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University Of Paris

University of Paris

The historic University of Paris (French: Université de Paris) first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was in 1970 reorganized as 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII). The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, but the university as such is older and was never completely centered on the Sorbonne. Of the 13 current successor universities, the first four have a presence in Sorbonne, and three include Sorbonne in their names. The 13 universities still stand under a common chancellor, the Rector of the Académie of Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. The Sorbonne remains one of the most famous and prestigious of universities in the world, having produced Nobel Prize winners from its faculty and student body, as well as a number of the greatest intellectuals, political theorists, scientists, engineers, physicians, theologians, and artists of the Western tradition and canon. Rector

Origin and organization of the medieval university

Similarly to the other of the earliest medieval universities (University of Bologna, University of Oxford, University of Coimbra, University of Salamanca), but in opposition to later ones (such as the University of Prague or the University of Heidelberg), the University of Paris was never established through a specific foundation act, such as a royal charter or papal bull. It grew up in the latter part of the 12th century around the Notre Dame Cathedral as a corporation similar to other medieval corporations, such as guilds of merchants or artisans. The medieval Latin term universitas actually had the more general meaning of a guild, and the university of Paris was known as a universitas magistrorum et scholarium (a guild of masters and scholars). The university, which (together with that in Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities had four faculties, of Arts, Medicine, Law and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest as students had to graduate there to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students there were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, those of France, Normandy, Picard, and England, the last one of which later came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply and the English-German nation in fact included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.

The Collège de Sorbonne

The Collège de Sorbonne was founded in 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, after whom it is named. It is also the name of its main campus in the Ve arrondissement of Paris, which now houses several universities (heirs to the former University of Paris) as well as the Paris rectorate. It was originally created for the use of 20 theology students in 1257 as Collège de Sorbonne by Robert de Sorbon (1201-1274), a chaplain and confessor to King Louis IX of France. It quickly built a prodigious reputation as a center for learning, and by the 13th century there were as many as twenty thousand foreign students resident in the city, making Paris the capital of knowledge of the Western world. Today, foreign students still make up a significant part of its campus. The Sorbonne became the most distinguished theological institution in France and its doctors were frequently called upon to render opinions on important ecclesiastical and theological issues. In 1622-1626, Cardinal Richelieu renovated the Sorbonne (the present buildings date from this time, with restorations dating from 1885). In his honour, the chapel of the Sorbonne was added in 1637. When Richelieu died in 1642 he was placed in a tomb within this chapel. The faculty's close association with the Church resulted in it being closed down during the French Revolution before it was reopened by Napoleon in 1808 to serve as part of the University of Paris. Between then and 1885 the Sorbonne served as the seat of the university's theology faculties and of the Académie de Paris. At the end of the 19th century, the Sorbonne became an entirely secular institution.

Other colleges

Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, there were other collegia, providing housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: The oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257. Swedish students could during the 13 and 14th centuries live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after diocesal centres in Sweden (Uppsala, Skara and Linköping), the cathedral schools of which the scholars had presumably attended before travelling to Paris. The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scottish college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a remerger of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville.

Student revolt and reorganization

In 1968 it was the starting point of the cultural revolution commonly known as "the French May" (see also situationism), resulting in the closing of the university for only the second time in history (the first having been the invasion by the German army of 1940). The University of Paris has since been reorganized into several autonomous universities and schools, some of which still carry the Sorbonne name. The historical campus, located in the Quartier Latin, in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, featuring mural paintings by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, was split for use between several of the universities of Paris and the Rector's services.

Present universities

External links

- [http://www.sorbonne.fr/ Sorbonne - Universités Paris I, III, IV and V] (official homepage)
- [http://www.univ-paris1.fr/universite/historique/article164.html History of the University of Paris] (in French)
- ja:パリ大学

University

A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. A university provides both tertiary and quaternary education. University is derived from the Latin universitas, meaning corporation (since the first medieval European universities were simply groups of scholars). medieval European universities]

History

Because of the above definition, the oldest universities in the world were all European, as the awarding of academic degrees was not a custom of older institutions of learning in Asia and Africa. However, institutions of higher learning considerably older than the most ancient European universities existed in countries such as China, Egypt and India. The Academy, founded in 387 BC by the Greek philosopher Plato in the grove of Academos near Athens, taught its students philosophy, mathematics, and gymnastics, and is sometimes considered a forerunner of modern European universities. Other Greek cities with notable educational institutions include Kos (the home of Hippocrates), which had a medical school, and Rhodes, which had philosophical schools. Another famous classical university was the Museum and Library of Alexandria. About a thousand years after Plato, institutions bearing a resemblance to the modern university existed in Persia and the Islamic world, notably the Academy of Gundishapur and later also al-Azhar University in Cairo. In Asia, there were a number of institutions of higher learning that vaguely resembled universities in the Western sense of the word. In general, these are of considerable antiquity, predating western institutions of higher learning by centuries. In China, it's recorded that the education system had been established during the Yu period (2257 BC - 2208 BC) and the imperial central academy was named Shangyang (Shang means higher and Yang means school) at the time. The higher learning institution - imperial central academy, was called Piyong in Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 249 BC), Taixue in Han Dynasty (202 - 220) and Guozijian in Sui dynasty. For example, Nanjing University traces its source back to the imperial central academy at Nanking founded in 258 by the Kingdom of Wu. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an imperial examination was established in the Sui Dynasty (581 -618) for evaluating and selecting officials from the general populace. The ancient cities of Nalanda, Vikramasila, Kanchipura and Takshasila were greatly reputed centres of learning in the east, with students from all over Asia. In particular, Nalanda was a famous center of Buddhist scholarship, and as such it attracted a vast number of Buddhist scholars from China, central Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Carolingian period, a famous academy was created by Charlemagne for the purpose of educating the children of aristocrats to help train the professionals needed to run an empire. It was a foreshadow of the rise of the University in the 11th century. The first European medieval university was the University of Magnaura in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), founded in 849 by the emperor Bardas, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century)University of Bologna (1088) in Bologna, Italy, and the University of Paris (c. 1100) in Paris, France. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarly sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries. In Europe, young men proceeded to the university when they had completed the study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See degrees of Oxford University for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities). Universities are generally established by statute or charter. In the United Kingdom, for instance, a university is instituted by Act of Parliament or Royal Charter; in either case generally with the approval of Privy Council, and only such recognized bodies can award degrees of any kind.

Universities around the world

The funding and organisation of Universities is very different in different countries around the world. In some countries Universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the University must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend University in their local town, while in other countries Universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide University accommodation for their students.

Universities and student life in different countries

- British universities
- Dutch universities
- French universities
- Irish universities
- Italian universities
- Spanish universities
- US universities
- Egyptian universities

Selective admissions

Unlike community colleges, enrollment at a university is generally not available to all. However, admission systems vary widely around the world, as discussed in the article college admissions.

Colloquial usage

Colloquially, the term university is used around the world for a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…"; in the United States, college is often used: "when I was in college…". See college, §3, for further discussion. In the United Kingdom and Australia "University" is often contracted to simply "Uni". The usual practice in the United States today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a "university" while a smaller institution only granting bachelor's or associate's degrees is called a "college". (See liberal arts colleges, community college). Nevertheless, a few of America's oldest and most prestigious universities, such as Boston College, Dartmouth College and the College of William and Mary, have retained the term "college" in their names for historical reasons though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.

Related terms

: academia - academic rank - academy - admission - alumnus - aula - [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brain_farm Brain farm ]-Bologna process - business schools - Grandes écoles - campus - college - college and university rankings - dean - degree - diploma - discipline - [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Dissertation dissertation] - faculty - fraternities and sororities - graduate student - graduation - lecturer - medieval university - medieval university (Asia) - mega university - perpetual student - professor - provost - rector - research - scholar - senioritis - student - tenure - tuition - undergraduate - universal access - university administration

References

- Walter Ruegg (ed), A History of the University in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (3 vols) ISBN 0521361079 (vol 3 reviewed by Laurence Brockliss in the Times Literary Supplement, no 5332, 10 June 2005, pages 3-4). Category:Educational stages ko:대학교 ms:Universiti ja:大学 simple:University th:มหาวิทยาลัย

Robert de Sorbon

Robert de Sorbon (October 9, 1201 – August 15, 1274) was a French theologian and founder of the Sorbonne college in Paris. Born into a poor family in Sorbon, in what is now the Ardennes département, Robert de Sorbon entered the Church and was educated in Reims and Paris. He was noted for his piety and attracted the patronage of the Comte d'Artois and King Louis IX of France, known as Saint Louis. He became the canon of Cambrai around 1251 before being appointed canon of Paris and the king's confessor in 1258. Sorbon began to teach around 1253 and in 1257 established the Maison de Sorbonne, a college in Paris originally intended to teach theology to 20 poor students. It was sponsored by King Louis and received the endorsement of the Pope in 1259. It subsequently grew into a major centre of learning and became the core of what would become the University of Paris. Sorbon served as chancellor of the university, taught and preached there from 1258 until his death in 1274. There is also in France The Ecole Supérieure Robert de Sorbon, http://www.sorbon.fr , which is located near Poitiers and grants University degrees based on work experience following the French VAE (Validation des Acquis de l'Expérience) Law. Robert de Sorbon Robert de Sorbon

Rector

The word rector ("ruler," from the Latin regere) has a number of different meanings.

Academic rectors

The Rector is the highest academic official of many universities. Its use may be found all over Europe: in Italy, Germany, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Spain, and Scotland, for example. A notable exception to this terminology was England, where universities were traditionally headed by a "chancellor" . At some universities this title is phrased as rector magnificus (National University of San Marcos in Peru) or Lord Rector.

Scotland

In Scotland, the position of Rector exists in the four ancient universities, St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh as well as Dundee. The post (technically Lord Rector, usually just Rector) was made an integral part of these universities by the Universities (Scotland) Act 1889. The Rector chairs meetings of the University Court, the governing body of the university and is elected at regular intervals by the matriculated students of each university. In recent years the Rector has become more of a figurehead. The chief executive of the university is the Principal (or Vice-Chancellor). Rectors have often been elected from the world of celebrity (Peter Ustinov at Dundee, and John Cleese and Frank Muir at St. Andrews, for example), but nonetheless their position is of some importance to the running of each university. Gordon Brown, the current Chancellor of the Exchequer, was Rector of Edinburgh University while a student there. The head teacher of a Scottish secondary school may also be a rector.

Oxford University

At Oxford and Cambridge, English universities headed by "chancellors", most colleges are headed by a "master". At a few colleges, this role is instead played by a "president"; and at two of the Oxford colleges — Lincoln College and Exeter College — the head is called a "rector."

Ecclesiastical rectors

Anglican churches

In the Anglican Church, a rector is one type of parish priest. For historical reasons, some parish priests in the Church of England are called by this term while others are called vicars. Roughly speaking, the distinction was that the rector directly received the tithes of his parish, while a vicar did not, being paid instead a salary (sometimes by his diocese). The term has been re-used to designate the priest in charge of a team ministry (See also curate.) In the Church of Ireland and Scottish Episcopal Church, most parish priests are called rectors, not vicars. Outside the British Isles the term is used more loosely. In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, "rector" is usually used for the priest in charge of a self-sustaining parish while the priest who heads a mission—a congregation supported by the diocese—is generally called a vicar.

Roman Catholic Church

In the Roman Catholic Church, a rector is a priest appointed by the diocesan bishop to take charge of a church not belonging to a parish. This is often the case with the cathedral of the diocese, which, in the Anglican Communion, would be headed by a dean. The specific term in the Roman Catholic Church is Plebanus. A rector can also be in charge of the main church of a Catholic university or the church of a seminary. Rectors of those institutions have special obligations under canon law. Category:Anglicanism Category:Catholic Priesthood Category:Schools in Scotland Category:Scottish universities Category:Ecclesiastical titles

Medieval university

The first European medieval universities were established in Italy, France and England in the late 11th and the 12th Century for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology.

Origins

With the increasing professionalization of society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a similar demand grew for professional clergy. Prior to the 12th century, the intellectual life of Europe had been relegated to monasteries, which were mostly concerned with the study of the liturgy and prayer; very few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in canon law, but also in the more secular aspects of church administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances. Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers attracted prestige as well. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, which were essentially run by one teacher. On top of that, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. So, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Paris and Bologna. Bologna The predecessor of the modern university found its roots in Paris, especially under the guidance of Peter Abelard, who wrote Sic et Non (Latin "yes and no"), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas, modeled on the medieval guild, a large-scale, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education. By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (abbots, archbishops, cardinals), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste, were products of the medieval university. The development of the medieval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Jewish scholars and the decline in popularity of Platonism and Neoplatonism in favor of Aristotelian thought.

Characteristics

Medieval universities did not have a campus. Classes were taught wherever space was available such as churches and homes, a university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas (the corporation). Universities were generally structured along two types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna, where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris, where teachers were paid by the church. These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. In Paris the main subject matter was theology, for as the Church paid the salary, it set the topic. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal Catholic institutions in England. University studies took six years for a Bachelor degree and up to 12 additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic because of its close ties to scholasticism, which was a popular method of teaching. Once a Bachelor of Arts had been obtained, the student would choose one of three faculties -- law, medicine, or theology -- in which to pursue the master's degree and doctorate degree. Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult. Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example a course might be on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective, the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use. Students entered the University at 14 to 15 years of age. Classes usually started at 5am or 6am. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in a church court, and were thus immune from any corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students who did not face serious consequences. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities. Students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot (started by the students) left a number of students dead; the University went on strike and did not return for 2 years. As the students had a legal status of clerics, which, according to the Canon Law, could not be gained by women, women were not admitted into universities. A popular textbook for university study was called the Sentences (Quattuor libri sententiarum) of Peter Lombard; theology students and masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Much of medieval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching. Any University of international excellence in Europe was registered by the Holy Roman Empire as a Studium Generale. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often giving lecture courses at a different Studium Generale.

List of medieval universities

References

- Cobban, Alan B. English University Life in the Middle Ages Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0814208266
- Ferruolo, Stephen The Origins of the University: The Schools of Paris and their Critics, 1100-1215 Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0804712662
- Haskins, Charles Homer. The Rise of Universities. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1972. ISBN 0879683791
- Rait, Robert S. Life in the Medieval University. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931. ISBN 0527736503
- Seybolt, Robert Francis, trans. The Manuale Scholarium: An Original Account of Life in the Mediaeval University. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921.
- Thorndyke, Lynn, trans. and ed. University Records and Life in the Middle Ages New York: Columbia University Press, 1975. ISBN 039309216X

External links

- [http://www.csupomona.edu/~plin/ls201/medieval2.html The Educational Legacy of Medieval and Renaissance Traditions.]
- [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/medievalbook/intro.htm From Manuscript to Print: Evolution of the Medieval Book.]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/vitry1.html Life of the Students at Paris.]
- [http://www.andrews.edu/~penner/colleges/organiz.html The Heritage of University Planning: Medieval Colleges: General Organization.]
- [http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/25meduni.html Medieval Universities.]
- [http://historymedren.about.com/library/atlas/blatmapuni.htm Medieval History: A Medieval Atlas]
- [http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/pubs/history/medieval.html A Brief History: The Medieval University.]
- [http://www.wits.ac.za/alumni/med_univ.html Discussion Document: Is University Life Any Different Today than it was Yesterday?] Category:Middle Ages Category:Colleges and universities Category:Academia

University of Bologna

right The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is the university of Bologna, in Italy. Its new name, since 2000, is Alma mater studiorum (Latin for "fostering mother of studies"), to remember it as the first university in Europe. The university received a charter from Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158, but in the 19th century, a committee of historians led by Giosuè Carducci traced the birth of the University back to 1088. The University celebrated its 900th anniversary in 1988, making it arguably the longest-lived university in the Western world. The University of Bologna is historically notable for its teaching of canon and civil law.

Notable Members of the University of Bologna

- 13th Century
- William of Saliceto
- 16th Century
- Girolamo Cardano
- 17th Century
- Giovanni Cassini
- Ulisse Aldrovandi
- 18th Century
- Laura Bassi
- Maria Gaetana Agnesi
- Luigi Galvani
- 19th Century
- Giosuè Carducci
- Giacomo Ciamician
- Camillo Golgi
- Giovanni Pascoli
- 20th Century
- Umberto Eco
- Vincenzo Balzani
- Pier Paolo Pasolini
- Romano Prodi

External links

- [http://www.eng.unibo.it/ University of Bologna]

University of Coimbra

The University of Coimbra (Portuguese: Universidade de Coimbra) is a Portuguese public university in Coimbra, Portugal. It is one of the oldest universities in Europe and one of Portugal's most important higher education and research institutions. It is a member of the Coimbra Group, a group of leading European research universities, whose inaugural meeting it hosted.

History

The university was founded, or ratified, in 1290 by King Dinis, having begun its existence in Lisbon. The royal charter announcing the institution of the University was dated 1st March of that year, although efforts had been made at least since 1288 to create this first University in Portugal; it is thus one the oldest of such establishments in the Iberian Peninsula. The Papal confirmation was also given in 1290 (on 9th August of that year), during the Papacy of the Pope Nicholas IV. In accordance with the Papal Bull, all the "licit" Faculties, with the exception of that of Theology, could be established. Thus the Faculties of Arts, Law, Canon Law and Medicine were the first to be created. Pope Nicholas IV It was, however, not to remain in Lisbon for long. In 1308, likely due to problems of emancipation from the Church (relations between the latter and the political power being somewhat strained at the time) and conflicts between the inhabitants of the city and the students, the University moved to Coimbra. This town already had old traditions in education, being home to the highly successful school of the Monastery of Santa Cruz. The university was then established on the site known as "Estudos Velhos", which corresponds roughly to the area where the Main Library now stands. In 1338, during the reign of Afonso IV, it was once again transferred to Lisbon, from whence it returned in 1354, this time to the centre of the town which was then in full expansion. In 1377, during the reign of King Fernando, it was transferred yet again to Lisbon, where it would remain for over a century and a half. The authorization for a Faculty of Theology probably dates from this period - around 1380. In 1537, during the reign of João III, the university moved definitively to Coimbra, where it was installed in the Alcaçova Palace. The entire university institution, including the teaching staff and all the books from its library, were moved from Lisbon to Coimbra. At the same time, a restructuring of the curricula was undertaken and new teachers, both Portuguese and foreign, were admitted. In the 18th century, the Marquis of Pombal, Minister of the kingdom, made radical reforms in the University, especially regarding the teaching of sciences, in accordance to his Enlightenment and anticlerical creed.

Organization

The University's governance is assured by the Rector, Senate and University Assembly, the latter responsible for the election of the Rector and members of Senate. The Rector has the main responsibility for the strategic direction and overall administration of the University together with the Senate and assisted by the Administrative Council. The University of Coimbra is divided in eight different faculties (Letters, Law, Medicine, Sciences & Technology, Pharmacy, Economics, Psychology & Education Sciences and Sports Sciences & Physical Education), comprising about 23 000 students. Its hospital school, HUC (Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra), is a leading european hospital, known as a centre of research and high-quality medical services. The university also harbours a huge central library (University of Coimbra General Library), botanical gardens (Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra), a stadium and sports complex, an astronomical observatory, a private church and many support facilities such as dining halls and studying rooms.

Students

Students are represented by the students' union Associação Académica de Coimbra (AAC). Formed on the 3rd November 1887, it is the oldest students' union in Portugal, with a long history of struggle against unpopular state policies, forming notable politicians and intellectuals along the way. It also harbours a very dynamic associative life, with its numerous sports (see below) and cultural sections being an important structure of extra-curricular formation. The latter include activities such as theatre, cinema, radio and television broadcast, music, choral singing, journalism or philately. Every student, and occasionally some non-students, are entitled to belong to these sections.

Sports, clubs and traditions

Closely related with this old university are many academic traditions and institutions with a strong impact on the city's life. The old "Republics" (autonomous students' residences) remain, as well as some traditional festivities, most notably the "Queima das Fitas" (a celebration of graduation's end, symbolized by the burning of the ribbons with the colors of each of the eight faculties), the frequent use of traditional attire, the "Fado de Coimbra" (Coimbra's fado, now sung in organized shows rather than the traditional street serenades), and the academic ceremonies (namely the conferring of doctorate degrees). fado The official colors of each one of the Faculties of the University of Coimbra are:
- Faculty of Law: Red
- Faculty of Medicine: Yellow
- Faculty of Letters: Dark Blue
- Faculty of Sciences & Technology: Light Blue and White
- Faculty of Pharmacy: Purple
- Faculty of Economics: Red and White
- Faculty of Psychology & Education Sciences: Orange
- Faculty of Sports Sciences & Physical Education: Brown These colors are used in the institutional seal and other symbols of each faculty, in the university ceremonies conferring doctorate degrees, and are also used by the students in their ribbons related with the academic traditions (see Queima das Fitas (The Burning of the Ribbons)). The color of the university seal and of the Rector's office, representing the entire institution as a whole, is dark green. The flag of the University of Coimbra (white flag with the dark green seal in the middle) is always erected, over the top of the old university tower, on the 1st of March, which is the day of the university, being an occasion for a week of debates, conferences, workshops, and special events related with multiple aspects of the institution. Queima das Fitas The Praxe is a body of ritual and custom founded upon ancient traditions and it is an important part of Coimbra's academic life which no university student is indifferent to. Part of the attraction of Coimbra's academic life, aside from its recognized excellence is that it is more Praxe, having unique rituals that set it apart from other institutions and give its students a special sense of participation in academic rituals originating hundreds of years ago. Though these rituals are seen as outdated by some, it remains an important reference in the academic experience of the University of Coimbra's students. The rules of the Praxe are contained in a book (The Code of Academic Praxe, by a committee of older students of the AAC - Associação Académica de Coimbra), which defines appropriate student behavior for activities like drafting, evaluation, groups or bands and the Burning of the Ribbons rituals. Even inside the AAC, as a modern and democratic students organisation, there are anti-Praxe groups and people who claims for deeper reforms in tradition rituals. The Freshman (1st yr.) period (naturally, the lowest category in the Praxe hierarchy) is for most students a time of good and lasting memories of never to be repeated events. All of academic life in Coimbra is filled with tradition and ritual and tends to be quite memorable. One of the most visible and distinctive traditions is the use of the academic costume of the University of Coimbra, a black suit and cape used on special occasions by the students and which was adopted by other Portuguese universities and is actually used by students of almost all higher education institutions in the city and across the country. AAC The sports sections of the AAC play a significant role in Coimbra's sport life, often being the city's main representative in that area. They include rugby, handball, basketball, baseball, martial arts, athletics, gymnastic or swimming, among others. Just as with the cultural sections, every student, including professional or semi-professional athletes, may belong to them. The city's main football club, usually known as "Académica" or "Briosa", is in formal terms an autonomous organism of the AAC and is called AAC-OAF, but in practical terms it is an independent club, only loosely connected to its mother institution. It is a relatively important team, especially as regards to its huge number of followers nationwide, and plays in the top portuguese football leagues, having been the first winner in history of the Portuguese Football Cup, in 1939.

List of faculties

- Faculty of Law [http://www.fd.uc.pt (Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Law; Public Administration
- Faculty of Medicine [http://www.fmed.uc.pt (Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Medicine; Dental Medicine
- Faculty of Letters [http://www.fl.uc.pt (Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Cinema; Music; Theatre; Classical Languages and Literatures and Portuguese; Modern Languages and Literatures; History; History of Art; Archaeology; Geography; Philosophy; Journalism
- Faculty of Sciences & Technology [http://www.fct.uc.pt (Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Anthropology; Architecture; Biology; Biochemistry; Communications and Multimedia; Environmental Engineering; Biomedical Engineering; Civil Engineering; Electrotechnical and Computer Engineering; Physical Engineering; Geographical Engineering; Geological Engineering; Informatics Engineering; Materials Engineering; Mechanical Engineering; Mining Engineering; Chemical Engineering; Physics; Geology; Mathematics; Chemistry; Industrial Chemistry
- Faculty of Pharmacy [http://www.ff.uc.pt (Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Faculty of Economics [http://www.fe.uc.pt (Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Economics; Business Organisation and Management; International Relations; Sociology
- Faculty of Psychology & Education Sciences [http://www.fpce.uc.pt (Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Psychology; Education Sciences
- Faculty of Sports Sciences & Physical Education [http://www.fcdef.uc.pt (Faculdade de Ciências do Desporto e Educação Física da Universidade de Coimbra)]
- Offers all levels of academic degrees in: Sports Science and Physical Education

Stats and other info

- Nowadays it has students from 70 different nationalities; almost 10% of its students are foreigners, being Portugal's most international university.
- In 2004, it was among the first Universities in Portugal limiting the time for degree completion. The degree programs have a specified minimum and maximum time for completion. The time limit is 6 years from the date of first enrolment for the 4 years degrees, and 8 years from the date of first enrolment for 5 years degrees (i.e. Medicine). After that, students have to pay the entire costs of their courses.
- The tuition fee for undergraduate degrees was 356€/year in 2002/2003. It was increased to 880€/year in 2004/2005 and to 901,23€/year in 2005/2006, the maximum fee allowed to state universities by law.
- The university does not have special classes for workers or night classes.
- Overcrowded classrooms are frequent in some disciplines at the Faculties of Science and Technology, Law, and Economics. Students must stand during the classes or even stay outside the classroom. These faculties have the highest abandon rate and the biggest average time for degree completion.
- School year calendar starts in October and finishes in July.

Alumni

Notable Professors and Lecturers

Notable professors and lecturers at the University include:

Nobel laureates

- Egas Moniz, (1874 - 1955) Portuguese physician and neurologist. He received many honours and international recognition, culminating with the 1949 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology.

Others

- Pedro Nunes, (1502 - 1578) Portuguese mathematician who is considered to be one of the World’s top mathematicians of his time.
- Carlos Mota Pinto, (1936 - 1985) Portuguese political figure.
- António de Oliveira Salazar, (1889 - 1970) Prime Minister and Dictator of Portugal from 1932 to 1968.

Notable Attendees

Notable persons who graduated from or otherwise attended the University include:
- Zeca Afonso, (1929 - 1987) Portuguese popular singer, composer and poet, a remarkable left-winger with strong anti-fascist beliefs and action, with a huge role in the Democratic Carnation Revolution.
- Manuel Alegre, Portuguese poet and politician, born in 1936. A member of the Socialist Party of Portugal.
- António José de Almeida, (1866 - 1929) Portuguese political figure.
- José de Anchieta, (1534 - 1597) Jesuit missionary, apostle of Brazil, writer and poet.
- José Alberto de Oliveira Anchieta, (1832 - 1897) A 19th century Portuguese explorer and naturalist. (He dropped out of the University of Coimbra)
- Jorge Chaminé, Portuguese baritone born in 1956, Human Rights Medal from the UN and Good Will Ambassador of Music in ME (Music in the Middle East).
- Christopher Clavius, (1538 - 1612) German mathematician and astronomer who was the main architect of the modern Gregorian calendar.
- Almeida Garrett, (1799 - 1854) Portuguese romanticist and a writer.
- João Mário Grilo, Portuguese film director born in 1958. (He dropped out of the University of Coimbra)
- Bartolomeu de Gusmão, (1685 - 1724) Naturalist, recalled for his early work on lighter-than-air ship design.
- Alberto João Jardim, Portuguese politician born in 1943, president of the regional government of Madeira.
- Aristides Sousa Mendes, (1885 - 1954) Portuguese diplomat, who fought against his own government for the safety of European Jews in the years before World War II.
- Manoel da Nóbrega, (1517 - 1570) Portuguese Jesuit priest and first Provincial of the Society of Jesus in colonial Brazil. He was very influential in the early History of Brazil, having participated in the founding of several cities.
- Adriano Correia de Oliveira, (1942 - 1982) Portuguese musician, one of the most famous singers and composers of political interventive musics. (He dropped out of the University of Coimbra)
- Nuno Piloto, Portuguese footballer born in 1982.
- Marquês de Pombal, (1699 - 1782) Prime Minister to King Joseph I of Portugal throughout his reign.
- Eça de Queirós, (1845 - 1900) Portuguese novelist and short-story writer, one of the leading intellectuals of the 'Generation of 1870'.
- Antero de Quental, (1842 - 1891) Portuguese poet.
- Adolfo Correia da Rocha, (1907 - 1995) Portuguese poet, a writer of prose and a medical doctor. He adopted the name Miguel Torga as his pseudonym.
- Salgado Zenha, (1923 - 1993) Portuguese left-wing politician and lawyer.

List of research units

Research and Studies centers of the University of Coimbra include:
- [http://www.aibili.pt/ AIBILI] (Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image)
- [http://www.ibili.uc.pt/ Institute of Biomedical Research in Light and Image]
- [http://www.uc.pt/histoem/ Centro de Histofisiologia, Patologia Experimental e Biologia do Desenvolvimento]
- [http://www.uc.pt/cardiotoracica/ Center of Cardiothoracic Surgery]
- [http://www.ff.uc.pt/cef/ Center for Pharmaceutical Studies]
- [http://centauro.dem.uc.pt/cemuc/ Mechanical Engineering Center]
- [http://www.cisuc.uc.pt/ Center for Informatics and Systems]
- [http://www.uc.pt/icems/ Institute of Science and Engineering Materials and Surfaces]
- [http://www.inescc.pt/ Institute for Systems and Computers Engineering at Coimbra]
- [http://www.isr.uc.pt/ Institute of Systems and Robotics]
- [http://pollux.fis.uc.pt/ X-Ray Diffraction Center for Materials Research (CEMDRX)]
- [http://cfc.fis.uc.pt/ Centre for Computational Physics]
- [http://cft.fis.uc.pt/ Center of Theoretical Physics]
- [http://berta.fis.uc.pt/ Electronics and Instrumentation Center]
- [http://c-instr.fis.uc.pt/ Instrumentation Center]
- [http://www.coimbra.lip.pt/ Laboratory for Instrumentation and Particle Physics - Coimbra]
- [http://www.mat.uc.pt/~cmuc/index.php Centre for Mathematics]
- [http://www.uc.pt/qfm/ Molecular Chemistry-Physics]
- [http://www.uc.pt/imar/ Institute of Marine Research - Coimbra Interdisciplinary Center]
- [http://www.uc.pt/iav/ Institute of Environment and Life]
- [http://www.uc.pt/cgeo/ Geosciences Centre]
- [http://www.ces.fe.uc.pt/ Centre for Social Studies]
- [http://www.uc.pt/cia/ Anthropology Investigation Centre]
- [http://www.uc.pt/cnc/ Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology]
- [http://www.uc.pt/ieru/ Institute of Urban and Regional Studies]
- [http://www.uc.pt/lif/ Linguagem, Interpretação e Filosofia]
- [http://www.chsc.uc.pt/ Centre for the History of Society and Culture]
- [http://www.uc.pt/eclassicos/ Estudos Clássicos e Humanísticos]
- [https://www.ipn.pt/ Instituto Pedro Nunes] (founded by the University of Coimbra, today an associated entity working also as a Business incubator)
- [http://www.uc.pt/iej/Instituto de Estudos Jornalísticos]

Other students in Coimbra

Since 1988, there has been a second public institution of higher education in Coimbra, the Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra, a polytechnic institute, whose entrance and teaching requirements are usually less demanding than the University of Coimbra's. There are also some private schools and institutes such as the [http://www.ismt.pt/ Instituto Superior Miguel Torga], the [http://www.isbb.pt/ Instituto Superior Bissaya Barreto], and the [http://www.uvascodagama.org/ Escola Universitária Vasco da Gama], which are not generally considered as prestigious as the university.

External links

- [http://www.uc.pt/ Universidade de Coimbra]
- [http://www.huc.min-saude.pt/ Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra]
- [http://www.aac.uc.pt/ Associação Académica de Coimbra]
- [http://www.ruc.pt/ Rádio Universidade de Coimbra] (radio station) Coimbra Category:Coimbra

University of Prague

The Charles University of Prague (also simply University of Prague; Czech: Univerzita Karlova; Latin: Universitas Carolina) is the oldest and most prestigious Czech university and among the oldest universities in Europe, being founded in 1340s (for the exact year, see below). In Germany it is often seen as the oldest German university (Karlsuniversität) due to its multiethnic origins and history.

History

Most Czech sources since at least the 19th century - encyclopedias, general histories, materials of the University itself - offer 1348 as the year of the founding of the university. On April 7 of that year, Charles I, the King of Bohemia (later known as Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor) issued a Golden Bull ([http://www.cuni.cz/UK-145.html transcription of the Latin original]) granting its privileges. One may however also see the papal bull of pope Clement VI on January 26 of the previous year (1347) as primary, as for the foundation of any other Church institution, with the King's later bull only exempting it from secular authority; it is possible that an anticlerical shift in the 19th century is to be seen as an explanation for 1348 usually being seen as the founding year. Based on the model of the University of Bologna and the University of Paris, the university was opened in 1349 and sanctioned by king Charles I in 1349. Archbishop Arnost of Pardubice took an active part in the foundation by obliging the clergy to contribute. The lectures were held in the colleges, of which the oldest was named for the king the Carolinum. The university was sectioned into Czech, Bavarian, Saxon and Polish parts called nations. nation In 1403 the university forbade its members to follow the teachings of Wycliff, but his doctrine continued to gain in popularity. Jan Hus had translated Wycliff's Trialogus into the Czech language. He was dean and rector of the university. The other nations of the university declared their support for the side of pope Gregory XII. Hus knew how to make use of king Wenceslaus' opposition to Gregory. By the decree of Kutná Hora (Dekret Kutnohorský in Czech) in 1409, Hus and the Czech nation had three votes in all affairs of the university, while only a single vote was for all the other nations combined where before each nation had one vote. The result of this was the emigration of the German professors and students to the University of Leipzig in May 1409. The Prague university lost the largest part of its students and the faculty. From then on the university declined to a merely national institution with a very low status. For decades no degrees were given and only the faculty of arts remained. Emperor Sigismund, son of Charles IV, took what was left into his personal property and some progress was made, and again later under emperor Rudolph II, when he took up residence in Prague. The emperor Ferdinand I called the Jesuits to Prague and they opened an academy. Soon they took over, were expelled 1618 - 1621, but by 1622 they had a predominant influence over the emperor. An Imperial decree gave the Jesuits supreme control over the entire school system of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. The last four professors at the Carolinum now resigned and all of the Carolinum and nine colleges went to the Jesuits. The right of handing out degrees, of holding chancellorships and of appointing the secular professors was also granted to the Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst, Count von Harrach actively opposed this union of power and prevented the drawing up of the Golden Bull for the confirmation of this grant. Cardinal Ernst funded the Collegium Adalbertinum and in 1638 emperor Ferdinand III limited the teaching monopoly enjoyed by the Jesuits. He took from them the rights, properties and archives of the Carolinum making the university once more independent under an imperial protector. During the last years of the Thirty Years' War the Charles Bridge in Prague was courageously defended by students of the Carolinum and Clementinum. The dilapidated Carolinum was rebuilt in 1718 at the expense of the state. Since 1650 those who received any degrees took an oath to maintain the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin, renewed annually. The rebuilding and the bureaucratic reforms of universities of Austria in 1752 and 1754 deprived the university of many of its former privileges. 1754] (date 1806?) For the first time Protestants were allowed and soon after Jews. The university funded an additional Czech professorship. By 1863 out of 187 lecture courses 22 were held in Czech, the remainder in German. The Czechs were not satisfied. Consequently after long negotiations the Carolo-Ferdinandea was divided into a German and a Czech Charles-Ferdinand University by a law of 1882. Each section was entirely independent of the other, only the aula and the library were used in common. By 1909 the Czech students at the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University (Karlo-Ferdinandova univerzita) numbered 4,300 students and the students at the German Charles-Ferdinand University (Karl-Ferdinand Universität) numbered 1,800. The two institutions continued to operate independently until 1939. During the World War II Nazi occupation, on November 17, 1939, after the burial of a student shot in earlier October 28 demonstrations, Czech part of the university, as well as all other higher-education institutions in Czechoslovakia, was closed down by force; many of its students and teachers were imprisoned in concentration camps and several student leaders executed. On the other hand, the German part of the institution proclaimed itself a university of Reich and was abolished after the liberation in 1945. Although the university began to develop rapidly again after 1945, it did not enjoy academic freedom for long. After the communist putsch in 1948, the newly forming regime started to arrange purges and repress all forms of disagreement with the official ideology, and continued to do so for the next four decades, with the most painful wave of purges during the "normalization" period in the beginning of the 1970s. Such state lasted until the "Velvet revolution" in 1989, initiated by several peaceful student demonstrations, bringing a final collapse to the communist regime. New representatives recruiting from independent academic community were set in January 1990.

Organisation

1990 1990 Today, Charles University comprises 17 faculties:
- catholic theology
- protestant theology
- hussite theology
- law
- medicine (three faculties located in Prague)
- natural sciences
- mathematics and physics
- pedagogy
- social sciences
- humanities
- arts (philosophy)
- physical education and sport Also, there are three faculties which are located outside of Prague:
- medicine at Plzen
- medicine at Hradec Kralove
- pharmacy at Hradec Kralove

Notable alumni

- Edvard Beneš (1884-1948), sociologist, second president of Czechoslovakia
- Bernard Bolzano (1781-1848), mathematician and philosopher
- Max Brod (1884-1968), writer
- Karel Čapek (1890-1938), writer
- Eduard Čech (1893-1960), mathematician
- Carl Ferdinand Cori (1896-1984), biochemist, Nobel laureate
- Gerty Cori (1896-1957), biochemist, Nobel laureate
- Josef Dobrovský (1753-1829), philologist and historian
- Jaroslav Heyrovský (1890-1967), chemist, Nobel laureate
- Bohumil Hrabal (1914-1997), writer
- Jan Hus (1369-1415), religious thinker and reformer
- Jan Janský (1873-1921), discoverer of blood types
- Franz Kafka (1883-1924), writer
- Karl I of Austria (1887-1922), last emperor of Austria and the last king of Bohemia
- Egon Erwin Kisch (1885-1948), writer and journalist
- Luboš Kohoutek (b. 1935), astronomer
- Milan Kundera (b. 1929), writer
- Jan Marek Marci (1595-1697), physician
- George Placzek (1905-1955), physicist
- Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1787-1869), physiologist
- Ferdinand Stoliczka (1838-1874), paleontologist
- Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), inventor, physicist
- Vladislav Vančura (1891-1942), writer
- Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), psychologist

Notable professors

- Jan Hus - religious thinker and reformer
- Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk - philosopher, politician, 1st president of Czechoslovakia
- Albert Einstein - theoretical physicist. Professor in the German part of the university.
- Jan Patočka - philosopher

Leadership

Prof. Ing. Ivan Wilhelm, CSc. has been the Chancellor of Charles University since 1999.

External links

- [http://www.cuni.cz/UK-1628.html Official webpages in English] (currently being reworked)
- [http://www1.cuni.cz/index.php?lng=eng Official webpages in English] (old version)
- [http://www.cuni.cz/UK-1584-version1-history_of_UK.doc University history] - DOC file with pictures

Royal Charter

A Royal Charter is a charter given by a monarch to legitimize an incorporated body, such as a city, company, university or such. In medieval Europe, cities were the only place where it was legal to conduct commerce, and Royal Charters were the only way to establish a city. The year a city was chartered is considered the year the city was "founded", irrespective of whether there was settlement there before. In the United Kingdom and Canada a Royal Charter is a charter granted by the Sovereign on the advice of the Privy Council, which creates or gives special status to an incorporated body. It is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative. At one time a Royal Charter was the only way in which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means such as the registration of a limited company are now available. Among the historic bodies formed by Royal Charter were the British East India Company and the American colonies. Among the 400 or so organisations with Royal Charters are cities, the BBC, Livery Companies, Britain's older universities, professional institutions and charities. A Royal Charter is the manner in which a British town is raised to the rank of British city. Most recently Inverness, Brighton & Hove and Wolverhampton were given their charters to celebrate the millennium, and Preston, Stirling, Newport, Lisburn and Newry to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2002. Some of the older British universities operate under Royal Charters, which give them the power to grant degrees. The most recent generation of universities were granted this power by the Further and Higher Education Act, 1992 instead. Some other universities operate under Acts of Parliament. The BBC operates under a Royal Charter which lasts for a limited period of ten years, after which it is renewed. Most Royal Charters are now granted to professional institutions and to charities. A Charter is not necessary for them to operate, but one is often sought as a recognition of "pre-eminence, stability and permanence".

External links

- [http://www.privy-council.org.uk/output/page26.asp Privy Council website]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/bbc/charter.shtml Royal Charter of the BBC]
- [http://www.ppd.bham.ac.uk/policy/charter/charter.htm Charter of the University of Birmingham]
- [http://www.state.ri.us/rihist/richart.htm Royal Charter of Rhode Island (1663)]

Papal bull

, sealed with a leaden bulla.]] A Papal bull is a special kind of patent or charter issued by a pope and named for the seal (bulla) that was appended to the end to authenticate it. Papal bulls were originally issued by the pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature, but after the 15th century, only for the more formal or solemn of occasions. Modern scholars have retroactively used the term "bull" to describe any elaborate papal document issued in the form of a decree or privilege (solemn or simple), and to some less elaborate ones issued in the form of a letter. Popularly, the name is used for any papal document that contains a metal seal. Papal bulls have been in use since at least the 6th century, but the term was not first used until around the middle of the 13th century and then only for internal un-official papal record keeping purposes; by the 15th century the term had become official when one of the offices of the Papal chancery was named the "register of bulls" (registrum bullarum).

Format

The bull's format began with one-line in tall elongated letters containing three elements: the pope's name, the pope's title (episcopus servus servorum Dei), and a phrase indicative of the bull's purpose for record keeping purposes (the incipit), from which the bull would also take its name. The body of the text had no special formating and was often very simple in layout. The closing section consisted of a short datum, mentioning the place it was issued, the day of the month and the year of the pope's pontification, signatures, and finally the seal. The Pope, for the most solemn bulls, would sign the document himself, in which case he used the formula Ego N. Catholicae Ecclesiae Episcopus (I, N, Bishop of the Catholic Church). Following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signature of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the metal seal. This seal was usually made of lead, but on very solemn occasions was made of gold. It depicted the founders of the church of Rome, the apostles Peter and Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. The name of the issuing pope is on the reverse side. This was then attached to the document by either cords of hemp or red and yellow silk that was looped through slits in the document. The term bulla actually is the name of this seal, which to ancient observers looked like a bubble floating on water. Bullire in Latin means "to boil". Since the late 18th century, the lead bulla has been replaced with a red ink stamp of Sts. Peter and Paul with the reigning pope's name encircling the picture, though very formal letters, e.g. the bull of John XXIII convoking the Second Vatican Council, still receive the lead seal. Original papal bulls exist in quantity only after the 11th century onward when the transition from fragile papyrus to the more durable parchment was made. None survives in entirety from before 819. Some original leaden seals, however, still survive from as early as the 6th century.

Content

In terms of content, the bull is simply the format in which a decree of the pope appears. Any subject may be treated in a bull, and many were and are, including statutory decrees, episcopal appointments, dispensations, excommunications, constitutions, canonizations and convocations. The bull was the exclusive letter format from the Vatican until the 14th century, when the Papal brief began to appear. The Papal brief is the less formal form of papal communication and is authenticated with a wax impression (now a red ink impression) of the Ring of the Fisherman. There has never been an exact distinction of usage between a bull and a brief, but nowadays most letters, including Papal encyclicals, are issued as briefs. Today, the bull is the only written communication in which the pope will address himself as episcopus servus servorum Dei, meaning "Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God." For instance, Benedict XVI, when he issues a decree in bull form, will begin the document with Benedictus, Episcopus, Servus Servorum Dei. While it used to always bear a metal seal, it now does so only on the most solemn occasions. It is today the most formal type of patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the pope.

Examples of papal bulls

- Omne Datum Optimum, 1139 (recognizing the Knights Templar)
- Milites Templi, 1144—Celestine II (granting privileges to the Templars)
- Militia Dei, 1145—Eugenius III (granting more privileges to the Templars)
- Quantum praedecessores, 1145—Eugenius III (calling for the Second Crusade)
- Audita tremendi, 1187—Gregory VIII (calling for the Third Crusade
- Ad extirpanda, May 15, 1252—Innocent IV (authorizing torture of heretics)
- Clericis Laicos, 1296—Boniface VIII (prohibiting seizure of clerical revenues by the state)
-

University of Paris

Origin and organization of the medieval university

The Collège de Sorbonne

Other colleges

Student revolt and reorganization

Present universities

See also

External links

University

History

Universities around the world

Universities and student life in different countries

Selective admissions

Colloquial usage

See also

Related terms

References

Robert de Sorbon

Rector

Academic rectors

Scotland

Oxford University

See also

Ecclesiastical rectors

Anglican churches

Roman Catholic Church

Medieval university

Origins

Characteristics

List of medieval universities

References

See also

External links

University of Bologna

Notable Members of the University of Bologna

External links

See also

University of Coimbra

History

Organization

Students

Sports, clubs and traditions

List of faculties

Stats and other info

Alumni

Notable Professors and Lecturers

Nobel laureates

Others

Notable Attendees

List of research units

Other students in Coimbra

See also

External links

University of Prague

History

Organisation

Notable alumni

Notable professors

Leadership

External links

See also:

Royal Charter

External links

See also

Papal bull

Format

Content

Examples of papal bulls