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University Of Buenos Aires

University of Buenos Aires

The Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) is the biggest university in Argentina, founded on August 12 1821 in the city of Buenos Aires. It consists of 13 faculties, six hospitals, 10 museums and three high schools: Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, Escuela Superior de Comercio Carlos Pellegrini, and Instituto Libre de Segunda Enseñanza. Instituto Libre de Segunda Enseñanza Despite its size, the UBA has no central campus. Even though plans existed for a centralized 'university city', it currently holds only 2 schools with all other schools dispersed throughout the city. This campus, called Ciudad Universitaria, is located in Nuñez, in northern Buenos Aires. It is close to Jorge Newbery Airport and River Plate Football Stadium.

Faculties

The faculties that compose the University are:
- [http://www.psi.uba.ar/ Facultad de Psicología] (Psychology)
- [http://www.fi.uba.ar/ Facultad de Ingeniería] (Engineering)
- [http://www.odon.uba.ar/ Facultad de Odontología] (Dentistry)
- [http://www.ffyb.uba.ar/ Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica] (Pharmacy and Biochemistry)
- [http://www.filo.uba.ar/ Facultad de Filosofía y Letras] (Philosophy and Literature)
- [http://www.fder.uba.ar/ Facultad de Derecho] (Law)
- [http://www.fmed.uba.ar/ Facultad de Medicina] (Medicine)
- [http://www.fsoc.uba.ar/ Facultad de Ciencias Sociales] (Social Sciences)
- [http://www.fvet.uba.ar/ Facultad de Veterinaria] (Veterinary medicine)
- [http://www.agro.uba.ar/ Facultad de Agronomía] (Agronomy)
- [http://www.econ.uba.ar/ Facultad de Ciencias Económicas] (Economics) Ciudad Universitaria:
- [http://www.fcen.uba.ar/ Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales] (Exact Sciences and Natural Sciences)
- [http://www.fadu.uba.ar/ Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Urbanismo] (Architecture, Design and Urbanism)

Notable alumni

The following former students of UBA received a Nobel Prize:
- Carlos Saavedra Lamas -- Peace
- Bernardo Houssay -- Physiology
- Luis Federico Leloir -- Chemistry
- César Milstein -- Medicine
- Adolfo Pérez Esquivel -- Peace

External links

- [http://www.uba.ar/ Universidad de Buenos Aires] Category:Education in Buenos Aires Category:Universities and colleges in Argentina

University

A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. A university provides both tertiary and quaternary education. University is derived from the Latin universitas, meaning corporation (since the first medieval European universities were simply groups of scholars). medieval European universities]

History

Because of the above definition, the oldest universities in the world were all European, as the awarding of academic degrees was not a custom of older institutions of learning in Asia and Africa. However, institutions of higher learning considerably older than the most ancient European universities existed in countries such as China, Egypt and India. The Academy, founded in 387 BC by the Greek philosopher Plato in the grove of Academos near Athens, taught its students philosophy, mathematics, and gymnastics, and is sometimes considered a forerunner of modern European universities. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include Kos (the home of Hippocrates), which had a medical school, and Rhodes, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical university was the Museum and Library of Alexandria. About a thousand years after Plato, institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university existed in Persia and the Islamic world, notably the Academy of Gundishapur and later also al-Azhar University in Cairo. In Asia, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. In general, these are of considerable antiquity, predating western institutions of higher learning by centuries. In China, it's recorded that the education system had been established during the Yu period (2257 BC - 2208 BC) and the imperial central academy was named Shangyang (Shang means higher and Yang means school) at the time. The higher learning institution - imperial central academy, was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 249 BC), Taixue in Han Dynasty (202 - 220) and Guozijian in Sui dynasty. For example, Nanjing University traces its source back to the imperial central academy at Nanking founded in 258 by the Kingdom of Wu. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the Sui Dynasty (581 -618) for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace. The ancient cities of Nalanda, Vikramasila, Kanchipura and Takshasila were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of Buddhist scholarship, and as such it attracted a vast number of Buddhist scholars from China, central Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Carolingian period, a famous academy was created by Charlemagne for the purpose of educating the children of aristocrats to help train the professionals needed to run an empire. It was a foreshadow of the rise of the University in the 11th century. The first European medieval university was the University of Magnaura in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), founded in 849 by the emperor Bardas, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century)University of Bologna (1088) in Bologna, Italy, and the University of Paris (c. 1100) in Paris, France. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarly sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries. In Europe, young men proceeded to the university when they had completed the study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See degrees of Oxford University for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities). Universities are generally established by statute or charter. In the United Kingdom, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of Privy Council, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.

Universities around the world

The funding and organisation of Universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries Universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the University must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend University in their local town, while in other countries Universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide University accommodation for their students.

Universities and student life in different countries

- British universities
- Dutch universities
- French universities
- Irish universities
- Italian universities
- Spanish universities
- US universities
- Egyptian universities

Selective admissions

Unlike community colleges, enrollment at a university is generally not available to all. However, admission systems vary widely around the world, as discussed in the article college admissions.

Colloquial usage

Colloquially, the term university is used around the world for a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…"; in the United States, college is often used: "when I was in college…". See college, §3, for further discussion. In the United Kingdom and Australia "University" is often contracted to simply "Uni". The usual practice in the United States today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university" while a smaller institution only granting bachelor's or associate's degrees is called a "college". (See liberal arts colleges, community college). Nevertheless, a few of America's oldest and most prestigious universities, such as Boston College, Dartmouth College and the College of William and Mary, have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.

Related terms

: academia - academic rank - academy - admission - alumnus - aula - [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brain_farm Brain farm ]-Bologna process - business schools - Grandes écoles - campus - college - college and university rankings - dean - degree - diploma - discipline - [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Dissertation dissertation] - faculty - fraternities and sororities - graduate student - graduation - lecturer - medieval university - medieval university (Asia) - mega university - perpetual student - professor - provost - rector - research - scholar - senioritis - student - tenure - tuition - undergraduate - universal access - university administration

References

- Walter Ruegg (ed), A History of the University in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (3 vols) ISBN 0521361079 (vol 3 reviewed by Laurence Brockliss in the Times Literary Supplement, no 5332, 10 June 2005, pages 3-4). Category:Educational stages ko:대학교 ms:Universiti ja:大学 simple:University th:มหาวิทยาลัย

Argentina

Argentina is a country in South America, situated between the Andes in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the British overseas territories of the Falkland Islands (known in Spanish the Islas Malvinas ) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Under the name of Argentine Antarctica, it claims around 1,000,000 km² of Antarctica, overlapping other claims by Chile and the United Kingdom. By area, it is the second largest country of South America after Brazil and the 8th largest country in the world. The country is formally named República Argentina (Argentine Republic), while for purposes of legislation the form Nación Argentina (Argentine Nation) is used.

Origin and history of the name

The name Argentina derives from the Latin argentum (silver) and the first Spanish conquerors to the River Plate. Indigenous people gave silver gifts to the survivors of the shipwrecked expedition, who were led by Juan Díaz de Solís. The legend of Sierra del Plata — a mountain rich in silver — reached Spain around 1524. The Spaniards named the river of Solís, Río de la Plata (River of the Silver). The name Argentina was first used in Ruy Diaz de Guzman's 1612 book Historia del descubrimiento, población, y conquista del Río de la Plata (History of the discovery, population, and conquest of the River Plate), naming the territory Tierra Argentina (land of silver).

History

The area of present Argentina was relatively sparsely populated until it was colonised by Europeans. The Diaguita lived in northwestern Argentina on the edge of the expanding Inca Empire; the Guaraní lived farther east. Europeans arrived in 1502. Spain established a permanent colony on the site of Buenos Aires in 1580, and the Viceroyalty of the River Plate in 1776. Independence from Spain was declared on 9 July 1816. Centralist and federationist groups were in conflict, until national unity was established and the constitution promulgated in 1853. Foreign investment and immigration from Europe aided the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy in the late 19th century. In the 1880s the "Conquest of the Desert" subdued or exterminated the remaining native tribes of Patagonia. From 1880 to 1930 Argentina became one of the ten wealthiest nations. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until 1916, when their traditional rivals, the Radicals, won control of the government. The military forced Hipólito Yrigoyen from power in 1930 leading to another decade of Conservative rule. 1930, and the Antarctica, that overlaps both Chilean and British claims, though all three are signatory to the Antarctic Treaty]] Political change led to the presidency of Juan Perón in 1946, who aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionised workers. The Revolución Libertadora of 1955 deposed him. In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating terrorism in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Perón's return to the presidency in 1973, with his third wife, María Estela Isabel Martínez de Perón, as Vice President. During this period, extremists on the left and right carried out terrorist acts with a frequency that threatened public order. Perón died in 1974. His wife succeeded him in office, but a military coup removed her from office in 1976, and the armed forces formally exercised power through a junta in charge of the self-appointed National Reorganisation Process, until 1983. The armed forces repressed opposition using harsh illegal measures (the "Dirty War"); thousands of dissidents were "disappeared". Economic problems, charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of human rights abuses and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat in the Falklands War discredited the Argentine military regime. Democracy was restored in 1983. Raúl Alfonsín's Radical government took steps intending to account for the "disappeared", establishing civilian control of the armed forces and consolidating democratic institutions. Failure to resolve endemic economic problems and an inability to maintain public confidence caused his early departure. President Carlos Menem imposed peso-dollar fixed exchange rate in 1991 to stop hyperinflation, and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling protectionist barriers and business regulations, and implementing a privatisation program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s. The Menem and de la Rúa administrations faced diminished competitiveness of exports, massive imports which damaged national industry and reduced employment, chronic fiscal and trade deficits, and the contagion of several economic crises. The Asian financial crisis in 1998 precipitated an outflow of capital that mushroomed into a recession, which led to a total freezing of the bank accounts (the corralito), and culminated in a financial panic in November 2001. Next month, amidst bloody riots, President de la Rúa resigned. Several new presidents followed in quick succession. Argentina defaulted on its international debt obligations. The peso's almost 12-year-old link with the dollar was abandoned, resulting in massive currency depreciation and inflation, in turn triggering a spike in unemployment and poverty. In 2003, Néstor Kirchner became the president, and started implementing new policies based on re-industrialisation, import substitution, increased exports, consistent fiscal surplus, and high exchange rate.

Politics

Néstor Kirchner The Argentine constitution of 1853, as revised in 1994, mandates a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches at the national and provincial level. The president and vice president are directly elected to 4-year terms. Both are limited to two consecutive terms; they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term. The president appoints cabinet ministers, and the constitution grants him considerable power as both head of state and head of government, including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of "urgency and necessity" and the line-item veto. Argentina's parliament is the bicameral National Congress or Congreso de la Nación, consisting of a Senate (Senado) of 72 seats and a Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) of 257 members. Since 2001, senators have been directly elected, with each province, including the Federal Capital, represented by three senators. Senators serve 6-year terms. One-third of the Senate stands for reelection every 2 years via a partial majority system in each district. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year term via a system of proportional representation. Voters elect half the members of the lower house every 2 years. See also Argentinian Legal System

Administrative Divisions

Argentinian Legal System Argentina is divided into 23 provinces (provincias; singular: provincia), and 1 autonomous city (commonly known as capital federal), marked with an asterisk: ^- The current official name for the federal district is "Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires". Buenos Aires has been the capital of Argentina since its unification, but there have been projects to move the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín a law was passed ordering the move of the federal capital to Viedma, a city in the Patagonic province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when hyperinflation, in 1989, killed off the project. Though the law was never formally repealed, it has become a mere historical relic, and the project has been forgotten.

Urbanization

hyperinflation About 2.7 million people live in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, and roughly 11.5 million in Greater Buenos Aires (2001), making it one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world. Together with their respective metropolitan areas, the second and third largest cities in Argentina, Córdoba and Rosario, each comprise about 1.3 million inhabitants. Most European immigrants to Argentina (coming in great waves especially around the First and the Second World Wars) settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education, and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the middle class. Since the 1930s many rural workers have moved to the big cities. The 1990s saw many rural towns become ghost towns when train services were abandoned and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of imported cheap goods, in part because of the monetary policy which kept the U. S. dollar exchange rate fixed and low. Many slums (villas miseria) sprouted in the outskirts of the largest cities, inhabited by empoverished low-class urban dwellers and migrants from smaller towns in the interior of the country. Argentina's urban areas have a European look, reflecting the influence of their European settlers. Many towns and cities are built like Spanish cities around a main square called a plaza. A cathedral and important government buildings often face the plaza. The general layout of the cities is called a damero, that is, a checkerboard, since it is based on a pattern of square blocks, though modern developments sometimes depart from it (for example, the city of La Plata, built at the end of the 19th century, is organised as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals). In descending order by number of inhabitants, the major cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucumán, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, and Bahía Blanca. For a more comprehensive list, see List of cities in Argentina.

Geography

List of cities in Argentina Argentina can roughly be divided into three parts: the fertile plains of the Pampas in the central part of the country, the centre of Argentina's agricultural wealth; the flat to rolling plateau of Patagonia in the southern half down to Tierra del Fuego; and the rugged Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point being the Cerro Aconcagua at 6,960 m. Major rivers include the Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paraná. The latter two flow together before meeting the Atlantic Ocean, forming the estuary of the River Plate. The Argentine climate is predominantly temperate with extremes ranging from subtropical in the north to arid/sub-Antarctic in far south.

Enclaves and exclaves

There is one Argentine exclave: the island of Martín García (co-ordinates ). It is situated near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a mere kilometre inside Uruguayan waters, about 3.5 km from the Uruguayan coastline, near the small city of Martín Chico (itself about halfway between Nueva Palmira and Colonia). An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in 1973 reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute between the two countries. According to the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively to a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 km², and the population about 200 people.

Economy

Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. The country historically had a large middle class, compared to other Latin American countries, but this segment of the population was decimated by a succession of economic crises. Today, while a significant segment of the population is still financially well-off, they stay in sharp contrast with millions who live in poverty or on the brink of it. Since the late 1970s the country piled up public debt and was plagued by bouts of high inflation. In 1991, the government pegged the peso to the U. S. dollar and limited the growth in the monetary base. The government then embarked on a path of trade liberalisation, deregulation, and privatisation. Inflation dropped and GDP grew, but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted its benefits, causing it to crumble in slow motion, from 1995 and up to the collapse in 2001. By 2002 Argentina had defaulted on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, unemployment was over 18%, the peso had devalued 75% after being floated, and inflation was hitting again. However, careful spending control and heavy taxes on now soaring exports gave the state the tools to regain resources and conduct monetary policy. In 2003, import substitution policies and soaring exports, coupled with a lower inflation and expansive economic measures, triggered a surge in the GDP, which was repeated in 2004, creating jobs and encouraging internal consumption. Capital flight decreased, and foreign investment slowly returned. The influx of foreign currency from exports created such a huge trade surplus that the Central Bank was forced to buy dollars from the market, which it continues to do at the time, to be accumulated as reserves. The situation in 2005 is much improved, but there are still large numbers of unemployed people that beg for some money or food, especially in the outskirts of Buenos Aires. Some of them are homeless, and there is at least one small non-profit humanitarian organisation which distributes free food to some of them most days of the week.

Demographics

Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Unlike most of its neighbouring countries, Argentina's population descends overwhelmingly from Europeans. The basic demographic stock (85% of the population) is made up of descendants of the Spanish colonists, augmented by descendants of later Italian and Spanish settlers. Around 56% of Argentinians, however, possess at least some indigenous Amerindian ancestry (as discovered by genetic research). Those who claimed their ancestry as Spanish — or Spanish and another ancestry, such as Spanish-Italian — were most likely to have some remnant Amerindian ancestry; a legacy of the almost complete absorption of colonial Argentina's mestizo majority by the post-colonial mass migratory influx of Europeans. The indigenous Amerindian — poorly estimated between 500,000 and 2 million — and identifiably mestizo populations are concentrated in the provinces of the north, northwest and south. As of 2001, 2.8% of Argentine households host a person that identifies as belonging to an indigenous group. Waves of immigrants from European countries arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Patagonian Chubut Valley has a significant Welsh-descended population and retains many aspects of Welsh culture. Other important immigrant groups came from Germany (German colonies were settled in the provinces of Entre Ríos, Misiones, Formosa, Córdoba and the Patagonian region, as well as in Buenos Aires itself), France (mostly settled in Buenos Aires city and province), Scandinavia (especially Sweden) the United Kingdom and Ireland (Buenos Aires and the Patagonia) and Eastern European nations, such as Poland, Russia, Ukraine and the Balkans region (especially Croatia and Serbia) and others. The Jewish community in Argentina is comprised predominantly of Ashkenazi Jews of Northern and Eastern European origin, and [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html numbers about 395,379], which is the largest in Latin America and fifth largest in the world. Syrian, Lebanese, and other Middle Eastern immigrants number about 500,000, mainly in urban areas. Small numbers of people from East Asia have settled Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires. The first Asian-Argentines were of Japanese descent, but Koreans, Vietnamese, India and Chinese soon followed. There was a substantial immigration from other Latin American countries during the 1990s from Bolivia, Paraguay and Chile number about 2,000,000 and 4,000,000.

Culture

See also the articles on the cuisine, the music, and the football of Argentina. For a prevalent custom among Argentines, see mate. For the traditional Buenos Aires dance, see tango. Also see the list of people from Argentina.

Language

The only official language is Spanish, although some immigrants and indigenous communities have retained their original languages in specific points of the country. Argentina is the largest Spanish-speaking community that employs voseo (the use of the pronoun vos instead of tú, associated with some alternate verb conjugations). The most prevalent dialect is Rioplatense, with most speakers located in the basin of the River Plate.

Religion

River Plate Most of Argentina's population is at least nominally Roman Catholic (78%, though regular church attendance is much lower). Roman Catholicism is supported by the Argentine state, as stated in the Constitution. Evangelical churches gained a place in Argentina especially since the 1980s. The country also has the largest Jewish population in Latin America, about 300,000 strong, and is home to one of the largest Islamic mosques in Latin America. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) number over 330,300, the seventh largest concentration in the world[http://www.lds.org.ar/noticias2005/noti_ene2005/info_noti_ene2005_05.htm]. Traditional Protestant communities are also present.

References

External links

Government
- [http://www.info.gov.ar Gobierno Electrónico] - Official governmental gateway
- [http://www.presidencia.gov.ar Presidencia] - Official presidential site (in Spanish)
- [http://www.senado.gov.ar Honorable Senado de la Nación] - Official senatorial site (in Spanish)
- [http://www.diputados.gov.ar Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación] - Official lower house site (in Spanish) Directories
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/argentina/argentina.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Argentina]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Argentina Open Directory Project -Argentina] directory category
- [http://ar.todalanet.net Todalanet.net Argentina] - Search engine of Argentinean only web pages. News
- [http://www.telam.com.ar Official news agency]
- [http://www.tageblatt.com.ar Argentinisches Tageblatt] (in German)
- Buenos Aires Herald[http://www.buenosairesherald.com] (in English)
- Clarín[http://www.clarin.com], Argentina's most popular newspaper, published in Buenos Aires, distributed nationwide
- [http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar Diario de Cuyo], from San Juan
- La Capital[http://www.lacapital.com.ar], from Rosario, Santa Fe Province
- [http://www.diariouno.net.ar Diario UNO], from Mendoza
- [http://www.eldiariodeparana.com.ar El Diario], from Paraná, Entre Ríos Province
- [http://www.infobae.com InfoBae], newspaper from Buenos Aires
- [http://www.lavozdelinterior.com.ar La Voz Del Interior], from Córdoba city
- [http://www.lagaceta.com.ar La Gaceta], from Tucumán
- La Nación[http://www.lanacion.com] ("The Nation"), from Buenos Aires, distributed nationwide
- [http://www.larazon.com.ar La Razón], Buenos Aires free evening newspaper (belongs to the Clarín group)
- [http://www.lanueva.com.ar La Nueva Provincia] ("The New Province"), from Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires
- Página/12[http://www.pagina12.com.ar], from Buenos Aires (Clarín Group), distributed nationwide
- [http://www.lacapitalnet.com.ar La Capital], from Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires
- [http://www.lavozdelpueblo.com.ar La Voz del Pueblo], local newspaper from Tres Arroyos city Images
- [http://cometoargentina.tripod.com/ Mundo Argentina] - Has pictures
- [http://www.vester.com.ar/argentina/ Pictures of Argentina] - Pictures of Argentina. Provinces, regions, landscapes and people.
- [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america.htm South America Pictures]
- [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america-map.htm South America Map]
- [http://www.globe-images.com/south-america.htm South America Satellite Images]
- [http://www.fotos-de-argentina.com.ar/ Argentina Photos] Argentina Photos - Photographs of Argentina. Travel
- [http://www.turismo.gov.ar/ Secretaria de Turismo de la Nacion] Official site of the Tourism Department of the Argentine Government
- [http://www.argentinatravelnet.com/ Argentina Travel Net] Directory of travel websites in Argentina
- [http://www.roadjunky.com/argentina/guide_argentina.shtml Guide to Argentina] - Travel tips and a deep look at Argentine culture. (in English)
- [http://www.argentinacafe.com/ Argentina Cafe Travel Guide] - Travel highlights, costs, guidebook reviews, cheap flight tips, background articles, etc.
- [http://www.thowra.com/argentina.html Travelling in Argentina] - Find out about some of the main places to go. (in English)
- [http://www.VisitGayBA.com VisitGayBA.com] - A Gay Guide to Buenos Aires, Argentina. (in English) Other
- [http://www.josemariarosa.galeon.com/ Argentine History] - Prestigious Argentine historian José María Rosa (1906-1991).
- [http://www.argentina-information.com/ Argentina Information] - Facts and information on different aspects of life in Argentina.
- [http://www.coha.org Council on Hemispheric Affairs] Latin American information and analysis
- [http://expat-argentina.blogspot.com/ Expat Argentina] - Blog about expat life and issues in Argentina Argentina ko:아르헨티나 ms:Argentina ja:アルゼンチン simple:Argentina th:ประเทศอาร์เจนตินา fiu-vro:Argentina

1821

1821 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- March 25 - The Orthodox Metropolitan Germanos of Patras proclaims national uprising. Greece declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, beginning the Greek War of Independence.
- June 19 - Decisive defeat of the Philikí Etaireía by the Ottomans at Drăgăşani (in Wallachia).
- June 24 - Simón Bolívar wins the Battle of Carabobo, ensuring Venezuela's independency from Spain. (See Venezuela's independence.)
- July 10 - The United States takes possession of its newly-bought territory of Florida from Spain.
- July 28 - Peru declares independence from Spain. (See Peru's Independence from Spain).
- September 15 - Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica gain independence from Spain. (See History of Central America)
- September 27 - Mexico gains its independence from Spain. (See Mexican War of Independence.)
- August 10 - Missouri is admitted as the 24th U.S. state. (See History of Missouri.)
- September 11 - Greek War of Independence - Tripoli falls to attacking Greeks; Greeks proceed to kill most of the Turkish population
- September 15 - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua jointly declare independence from Spain.
- September 18 - Amherst College is founded.
- November 9 - the first US pharmacy college holds classes in Philadelphia.
- November 16 - American Old West: Santa Fe Trail used by first Caucasian.

Births

- January 8 - James Longstreet, American Confederate general (d. 1904)
- January 8 - W.H.L. Wallace, American Civil War general (d. 1862)
- February 3 - Elizabeth Blackwell, first American female physician (d. 1910)
- February 11 - Hermann Allmers, writer (d. 1902)
- February 11 - Auguste Edouard Mariette, French Egyptologist (d. 1881)
- February 17 - Lola Montez, Irish Spanish dancer and royal mistress (d. 1861)
- February 19 - August Schleicher, German linguist (d. 1868)
- March 1 - Joseph Hubert Reinkens, German Old Catholic bishop (d. 1896)
- April 9 - Charles-Pierre Baudelaire, French poet and writer (d. 1867)
- May 8 - Jean Henri Dunant, Swiss founder of the Red Cross, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1910)
- May 8 - William Henry Vanderbilt, American entrepreneur (d. 1885)
- May 16 - Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician (d. 1894)
- May 17 - Sebastian Kneipp, German naturopath (d. 1897)
- July 18 - Pauline Garcia-Viardot, French mezzo-soprano and composer (d. 1910)
- August 10 - Jay Cooke, American financier (d. 1905)
- October 13 - Rudolf Virchow, German physician, pathologist, biologist, and politician (d. 1902)
- November 11 - Fyodor Dostoevsky, Russian writer (d. 1881)
- December 12 - Gustave Flaubert, French writer (d. 1880)
- December 25 - Clara Barton, First president of American Red Cross (d. 1912)
- Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott, Canadian politician (d. 1893)
- Frederick Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1902]

Deaths

- [[January 4]] - [[Elizabeth Ann Seton, American saint (b. 1774)
- February 23 - John Keats, British poet (b. 1795)
- March 13 - John Hunter, second Governor of New South Wales (b. 1737)
- May 5 - Napoleon I of France (b. 1769)
- May 19 - Camille Jordan, French politician (b. 1771)
- June 7 - Tudor Vladimirescu, Wallachian rebellion-leader (b. cca. 1780)
- September 10 - Johann Dominicus Fiorillo, German painter and art historian
- November 8 - Jean Rapp, French general (b. 1771)

Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires

The Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires is a public high school in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In the tradition of the European gymnasium it provides a free, rigurous, multi-disciplinary education that includes classical languages such as Latin and Greek. The school is one of the most prestigious in Latin America.

History

Its origins date to 1661, when the Colonial Spanish government entrusted the Jesuit Order the education of the youth. Since the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spanish-controlled South America the institution has been controlled by many different organizations. Since 1955 the school has been a part of the University of Buenos Aires. Admission is a highly competitive process involving multiple exams. Alumni include most of Argentina's Founding Fathers, Presidents, scientists and artists.

Facilities

It also offers a wide variety of activities and resources for the students, including a fully-equipped astronomy observatory, a swimming pool, a cinema, a sports campus with soccer, football, rugby, handball, volleyball and basketball courts. Many free classes are available such as astronomy, photography, languages, sailing, and martial arts. The sailing team is especially important, as it has won most of the local competitions. Nowadays, students from the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires rank among the best in most science Olympiads, such as the IPhO, IChO and IBO.

Reading

Miguel Cané, Juvenilia

Links

- http://www.cnba.uba.ar
- http://www.aexcnba.com.ar Category:Education in Buenos Aires Category:Schools in Argentina

Campus

)]] Campus (plural: campi) is Latin for "field" or "open space". English gets the words "camp" and "campus" from this origin. In English, the plural form campuses is commonly used. The campus is the area in which a college or university and surrounding buildings are situated. Usually a campus includes libraries, lecture halls, student residential areas and park-like settings. The word first was adopted to describe a particular urban space at the College of New Jersey (Princeton) during the early decades of the eighteenth century. Other colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, but campus did not yet describe the whole university property. A school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The meaning expanded to include the whole property during the twentieth century, with the old meaning persisting into the 1950s in some places. Sometimes the land on which company office buildings, with the buildings, are called campuses as well, e.g. the Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington, as are also hospitals with similar usage.

Sources

[http://www.dartmo.com/index.php?p=213 Dartmo: The Buildings of Dartmouth College]

Campus

Sources

[http://www.dartmo.com/index.php?p=213 Dartmo: The Buildings of Dartmouth College]

Aeroparque Jorge Newbery

Aeroparque Jorge Newbery (IATA airport code: AEP) is the main airport for domestic flights in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is located in the city near the River Plate. This Airport only allows flights from Argentine and Uruguayan companies. The airport is named after Argentinean aviator Jorge Newbery.

Airlines

- Aerolíneas Argentinas (Bahía Blanca, Bariloche, Comodoro Rivadavia, Córdoba, El Calafate, Esquel, Formosa, Iguazu, La Rioja, Mar del Plata, Mendoza, Montevideo, Neuquen, Posadas, Corrientes, Punta del Este, Resistencia, Rio Gallegos, Rio Grande, Rosario, Salta, San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca, San Juan, San Luis, San Salvador de Jujuy, Santa Fe, Santa Rosa, Santa Rosa, Santiago del Estero, Trelew, Tucuman, Ushuaia, Viedma)
- Austral (Bahía Blanca, Bariloche, Comodoro Rivadavia, Córdoba, El Calafate, Esquel, Formosa, Iguazu, La Rioja, Mar del Plata, Mendoza, Montevideo, Neuquen, Posadas, Corrientes, Punta del Este, Resistencia, Rio Gallegos, Rio Grande, Rosario, Salta, San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca, San Juan, San Luis, San Salvador de Jujuy, Santa Fe, Santa Rosa, Santa Rosa, Santiago del Estero, Trelew, Tucuman, Ushuaia, Viedma)
- LAN Argentina (Bariloche, Cordoba, Iguazu, Mendoza)
- Pluna (Montevideo, Punta del Este)
- Southern Winds (Bariloche, Comodoro Rivadavia, Cordoba, Iguazu, Mendoza, Neuquen, Rio Gallegos, Resistencia, Salta, Tucuman)

External link

- [http://www.aa2000.com.ar/index.php Aeropuertos Argentina] Category:Transportation in Buenos Aires Category:Buildings and structures in Buenos Aires Category:Airports in Argentina

Psychology

Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = "soul" or "mind", logos/-ology = "study of") is an academic and applied field involving the study of mind and behavior. "Psychology" also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science in part because it involves studying the mental processes and behavior of individuals (alone or in groups) rather than the behavior of the groups or aggregates themselves. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves. Although psychological questions were asked in antiquity (see Aristotle's De Memoria et Reminiscentia or "On Memory and Recollection"), psychology emerged as a separate discipline only recently. The first person to call himself a "psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.

History

Main article: History of psychology History of psychology The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year German scientist Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in studies on memory), the Russian Ivan Pavlov (who discovered the learning process of classical conditioning), and the Austrian Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in (scientific) psychology. Freud's basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious and instinctive "drives", and that the "self" existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of the internal id, ego, and superego. The mid century saw a rejection of Freud's theories among many psychologists as being too unscientific, as well as a reaction against Edward Titchener's abstract approach to the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be quantified and easily measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Principles of psychology

Mind and brain

Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Schools of thought

Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. See psychological schools of thought for a comprehensive list.

Scope of psychology

Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychological topics.

Biological basis: the brain

list of psychological topics Main articles: Behavioral neuroscience, Cognitive neuroscience, Neuropsychology, Evolutionary psychology Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and Neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use brain imaging tools, such as fMRI, to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

Information processing: the mind

fMRI Main articles: Cognitive psychology, Cognitive science The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Cognitive science is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing. Both areas use computational models to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.

Change over time: development

computational models Main articles: Developmental psychology, Educational psychology Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research. Educational psychology largely seeks to apply much of this knowledge to understanding how learning can best take place in educational situations. Because of this, the work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

Interaction with others

Main articles: Social psychology, Community psychology, Personality psychology Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. A related area is Community psychology, which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than only on the level of the individual. "Sense of community" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999). Personality psychology includes theories of career development.

Study of animals in psychology

Psychology as a science is primarily concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology) or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology ( e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).

Mental health

Main articles: Clinical psychology, Health psychology Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of psychopathology, behavioral or mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with counselling and psychotherapy, although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement has resulted in the formation of the American Psychological Society by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the American Psychological Association. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

Applied psychology

Main articles: Applied psychology, Industrial and organizational psychology, Forensic psychology, Human factors The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome practical problems in other fields, such as business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, and clinical medicine. Applied psychology includes the areas of industrial/organizational psychology, human factors, forensic psychology, as well as many other areas.

Industrial and organizational

Industrial and organizational psychology focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant pool which overall includes training, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, work behavior, stress at work and management.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to legal questions and issues. Most typically, this involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Forensic psychology refers to any application of psychological principles, methods or understanding to legal questions or issues. In addition to the applied practices, it also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior.

Human factors

Human factors is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.

Research methods

Psychology is conducted both scientifically and non-scientifically, but is to a large extent wholly rigorous. Mainstream psychology is based largely on positivism, using quantitative studies and the scientific method to test and disprove hypotheses, often in an experimental context. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand behavior. However, not all psychological research methods strictly follow the empirical positivism philosophy. Qualitative research utilizes interpretive techniques and is descriptive in nature, enabling the gathering of rich clinical information unattainable by classical experimentation. Some psychologists, particularly adherents to humanistic psychology, may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach, viewing psychology more as an art rather than a rigid science. However, mainstream psychology has a bias towards the scientific method; the dominant school of cognitivism and other scientific approaches are thus the guiding theoretical framework used by most psychologists to understand thought and behavior. The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires. Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individual with psychological issues or use psychology to help others. Where an area of interest is considered to need specific training and specialist knowledge (especially in applied areas), psychological associations will typically set up a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.

Controlled experiments

Main article: Experimental psychology The majority of psychological research is conducted in the laboratory under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavor. Common measurements of behavior include reaction time and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular hypothesis. As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different tones. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See hypothesis testing for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human threshold of hearing.

Correlational studies

A correlational study uses statistics to determine if one variable is likely to co-occur with another variable. For example, one might be interested in whether or not a person's smoking is correlated with that individual's chance of getting lung cancer. One way to answer this would simply be to take a group of people who smoke and measure the proportion of those who get lung cancer within a certain time. In this particular case, one would probably find a high correlation. (Tobacco is already known to have a deleterious effect on the lungs). Based on this correlation alone, however, we cannot know for certain that smoking is the cause of lung cancer. It could be that those more prone to cancer are also more likely to take up smoking. A third alternative is that some other variable caused both conditons. This is a major limitation of correlational studies, exemplified by the fact that correlation does not imply causation.

Longitudinal studies

A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study specific language impairment (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.

Neuropsychological methods

Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness. Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional dissociations') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism. In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy indviduals. These include behavioural experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations.

Computational modeling

Computational modeling is a tool often used in cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural nets to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.

Criticisms of psychology

Although mainstream psychology today endeavors to be a wholly scientific endeavor, the field has a history of controversy. Some criticisms of psychology have been made on ethical and philosophical grounds. Some have argued that by subjecting the human mind to experimentation and statistical study, psychologists objectify persons; because it treats human beings as things, as objects that can be examined by experiment, psychology is sometimes portrayed as dehumanizing, ignoring or downplaying what is most essential about being human. Another common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Since it relies on "soft" methods such as surveys and questionnaires, some have said, psychology is not as scientific as it claims to be, although many would argue this is an outdated criticism based on misconceptions. Many believe that the mind is not amenable to quantitative scientific research, and as support for their criticism cite the vast theoretical diversity of psychology, a discipline which agrees on very little about how the mind works. Some point out that astronomy's claim to being a science is also open to argument because its theories are largely untestable, being based in part on events that cannot be directly observed (philosophically, a scientific theory must be falsifiable: testable and open to the possibility of being proven false). One approach calling itself critical psychology takes almost an opposite approach. Rather than scientific validity being the standard against which psychology research should be judged, critical psychology uses Marxism to criticize mainstream psychology, claiming among other things that it serves as a bulwark of an unjust or unsatisfying status quo when it should, instead, use its methods and knowledge base to critique and change societal norms.

References

- Aristotle, Joe Sachs (translator). (350 BCE / 2001) On Memory and Recollection (De Memoria et Reminiscentia). Santa Fe, NM : Green Lion Press. ISBN 1888009179
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22456-6
- Chavis, D.M., and Pretty, G. (1999). Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 635-642.
- Sarason, S.B. (1986). Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center. Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 405-407.

External links

Psychology Resources

- [http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ AmoebaWeb Psychology Resources]
- [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)]
- [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology]
- [http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ Dictionary of Psychology]
- [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
- [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/psych.html Psychology Articles]
- [http://essays.org.uk/psychology/ Psychology Essays]
- [http://www.sonoma.edu/psychology/psychart.html Pictures of famous psychologists]
- [http://www.conferencealerts.com/psychology.htm Psychology Conferences]
- [http://www.perfectionnement.info/fr/agenda.php?i_pays=0&i_date=0&keywords=congr Psychology Congresses] (mostly European)
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain.htm ScienceDaily Mind and Brain news]
- [http://www.psychcentral.com PsychCentral]
- [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/psych/index.html Psychology Resources] (including some unique material on Community Psychology and also on Cumulative Risk and Resilience)
- [http://www.fireflySun.com/book/careers_in_psychology.php Psychology Career Ladders] (criticism)

Psychology Societies

- [http://www.apa.org American Psychological Association]
- [http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ American Psychological Society]
- [http://www.psychology.org.au/ Australian Psychological Society]
- [http://www.bfp-fbp.be/ Belgian Psychological Association]
- [http://www.bps.org.uk British Psychological Society]
- [http://www.apdeba.org Buenos Aires Psychoanalytic Association]
- [http://www.cpa.ca Canadian Psychological Association]
- [http://www.psykologienkustannus.fi/sps/seurasta/index.htm Finnish Psychological Society]
- [http://www.dgps.de German Psychological Association]
- [http://www.psykologisk.no Norwegian society for Master in Psychology]
- [http://www.singaporepsychologicalsociety.org/ Singapore Psychological Society] Category:Human behavior Category:Social sciences Category:Behavioural sciences Category:Academic disciplines ko:심리학 ms:Psikologi ja:心理学 simple:Psychology th:จิตวิทยา

Dentistry

:This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care, see oral hygiene. oral hygiene Dentistry is the practical application of knowledge of dental science (the science of placement, arrangement, function of teeth and their supporting bones and soft tissues) to human beings. A dentist is a professional practitioner of dentistry. In most countries, several years of training in a university (usually 4-8) and some practical experience working with actual patients' dentition are required to become a qualified dentist. The patron saint of dentists is Saint Apollonia, martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted, not, one would have thought, such a very desirable exemplar.
Specialties
There are nine [httda.o/definitions.asp dental specialties] recognized by the American Dental Association and require 2-6 years of further formal university training after dental school. The specialties are Dental Public Health (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies), Endodontics (root canal therapy), Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (study, diagnosis, and often the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases), Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases), Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (extractions and facial surgery), Orthodontics (straightening of teeth), Pedodontics (pediatric dentistry; i.e. dentistry for children), Periodontics (treatment of gum disease), Prosthodontics (replacement of missing facial anatomy by prostheses such as dentures, bridges and implants). Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral surgeon, pedodontist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified") registry requirements. Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: General Practice Residency (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and Advanced Education in General Dentistry (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the [http://www.ada.org ADA] do not lead to specialization. Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: cosmetic dentistry, dental implant, temporo-mandibular joint therapy. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies. Forensic odontology consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity. Geriatric dentistry or gerodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.
History
Geriatric dentistry In 2001 archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh,