth, English actor
- 1962 - Ian Astbury, English singer (The Cult)
- 1965 - Eoin Colfer, Irish writer
- 1966 - Raphael Saadiq, American music artist
- 1967 - Tony Siragusa, American football player
- 1969 - Cate Blanchett, Australian actress
- 1971 - Sofia Coppola, American film writer and director
- 1977 - Roy Halladay, baseball player
- 1977 - Ada Nicodemou, Australian actress
- 1981 - Sarbel, Greek-born singer
- 1983 - Amber Tamblyn, American actress

Deaths

- 964 - Pope John XII
- 1470 - King Charles VIII of Sweden (b. 1409
- 1608 - Charles II, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1543)
- 1610 - King Henry IV of France (assassinated) (b. 1553)
- 1643 - King Louis XIII of France (b. 1601)
- 1649 - Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian (b. 1600)
- 1669 - Georges de Scudéry, French writer (b. 1601)
- 1688 - Antoine Furetière, French writer (b. 1619)
- 1754 - Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, French writer (b. 1692)
- 1761 - Thomas Simpson, British mathematician (b. 1710)
- 1818 - Matthew Lewis, English novelist (b. 1775)
- 1847 - Fanny Mendelssohn, German composer and pianist (b. 1805)
- 1860 - Ludwig Bechstein, German writer (b. 1801)
- 1887 - Lysander Spooner, American philosopher (b. 1808)
- 1889 - Volney E. Howard, American politician (b. 1809)
- 1906 - Carl Schurz, German revolutionary and American statesman (b. 1829)
- 1912 - King Frederick VIII of Denmark (b. 1843)
- 1912 - August Strindberg, Swedish author (b. 1849)
- 1919 - Henry John Heinz, founder of the H. J. Heinz Company (b. 1844)
- 1923 - Charles de Freycinet, French prime minister (b. 1828)
- 1925 - H. Rider Haggard, English author (b. 1856)
- 1931 - David Belasco, American theatrical producer and playwright (b. 1853)
- 1936 - Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, British general (b. 1861)
- 1940 - Emma Goldman, Lithuanian-born anarchist and feminist (b. 1869)
- 1943 - Henri La Fontaine, Belgian lawyer and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1854)
- 1945 - Heber J. Grant, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1856)
- 1954 - Heinz Guderian, German General (b. 1888)
- 1957 - Marie Vassilieff, Russian artist (b. 1884)
- 1959 - Sidney Bechet, American musician (b.