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Caliph

Caliph

:This article is on the highest religious and/or temporal title, aspiring universal authority, in Islam; :for lower, notably gubernatorial, uses of the Arabic title khalifa, see that article Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah () which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet Muhammad. Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as Khalîf. The caliph has often been referred to as Ameer al-Mumineen (أمير المؤمنين), or "Prince of the Faithful," where "Prince" is used in the context of "commander." After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib) the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other, competing lineages in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or emirs, and gave token obedience to a caliph who often had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1924.

Origins of the caliphate

Most academic scholars do not believe that Muhammad had explicitly established how the Muslim community was to be governed after his death. Two questions faced these early Muslims: who was to succeed Muhammad, and what sort of authority he was to exercise.

Succession to Muhammad

Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests(1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and choose a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultation. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir. Muhammad, if he considered the matter of succession at all, would possibly have thought that the standard procedure would apply. This is also the argument advanced by Sunni Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's lieutenant Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus, even though the caliphate soon became a hereditary office, or the prize of the strongest general. Sunnis accept that the caliph should be chosen from Muhammad's tribe, the Quraysh. Shi'a Muslims disagree. They believe that Muhammad had given many indications that he considered Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, as his chosen successor. They say that Abu Bakr seized power by force and trickery. All caliphs other than Ali were usurpers. Ali and his descendents are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or imams. This matter is covered in much greater detail in the article Succession to Muhammad, and in the article on Shi'a Islam. A third branch of Islam, the Ibadi, believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in Oman.

The authority of the caliph

Who should succeed Muhammad was not the only issue that faced the early Muslims; they also had to clarify the extent of the leader's powers. Muhammad, during his lifetime, was not only the Muslim leader, but the Muslim prophet and the Muslim judge. All law and spiritual practice proceeded from Muhammad. Was his successor to have the same status? None of the early caliphs claimed to receive divine revelations, as did Muhammad; none of them claimed to be nabi, a prophet. Muhammad's revelations were soon codified and written down as the Qur'an, which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command. However, there is some evidence that the early caliphs did believe that they had authority to rule in matters not specified in the Qur'an. They believed themselves to be the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The modern scholars Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, in their book God's Caliph, outline the evidence for an early, expansive view of the caliph's importance and authority. They argue that this view of the caliphate was eventually nullified (in Sunni Islam, at least) by the rising power of the ulema, or Islamic scholars, clerics, and religious specialists. The ulema insisted on their right to determine what was legal and orthodox. The proper Muslim leader, in the ulema's opinion, was the leader who enforced the rulings of the ulema, rather than making rulings of his own. Conflict between caliph and ulema was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema. The caliph was henceforth limited to temporal rule. He would be considered a righteous caliph if he were guided by the ulema. Crone and Hinds argue that Shi'a Muslims, with their expansive view of the powers of the imamate, have preserved some of the beliefs of early Islam. Crone and Hinds' thesis is not accepted by all scholars. Most Sunni Muslims now believe that the caliph has always been a merely temporal ruler, and that the ulema has always been responsible for adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law (shari'a). The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believe to have followed the Qur'an and the way or sunnah of Muhammad in all things. This formulation itself presumes the Sunni ulema's view of history.

The history of the caliphate

Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and the Muslim community submitted to his choice. Uthman was elected by a council of electors, but was soon perceived by many Muslims to be ruling as a "king" rather than an elected leader. Uthman was killed by rebellious soldiers. Ali then took control, but was not universally accepted as caliph. He faced numerous rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war. One of Ali's challengers was Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman. After Ali's death, Muawiyah managed to overcome all other claimants to the caliphate. He is remembered by history as Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Under Muawiyah, the caliphate became a hereditary office. Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the west, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the east, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like al-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hisham, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali, were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. Following this disappointment, the Shi'at Ali finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shi'a denominations. The Abassids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world. During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Shi'a Said ibn Husayn of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting the Fatimids to rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Ummayad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of the Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. 1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. Although members of the Abassid dynasty proclaimed a new Caliphate within three years, based in Cairo, various other Muslim rulers had also begun to claim the title of caliph and the Muslim empire became fractured. Eventually the caliphate of the Ottomans established primacy. Thus, by the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman caliphate represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The rulers of the Ottoman state, however, only rarely used title of khalifa for political purposes. It is known that Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. At a later date, one of the last Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdulhamid II, used it as a tool against the European colonisation and occupation of countries with large Muslim populations.

How the Caliphate Came to an End

See the article Demise of the Ottoman Caliphate. On March 3, 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Kemal Atatürk, constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Its powers were transfered to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (parliament) of the newly formed Turkish nation-state and the title has since been inactive. Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim World were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by Turkey, but none were successful. Hussein bin Ali, a former Ottoman governor of the Hejaz who had conspired with the British during World War I and revolted against Istanbul, declared himself Caliph at Mecca two days after Turkey relinquished the title. But no one took his claim seriously, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the Saudis, a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. The last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful. In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to restore the Turkish Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularly strong in India, where it was a rallying point for Muslim communities. A summit was convened in Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit’s resolutions. Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), an international organization founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. But the OIC has limited influence; many Muslims are not aware that the organization exists, and its resolutions are often ignored even by member nations.

Reasons for the Caliphate's Continuing Dormancy

Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 81 years. The reasons for this are varied and complex. During the first half of the European Middle Ages, Muslim kingdoms were global superpowers home to some of the world's preeminent centers of culture, trade, and learning. The fall of the Abbasid Empire in 1258 marked the end of this prolific period of the Muslim World's intellectual history, and subsequent centuries failed to produce Muslim scholarly achievement and technological or intellectual progress of the significance that had characterized earlier Muslim civilizations. Though the void in Muslim geopolitical and military strength was briefly filled by the emergence of the Ottoman Empire (the last symbol of Islamic power), the ongoing intellectual stagnation contributed to a steady decline of the Ottoman Empire's strength and influence, and the Muslim World found itself unable to respond to a booming European resurgance fueled by the Rennaisance, the Reformation, and the Industrial Revolution. By the end of World War I, most Muslim lands had fallen under foreign occupation. Under varying degrees of European control and influence, the Muslim World was subsequently reshaped along secular nationalist lines and heavily influenced by Western or socialist political philosophies. The role of mosques and the religious establishment was substantially reduced in most Muslim countries, leading to the emergence of political and military elites that viewed Islam as a personal matter and not a basis for political unity or a viable foundation for a modern state. Furthermore, the division of the Muslim World into distinct nation-states caused cultural differences to become more pronounced. These effects, coupled with prevalence of old grudges and rivalries between Muslim regimes (particularly in the Arab world), have prevented large-scale interstate cooperation amongst Muslim states from taking place. Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims remain in favor of a caliphate, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the Tablighi Jamaat identify a lack of spirituality and decline in religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim World's problems, and claim that the caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which was based on Shia principles and did not deal with the issue of a global caliphate. Various Sunni Islamist movements have gained momentum in recent years, calling for a restoration of the caliphate. However many such movements have as yet been unable to agree on a roadmap or a coherent model of Islamic governance, and dialog on this issue amongst Muslim intellectuals has been characterized by uncertainty and confusion amidst a broad range of viewpoints on what a modern Islamic state should look like. Mainstream Islamic institutions in Muslim countries today have generally not made the restoration of the caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. Most regimes have actually been hostile to such a call. One transnational group, the Hizb_ut-Tahrir, has tried to recruit the world's Muslims to a renewed caliphate. They have published a draft constitution at [http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org].

Famous caliphs


- Abu Bakr - First rightly guided caliph of the Sunnis. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars.
- Umar ibn al-Khattab - Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia.
- Uthman ibn Affan - Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.
- Ali ibn Abi Talib - Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.
- Muawiya I - First Umayyad caliph. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through all subsequent caliphates.
- Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz - Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.
- Haroon al-Rasheed - Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights.
- Suleiman the Magnificent - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith.

Dynasties

The more important dynasties include:
- The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661-750), followed by:
- The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750-1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluke control) (1260-1517)
- The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909-1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the following list.
- The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established 'in exile' as Emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929-1031)
- The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145-1269). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the Mahdi (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the 'decadent' Almoravid emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph.
- The Ottomans (1453-1924; main title Padishah, also known as Great Sultan etc., used the title Caliph only sporadically between the 16th and late 19th century Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article.

Claims to the caliphate

Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include:
- al-Zubayr -- held the Hijaz against the Ummayads
- Caliph of the Sudan -- a Songhai king of the Sahel

Lists of Caliphal dynasties and seats

Years according to the Christian era (all AD)

The Rashidun ("Righteously Guided")

Accepted by Sunni Muslims as the first four rulers; Shi'a Muslims believe that the first three rulers were usurpers.
- Abu Bakr - 632 - 634
- Umar ibn al-Khattab - 634 - 644
- Uthman ibn Affan - 644 - 656
- Ali ibn Abi Talib - 656 - 661

The Umayyads of Damascus


- Muawiyah I - 661 - 680
- Yazid I - 680 - 683
- Muawiya II - 683 - 684
- Marwan I - 684 - 685
- Abd al-Malik - 685 - 705
- al-Walid I - 705 - 715
- Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik - 715 - 717
- Umar II - 717 - 720
- Yazid II - 720 - 724
- Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik - 724 - 743
- Al-Walid II - 743 - 744
- Yazid III - 744
- Ibrahim ibn al-Walid - 744
- Marwan II - 744 - 750

The Abbasids of Baghdad

The main branch, in Baghdad

(Not accepted by the Muslim dominions in the Iberian peninsula and parts of North Africa)
- Abu'l Abbas As-Saffah - 750 - 754
- Al-Mansur - 754 - 775
- Al-Mahdi - 775 - 785
- Al-Hadi- 785 - 786
- Harun al-Rashid - 786 - 809
- Al-Amin - 809 - 813
- Al-Ma'mun - 813 - 833
- Al-Mu'tasim - 833 - 842
- Al-Wathiq - 842 - 847
- Al-Mutawakkil - 847 - 861
- Al-Muntasir - 861 - 862
- Al-Musta'in - 862 - 866
- Al-Mu'tazz - 866 - 869
- Al-Muhtadi - 869 - 870
- Al-Mu'tamid - 870 - 892
- Al-Mu'tadid - 892 - 902
- Al-Muktafi - 902 - 908

- Al-Muqtadir - 908 - 932
- Al-Qahir - 932 - 934
- Ar-Radi - 934 - 940
- Al-Muttaqi - 940 - 944
- Al-Mustakfi - 944 - 946
- Al-Muti - 946 - 974
- At-Ta'i - 974 - 991
- Al-Qadir - 991 - 1031

The Umayyads (Rahmanid branch) of Cordoba

(Not universally accepted)
- Abd-ar-rahman III, as caliph, 929-961
- Al-Hakam II, 961-976
- Hisham II, 976-1008
- Mohammed II, 1008-1009
- Suleiman, 1009-1010
- Hisham II, restored, 1010-1012
- Suleiman, restored, 1012-1017
- Abd-ar-Rahman IV, 1021-1022
- Abd-ar-Rahman V, 1022-1023
- Muhammad III, 1023-1024
- Hisham III, 1027-1031

- Al-Qa'im - 1031 - 1075
- Al-Muqtadi - 1075 - 1094
- Al-Mustazhir - 1094 - 1118
- Al-Mustarshid - 1118 - 1135
- Ar-Rashid - 1135 - 1136
- Al-Muqtafi - 1136 - 1160

The Almohads of Spain and Morroco

(Not widely accepted)
- Abd al-Mu'min 1145-1163
- Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I 1163-1184
- Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur 1184-1199
- Muhammad an-Nasir 1199-1213
- Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II 1213-1224
- Abd al-Wahid I 1224
- Abdallah 1224-1227
- Yahya 1227-1235
- Idris I 1227-1232
- Abdul-Wahid II 1232-1242
- Ali 1242-1248
- Umar 1248-1266
- Idris II 1266-1269

- Al-Mustanjid - 1160 - 1170
- Al-Mustadi - 1170 - 1180
- An-Nasir - 1180 - 1225
- Az-Zahir - 1225 - 1226
- Al-Mustansir - 1226 - 1242
- Al-Musta'sim - 1242 - 1258

The Abbasid branch of Cairo


- Al-Mustansir - 1259-1261
- Al-Hakim I - 1262 - 1302
- Al-Mustakfi I - 1302 - 1340
- Al-Wathiq I - 1340 - 1341
- Al-Hakim II - 1341 - 1352
- Al-Mu'tadid I - 1352 - 1362
- Al-Mutawakkil I - 1362 - 1383
- Al-Wathiq II - 1383 - 1386
- Al-Mu'tasim - 1386 - 1389
- Al-Mutawakkil I (restored) - 1389 - 1406
- Al-Musta'in - 1406 - 1414
- Al-Mu'tadid II - 1414 - 1441
- Al-Mustakfi II - 1441 - 1451

- Al-Qa'im - 1451 - 1455
- Al-Mustanjid - 1455 - 1479
- Al-Mutawakkil II - 1479 - 1497
- Al-Mustamsik - 1497 - 1508
- Al-Mutawakkil III - 1508 - 1517

The Ottoman Padishahs

Originally the secular, conquering dynasty was just entitled Sultan, soon it started accumulating titles assumed from subjected peoples
- Mehmed (Muhammed) II (the Conqueror of Constantinopel, afterwards Istanbul) - 1451 - 1481 (actively used numerous titles such as of Caliph and Caesar )
- Beyazid II - 1481 - 1512
- Selim I - 1512 - 1520 (actively used title of Caliph )
- Suleiman the Magnificent - 1520 - 1566
- Selim II - 1566 - 1574
- Murad III - 1574 - 1595
- Mehmed(Muhammed) III - 1595 - 1603
- Ahmed I - 1603 - 1617
- Mustafa I (First Reign) - 1617 - 1618
- Osman II - 1618 - 1622
- Mustafa I (Second Reign) - 1622 - 1623
- Murad IV - 1623 - 1640
- Ibrahim I - 1640 - 1648
- Mehmed (Muhammed) IV - 1648 - 1687
- Suleiman II - 1687 - 1691
- Ahmed II - 1691 - 1695
- Mustafa II - 1695 - 1703
- Ahmed III - 1703 - 1730
- Mahmud I - 1730 - 1754
- Osman III - 1754 - 1757
- Mustafa III - 1757 - 1774
- Abd-ul-Hamid I - 1774 - 1789
- Selim III - 1789 - 1807
- Mustafa IV - 1807 - 1808
- Mahmud II - 1808 - 1839
- Abd-ul-Mejid I - 1839 - 1861
- Abd-ul-Aziz - 1861 - 1876
- Murad V - 1876
- Abd-ul-Hamid II - 1876 - 1909 (actively used title of Caliph) Note: From 1908 onwards constitutional monarch without executive powers, with parliament consisting of chosen representatives.
- Mehmed(Muhammed) V - 1909 - 1918 (constitutional monarch/Caliph without executive powers, parliament consisting of chosen representatives)
- Mehmed (Muhammed)VI - 1918 - 1922 (constitutional monarch/Caliph without executive powers, parliament consisting of chosen representatives)

The secular Republic of Turkey


- Abdul Mejid II - 1922 - 1924; only as Caliph (Head of state: Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha)
- Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) 1924-1937 Although the title of Caliph is currently unused, it could conceivably be used again if the Turkish parliament were to decide to reactivate it.

The Sharifan house in (now Saudi) Arabia

A last attempt at restoring the caliphal office and style with ecumenical recognition was made by al-Husayn ibn `Ali al-Hashimi, King of al-Hijaz, who assumed both 11 Mar 1924 and held them until his passing the kingship to his son `Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Hashimi, who did not adopt the khalifal office and style.

See also


- History of Islam
- Succession to Muhammad

Sources and References


- Crone, Patricia & Hinds, Martin -- God's Caliph, Cambridge University Press, 1986
- Donner, Fred -- The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton University Press, 1981
- [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Religious_Organizations.html#Caliphate WorldStatesmen] here Religious Organisations (click Muslim Caliphate) - see also present countries per caliphal seat
- [http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A033 History of the Indian Khilafat Movement]
- [http://www.caliphate.co.uk/ A vision of a 21st Century Khilafah]
- [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~luqman/ List of articles on the nature of a new Khilafah]
- [http://www.khilafah.or.id/ Page dedicated to having a Khilafah in Indonesia]
- [http://howcaliphatewillwork.blogspot.com/ Caliphate Blog]
- [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Articles/politics/political_framework_of_islam.htm The Political Framework of Islam & Khilafah by Prof. Kurshid Ahmad]
- [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Articles/politics/understanding_politics_in_islam.htm Prof Yusuf al-Qaradawi on The politics of Islam]
- [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Articles/politics/espo.html Political Islam: Beyond the Green Menace, by John Esposito, Journal of Current History] Category:Caliphate Category:Heads of state Category:Monarchy Category:Noble titles Category:Religious leaders Category:Titles Category:Arabic words ja:カリフ

Khalifa

. "In the Khalifa's house. The caretaker; typical of Mahdi's followers."]] Khalifa (خليفة ) is Arabic for "stewardship" of nature and family, and is a key obligation of a Muslim. The word is most commonly used for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, which is translated into English as Caliph (see that article for this definition). However there are also several other specific uses of the same title for Muslim offices at lower levels of power and authoririty.

Stewartship

While Sunni and Shia Islam differ sharply on the conduct of a caliph and the right relations between a leader and a community, they do not differ on the underlying theory of stewardship. Both abhor waste of natural resources in particular to show off or demonstrate power. Many consider this conservation urge a necessity of any desert culture, where oases are precious and natural capital must be preserved, in particular clean water sources. Three specific ways in which khalifa is manifested in Muslim practice are the creation of haram to protect water, hima to protect other species (including those useful to man), and by resisting infidel control over Muslim lands, through jihad. The modern theory of khalifa as ecological stewardship has developed as part of Islamic science — notably in the work of Seyyed Hossein Nasr. This development parallels similar trends in many religions, for example Henry David Thoreau the Protestant, Thomas Berry the Catholic, and Mohandas Gandhi the Hindu, all of which deplored consumerism and elevate respect for nature to a good in itself.

Defining the Muslim Khalifa

A summary of a lecture series given by the Islamic Scholar, Gharm Allah Al-Ghamdy, defining the Muslim Khalifa. [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/politics/khalifa.html] The Khalifa Institute calls for a world wide jihad and outlines their plan to bring the global society under the dominion of Islam. [http://islamic-world.net/papers/islamic_plan.htm]

Titular uses

Religious leaders


- In the sect of the Ahmadi, khalifa is the title of the successors of its founding Mahdi, except in the break-away Lahore branch, which is lead by its own Emirs.

Secular offices

In Morocco, the Sheriafian Monarch awarded the title Khalifa or Chaliphe, here meaning 'Viceroy', to royal princes (styled Moulay), including future Sultans, who represented the crown in a part of the sultanate:
- especially in the former royal capitals Marrakesh, Fez and Meknes
- also in other mayor cities, e.g. of Shawiya, and Casablanca, of Tafilalt, of Tadla, of Tiznit and Tindouf; of Dra=Draa (a desert region); in Tetouan
- but also, in the XXth century, as irrevocably fully mandated Representative of the Sultan in the Spanish Zone, known after him in Spanish as el Jalifato (note the definite article; although the Spanish word can also be applied to other deputies of various Moroccan officials), besides the Alto comisario (de facto governing 'High Commissioner') of the colonial 'protector' Spain, which called his office el Jalifa (not Califa, the word for any 'imperial' Caliph, ruling a califato):
  - 19 Apr 1913 - 9 Nov 1923 Mulay al-Mahdi bin Isma'il bin Muhammad (d. 1923)
  - 9 Nov 1923 - 9 Nov 1925 Vacant
  - 9 Nov 1925 - 16 Mar 1941 Mulay Hassan bin al-Mahdi (1st time)(b. 1912)
  - 16 Mar 1941 - Oct 1945 Vacant
  - Oct 1945 - 7 Apr 1956 Mulay Hassan bin al-Mahdi (2nd time)(s.a.)
- See also Khilafah

Other use

As many titles, Khalifa also occurs in many names, and is even the name of the Arabian peninsular al-Khalifa dynasty of Bahrain (Al-Bahrein) descending from the al-Utub tribe,

Sources and References


- [http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Morocco/morocco.htm RoyalArk] here Morocco - see also other c
- Category:Caliphate Category:Gubernatorial titles Category:Islamic law Category:Islamic philosophy Category:Religious leaders



Muhammad

: "Muhammad" is a common Muslim male name. For other prominent people called Muhammad, see Muhammad (disambiguation) Muhammad (, also transliterated Mohammad, Mohammed, Muhammed, and sometimes Mahomet (Latin Mahometus), following the Latin or Turkish), is believed by Muslims to be God's final prophet sent to guide mankind with the message of Islam. Non-Muslims generally consider him to be the founder of Islam. According to traditional Muslim biographers, he was born ca. 570 in Mecca (Makkah) and died June 8 632 in Medina (Madinah); both Mecca and Medina are cities in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia. Literally, Muhammad means "highly praised" in Arabic.

Summary

Born Muhammad ibn Abdullah, he is said to have been a merchant who traveled widely. Muslims believe that in 610, at about the age of forty, while praying in a cave called "Hira" near Mecca, he experienced a vision. Later, he described the experience (to those close to him) as a visit from the Angel Gabriel, who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God which were later collected as the Qur'an. Gabriel told him that God (Allah) had chosen him as the last of the prophets to mankind. He eventually expanded his mission as a prophet, publicly preaching a strict monotheism and predicting a Day of Judgement. He did not completely reject Judaism and Christianity, two other monotheistic faiths known to the Arabs; he said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect their teachings. Many of his neighbors resented his preaching, and persecuted Muhammad and his followers. In 622, he was forced to flee from Mecca and settle in Yathrib (now known as Medina) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community. War between Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad and his followers were eventually victorious. The military organization honed in this struggle was then set to conquering the other tribes of Arabia. By the time of Muhammad's death, he had unified Arabia, spread Islam throughout the Arab Peninsula, and launched expeditions to the north, towards Syria and Palestine. Under prophet Muhammad's immediate successors the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Iberia. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the globe.

Sources about Muhammad's life

The sources available about Muhammad's life are the Qur'an, the sira biographies, and the hadith collections. While the Qur'an is not a biography of Muhammad, it does provide some information about his life. The earliest surviving biographies are the Life of the Apostle of God, by Ibn Ishaq (d. 768), edited by Ibn Hisham (d. 833); and al-Waqidi's (d. 822) biography of Muhammad. Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. The third source, the hadith collections, like the Qur'an, are not a biography per se. In both the Sunni and Shia belief, they are the accounts of the words and actions of Muhammad. Some skeptical scholars (Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of these sources, especially the hadith collections. They argue that by the time the oral traditions were being collected, the Muslim community had fractured into rival sects and schools of thought. Each sect and school had its own sometimes conflicting traditions of what Muhammad and his companions had done and said. Traditions multiplied, and Muslim scholars made a strenuous effort to weed out what they felt were spurious stories. Traditionalists rely on their efforts while the skeptics feel that the question must be revisited. Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike agree that there are some inauthentic traditions concerning the life of Muhammad in the hadith collections. Most of these traditions are acknowledged by Muslim clerical authorities to be weak; only a few hadith collections are considered reliable. A very small minority called the "Quran Alone Muslims" consider all hadith as unreliable. However, the historicity of the biographical material about Muhammad presented in the summary above is not generally contested. Traditionalists, both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's life.

Muhammad's life according to Sira

Muhammad's genealogy

According to tradition, Muhammad traced his genealogy back as far as Adnan, whom the northern Arabs believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (Ishmael), son of Ibrahim (Abraham) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's genealogy up to Adnan is as follows: Muhammad ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) ibn Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn Adnan. (ibn = "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in brackets.) His nickname was Abul-Qaasim, "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son.

Childhood

Muhammad was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of Mecca. Some calculate his birthdate as April 20, 570 (Shia Muslims believe it to be April 26), and some as 571; tradition places it in the Year of the Elephant. Muhammad's father, Abdullah, had died before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the tribe of Quraysh. Tradition says that as an infant, he was placed with a Bedouin wetnurse, Halima, as desert life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother Amina, and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. Muhammad now came under care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, the most powerful in Mecca. Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the Kaaba) that housed many different idols. Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways.

Middle years

Muhammad became a merchant and one of his employers was Khadijah, a rich widow then forty years old. The young twenty-five-year old Muhammad has impressed Khadijah and she proposed to him in the year 595. By Arab custom, minors did not inherit, so Muhammad had received no inheritance from either his father or his grandfather. Ibn Ishaq records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children, one son and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first revelation. His son Qasim died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah. The Shi'a say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister.

The first revelations

Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (Hira) near Mecca in meditation and thought. Muslims believe that around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad had a vision of the Angel Gabriel and heard a voice saying to him (in rough translation) "Read in the name of your Lord the Creator. He created man from something which clings. Read, and your Lord is the Most Honored. He taught man with the pen; taught him all that he knew not." (See surat Al-Alaq for a fuller account.) The first vision of Gabriel disturbed Muhammad, but his wife Khadijah reassured him that it was a true vision and became his first follower. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Abu Bakr, whom Sunnis assert to have been Muhammad's closest friend. Until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received surat ad-Dhuha, whose words provided comfort and reassurance. Around 613, Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Some, however, believed and joined his small group.

Rejection

As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, a sacred house of idols and the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s denunciation of polytheism was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to Abyssinia and founded a small colony there. Several suras and parts of suras are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example al-Masadd, al-Humaza, parts of Maryam and al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, and Abasa. In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as "the year of sorrows." Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured hunger and persecution.

Isra and Miraj

Some time in 620, the prophet Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to Jerusalem. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured Heaven and Hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque known as the Masjid al-Aqsa is built over the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven.

Hijra

By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then resolved to emigrate to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam, a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This Hijra or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra). Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of Aws and Khazraj. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, and forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Muhammad had hoped that they would recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so. Some academic historians suggest that Muhammad abandoned hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers at this time, and thus the qibla, the Muslim direction of prayer, was changed from the site of the former Temple in Jerusalem to the Kabaa in Mecca. Non-Muslim settlements within Muslim territories were taxed rather than expelled. Muhammad drafted a document now known as the Constitution of Medina (ca. 622-623), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the Jews, could exist within the new Islamic State. In this system, the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book" were allowed to keep their religions as long as they paid tribute. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects and that tradition was one reason for the stability of the later Muslim caliphate or Khilafah. In this, the Islamic empire was more tolerant than the other great powers of the area, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, which were actively hostile to any religions or sects other than the state-sponsored religions (Orthodox Christianity and Zoroastrianism).

War

Relations between Mecca and Medina rapidly worsened (see surat al-Baqara). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes. Muhammad turned to raiding caravans bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims. Secular scholars add this was also a matter of survival for the Muslims. They owned no land in Medina and if they did not raid, they would have to live on charity and whatever wage labor they could find. In March of 624, Muhammad led some 300 warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than 3 times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement.

Muhammad's rule consolidated

To the Muslims, the victory in Badr appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood, and he and all the Muslims rejoiced greatly. Following this victory, after clashes, and the breaking of a treaty that risked the security of the city state, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa. Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted, and Muhammad became de facto ruler of the city. After Khadija's death, Muhammad married again, to Aisha, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). These marriages sealed relations between Muhammad and his top-ranking followers. Muhammad's daughter Fatima married Ali, Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married Uthman. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus all four of the first four caliphs were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided. (See Succession to Muhammad for more information on the controversy on who the first caliph should have been).

Continued warfare

In 625 the Meccan general Abu Sufyan marched on Medina with 3,000 men. The ensuing Battle of Uhud took place on March 23, ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina. In April 627 Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the Battle of the Trench. Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the Banu Qurayza. As soon as the battle was over, the Muslims turned upon the Banu Qurayza. After the Banu Qurayza were defeated, all the adult men were beheaded by the order of Saad ibn Muadh, an arbiter chosen by the Banu Qurayza. The remaining women and children were taken as captives or for ransom. Some critics of Islam feel that this was unjust; Muslims believe that this was necessary. The matter is discussed at greater length in the article on the Banu Qurayza. Following the Muslim's victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes.

The conquest of Mecca

By 628, the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad decided to return to Mecca, this time as a pilgrim. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of al-Hudaybiyah. While Muhammad would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year. The agreement lasted only two years, however, as the Meccans broke the treaty in 630. As a result, the prophet Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number 10,000+ men. The Meccans submitted without a fight, and thus, there was no bloodshed. The prophet Muhammad promised a general amnesty to all the Meccans and ensured them that no harm will be done to them. Most Meccans converted to Islam, as a result of this, and Muhammad destroyed the idols in the Kaaba. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine.

Unification of Arabia

The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at Hunayn effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. This authority was not enforced by any formal governments, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. Hunayn The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam.

Muhammad as a warrior

For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years. Much criticism has been leveled at Muhammad for engaging in caravan raids and wars of conquest. Critics say that his wars went well beyond self-defense. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare.

Muhammad's family life

From 595 to 619, Muhammad had only one wife, Khadijah. After her death he married Aisha, then Hafsa. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). Some say that he married his slave girl Maria al-Qibtiyya, but other sources speak to the contrary. Khadija was Muhammad's first wife and the mother of the only child to survive him, his daughter Fatima. He married his other wives after the death of Khadija. Some of these women were recent widows of warriors in battle. Others were daughters of his close allies or tribal leaders. One of the later unions resulted in a son, but the child died when he was ten months old. His marriage to Aisha is often criticized today citing traditional sources that state she was only nine years old when he consummated the marriage. (See Aisha for a discussion of other, conflicting, traditions). Critics also question his marriage to his adopted son's ex-wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, and his alleged violation of the Qur'anic injunction against marrying more than four wives. For further information on Muhammad's family life and consideration of these criticisms, see Muhammad's marriages.

Companions of Muhammad

The term companions refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad. Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are responsible for the transmission of hadith, as each hadith must have as its first transmitter a companion. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here. List in alphabetic order:
- Aamir
- Abdullah ibn Abbas
- Abdulrahman
- Abu Bakr
- Ali
- Bilal the Ethiopian
- Hamza
- Sa'd
- Sa'eed
- Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas
- Salman the Persian
- Suhaib the Roman
- Talha
- Umar
- Uthman
- Zubair

The death of Muhammad

After a short illness, Muhammad died around noon on Monday 8 June 632, in the city of Medina at the age of sixty-three. According to Shi'a Islam, Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at Ghadir Khumm. But Abu Bakr and Umar intrigued to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or caliph. The majority Sunni sect dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad. However it happened, Abu Bakr became the new leader. He spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the Ridda Wars. With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the Middle East under the caliphs.

Muhammad's descendants

Middle East. The mosque now contains the tombs of Muhammad and the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab]] Muhammad was survived by his daughter Fatima and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter Zainab, who had borne a daughter, Amma or Umama, who survived him as well.) In Shi'a Islam, it is believed that Fatima's husband 'Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad's descendents. Descendents of Muhammad are known by many names, such as sayyids, syeds سيد, and sharifs شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa, the Idrisis, the current royal families of Jordan and Morocco, and the Agha Khan Imams of the Ismaili branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others.

Muhammad's historical significance

Before his death in 632, Prophet Muhammad had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia. A few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia, and conquered Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Armenia, and much of North Africa. By 750, Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the Roman Empire. The rest of North Africa had come under Muslim rule, as well as the entire Iberian Peninsula and much of Central Asia (including Sind, in the Indus Valley). Under the Ghaznavids, in the tenth century, Islam was spread to the mainly Hindu principalities east of the Indus by conquering armies in what is now northern India. Even later, Islam expanded peacefully into much of Africa and Southeast Asia. Islam is now the faith of well over a billion people all over the globe, and is the second largest religion of the present day.

Muslim veneration of Muhammad

Image:Muhammad callig.gif|The name "Muhammad" written in Arabic calligraphy. Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits art depicting humans or animals; much Islamic art is decorative calligraphy or arabesque (abstract pattern). Image:Miraj2.jpg|A 16th century Persian miniature painting celebrating Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the Miraj. Muhammad's face is veiled.
All Muslims feel a great love and veneration for Muhammad, and express this feeling in many ways.
- When speaking or writing, Muhammad's name is preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, Peace be upon him, or Peace be upon him and his descendents by Shias; in English often abbreviated as "(pbuh)" and "pbuh&hd", or just simply as "p".
- Concerts of Muslim and especially Sufi devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (see Muslim music, Qawwali).
- Some Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (Mawlid) with elaborate festivities. Others do not, believing that such festivities are modern innovations.
- Criticism of Muhammad is often equated with blasphemy, which is punishable by death in some Muslim states.
- Muhammad is often referenced with titles of praise.
- Muhammad's relics, such as his grave, his sword, his clothing, even strands of his hair, are revered by some.
- Even non-iconic representations of Muhammad are traditionally discouraged. From the 16th century however, Persian and Ottoman art frequently represented Muhammad in miniatures, albeit with his his face either veiled, or emanating radiance (see e.g. Siyer-i Nebi).
- Beyond the stories accepted as canonical by Islamic scholars of hadith, or oral traditions, there are many folktales praising Muhammad and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life.

See also


- Islam
- Islam and veneration for Muhammad
- The 100
- Sira
- Hadith
- Family tree of Muhammad ibn Abdallah
- Succession to Muhammad
- Siyer-i Nebi
- List of Islamic terms in Arabic
- List of founders of major religions
- Informative films about Muhammad

References


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- Sahih Muslim Book 008, Number 3310
- Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 64
- Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 65

External links

;Non-sectarian biography
- [http://www.pbs.org/muhammad Public Broadcasting System program on Muhammad]
- [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ Encarta Encyclopedia]
- [http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/M/MA/MAHOMET.htm 1911 Encyclopedia article of Muhammad] ;Muslim biographies
- [http://www.al-sunnah.com/nektar/ Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)- Memoirs of the Noble Prophet]
- [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/default.htm The Life of Muhammad] Muhammad Husayn Haykal Translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi
- [http://www.islamonline.net/English/In_Depth/mohamed/1424/index.shtml Islamonline]
- [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ About Muhammad]
- [http://www.muhammad.net/ Muhammad Biography and more] ;Critical perspectives:
- [http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Jeffery/historical_mhd.htm The Quest for the Historical Mohammed]
- [http://debate.org.uk/topics/theo/muhbiog.htm Trends in Biographies of Muhammad] ;Other
- [http://www.usna.edu/Users/humss/bwheeler/swords/swords_index.html Swords of the Prophet Muhammad] Category:Muslims Category:Arab people Category:Islamic prophets Category:Islam Category:570 births Category:632 deaths Category:Revolutionaries ko:무함마드 ms:Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. ja:ムハンマド・イブン＝アブドゥッラーフ simple:Muhammad th:มุฮัมมัด

'Umar ibn-al-Khattab

For other uses of the name, see Umar (disambiguation). `Umar ibn al-Khattāb (in Arabic, عمر ابن الخطاب) (c. 581 - November 3, 644), sometimes referred by Sunnis as `Umar al-Farūq (the Redeemer), also known in English as Omar or Umar, was from the Banu Adi clan of the Quraysh tribe. He became the second caliph of Islam (634-644) and is regarded by Sunnis as the second of the four Khulafā' ar-Rashīdīn ('rightfully-guided caliphs') (in Persian and Urdu, خلفائی رشیدین, Khulafā-ye-Rashīdīn; in Malay, Khulafa al-Rasyidin). The Shi'a, however, believe that he usurped authority that properly belonged to `Alī ibn Abī Tālib. Sunni and Shi'a hold diametrically opposite views of `Umar, as can be seen in the "Sunni view" and "Shi'a view" sections at the end of this article.

His early life

`Umar was born in Mecca. He is said to have belonged to a middle class family. He was literate, which was uncommon in those times, and he was also well known for his physical strength, being a champion wrestler. After his conversion to Islam, he remembered with shame and regret killing his young daughter while he was still a "pagan" (female infanticide was an accepted practice among the Arabs). He is quoted as saying: :"I cried when I remembered digging a hole and burying my daughter. Whilst I was putting her in, she reached up and brushed dirt from my beard." [http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.info/english/dawah_news/2002/murafa3.htm 1] [http://www.islamonline.net/QuestionApplication/English/display.asp?hquestionID=17079 2] [http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/purification/0042_page2.htm 3] Drinking was very common among the Quraish. Some accounts say that during the pree-Islamic days, even Umar was a wine bibbler. When Umar became a Muslim, he never touched wine. [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Articles/companion/14_umar_bin_al_khattab.htm#The%20Hijri%20Calendar]

His conversion to Islam

When Muhammad first declared his message of Islam, `Umar resolved to defend the traditional religion of the Quraish (regarded by Muslims as idolatry). `Umar was most adamant in opposing Muhammad and very prominent in persecuting the Muslims. According to an early story, recounted in Ibn Ishaq's Sīrah, `Umar is said to have resolved to assassinate Muhammad. A Muslim he met on the way told him to set his own house in order first, as his sister had converted to Islam. `Umar went to her house and found her reciting verses of the Qur'an. He became infuriated and hit her. When he saw her bleeding, he was sorry for what he had done and to please her, said he would read the sūrah, Ta-Ha, that she had been reading. He was so struck by the sūrah that he accepted Islam that day. After that, he was as determined and impetuous in defending Islam as he had been in persecuting it. The meaning of the Holy Qur'an[http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/History/Personalities/Content/Umar.htm]

`Umar in Medina

`Umar was part of the first emigration (Hijrah) to Yathrib (renamed Medīnat an-Nabī, or simply Medina shortly thereafter) in 622 C.E. He was present at Badr, Uhūd, Khaybar, and the raid on Syria, as well as many other engagements. He was one of Muhammad's close companions. In 625, `Umar's daughter Hafsah was married to Muhammad. Muhammad's household was not always peaceful; his wives quarreled over his favors and took sides against each other. `Umar was much displeased when he heard this, and according to the story, scolded her thus: : "Hafsa, the (news) has reached me that you cause God's Messenger (may peace be upon him) trouble. You know that God's Messenger (may peace be upon him) does not love you, and had I not been (your father) he would have divorced you." (On hearing this) she wept bitterly. ([http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/009.smt.html#009.3507]) Shi'a say that this demonstrates his harshness; Sunni say that this shows that he put loyalty to Muhammad over the closest family ties.

The death of Muhammad

Muhammad died in Medina in 632 CE. `Umar is said to have threatened to kill anybody who said that Muhammad had died. He was calmed when Abū Bakr said, : "If anyone worshipped Muhammad, let them know that Muhammad is dead, but if anyone worshipped God, then let them know that God is living and cannot die." Abū Bakr then recited these words from the Qur'ān: "Muhammad is but a messenger; messengers (the like of whom) have passed away before him. If, then, he dies or is killed, will you turn back on your heel?" The Sunnis say that this denial of Muhammad's death was occasioned by his deep love for Muhammad. The Shi'a say that `Umar wished to delay the funeral, so that Abū Bakr could return to Medina and seize power. Shi'a and Sunni Muslims have sharply different views regarding account of the events following Muhammad's death. See Succession to Muhammad for further details. Abū Bakr, supported by `Umar, took power after Muhammad. During Abū Bakr's short reign as caliph, `Umar was one of his chief advisors. Abū Bakr appointed `Umar as his successor prior to his death in 634. He was confirmed in the office thereafter. `Alī, whom many (most of the Hāshimīs and others, known as shī`at `Alī, the 'partisans of `Alī') believed should have been the first caliph, was again passed over.

`Umar's caliphate

During `Umar's reign, the Islamic empire grew at an unprecedented rate, taking Mesopotamia and parts of Persia from the Sāsānids (effectively ending that empire), and taking Egypt, Palestine, Syria, North Africa and Armenia from the Byzantines. Many of these conquests followed watershed battles on both the western and eastern fronts. The Battle of Yarmūk, fought near Damascus in 636, saw a Muslim army of 40,000 defeat a Byzantine force estimated to number 120,000, permanently ending Byzantine rule south of Asia Minor. Another small Muslim army achieved victory over a larger force in the much-mythologized Battle of al-Qādisiyyah of circa 636 CE, near the banks of the Euphrates River. During the course of the battle, Muslim general Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās routed the Sāsānian army and achieved the death of the famed Persian general Rostam Farrokhzād. In 637, after a prolonged siege of Jerusalem, the Muslims took the city. `Umar was given the key to the city by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, and invited to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Umar chose to pray some distance from the Church, so as not to endanger its status as a Christian temple. Fifty-five years later, the Mosque of `Umar was constructed on the site where he prayed. For one version of `Umar's speech to the people after the surrender of Jerusalem, see [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/umar.html]. `Umar undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy, establishing an advanced administration for newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, as well as ordering a census of all the Muslim territories. During his reign, the garrison cities of Basrah and al-Kūfah were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated the Grand Mosque in Mecca and the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina. He also began the process of codifying Islamic law. `Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In the year 17 of the Hijra, the fourth year of the caliphate of 'Umar, it was decided that all future times the era was to be counted from the Hijra.

Death

`Umar died in 644, the victim of an assassin's dagger. `Umar's killer (Abū Lū`lū`ah) was a Persian slave who is said to held a personal grudge against Umar; he stabbed the Caliph six times as `Umar led prayers in the Masjid an-Nabawī mosque in Medina and then committed suicide. `Umar died two days later, and was buried alongside Muhammad and Abū Bakr. `Uthmān ibn `Affān was elected as his successor, by a group of prominent Muslims appointed by `Umar before his death.

The Sunni view of `Umar

Most Sunnis consider him a strong, wise, humble and competent ruler, the second rightly-guided Caliph. They consider him a sincere Muslim and a brave and fierce warrior. He did not seek advancement for his own family, but only to serve the Muslim community, the ummah. One hadith, or oral tradition, credited by Sunnis says at the time of his death he was asked if he would like to nominate his son `Abd-Allah ibn `Umar as caliph and he replied: "One is enough from `Umar's family.". Some Sunni take a more nuanced view of Umar. They note that even amongst the early Muslims, he had a reputation for strict militancy and conformity and was even accused by contemporaries of being harsh in religious matters. On several occasions he even opposed Muhammad when the latter wished to be merciful toward religious and political enemies.

The Shi'a view of `Umar

Most Shi'a regard `Umar as a usurper, and criticize him harshly. He is said to have questioned some of Muhammad's decisions, shown cowardice in battle, and been too harsh to his daughter when he scolded her for her behavior towards Muhammad. During the matter of the disputed succession to Muhammad, Shi`is believe he persecuted Ali and caused the death of Muhammad's daughter Fātimah. Shi'a say that `Umar ruled capriciously as caliph, at times giving legal rulings which contradicted the Qur'ān and sunnah.

Non-Muslim view of Umar

Non-Muslim scholars generally treat Umar as a pivotal figure in the history of Islam, since it was under his aegis that the Muslims expanded outwards from the Syro-Arabian steppe and fought the great powers of the time, the Sassanid and Byzantine empires. They analyze his decisions primarily in military and political terms, and are less concerned with the religious or character judgments that interest Muslims. He is often credited with many radical adminstrative norms the importance of which went beyond the Muslim World. He is believed to be the first ruler to create an independent judiciary.

Farūqī

The family names Farūqī (alternative spellings, Faruqi, Farooqui, Farooqi, Faruqi, etc.) and Al-`Umarī are used by families claiming descent from `Umar.

See also


- Family tree of `Umar ibn al-Khattāb
- Succession to Muhammad
- Changes to the Sunnah made by the Rashidun
- Shia view of `Umar
- Historiography of early Islam

External links


- [http://www.returntoislam.com/wiki/index.php/Al-Farooq Al Farooq - The Life of Umar The Great] By Shams-Ul-Ulama Allama Shibli Nomani
- [http://www.bogvaerker.dk/Bookwright/Umar.html Excerpt from The History of the Khalifahs] by Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti
- [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah40.asf Sirah of Amirul Muminin Umar Ibn Khattab (r.a.a.) ] by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy. Category:Arab people Category:Muslims Category:Caliphs Category:581 births Category:644 deaths ms:Saidina Umar Al-Khatab ja:ウマル・イブン＝ハッターブ th:อุมัร

Uthman Ibn 'Affan

For other uses of the name, see Uthman (disambiguation). Uthman ibn Affan (Arabic: عثمان بن عفان) (c. 574 - June 17 656) was the third Caliph of the Ummah, and is regarded by the majority Sunni Muslims as one of the "Four Righteously Guided Caliphs". He reigned from 644 until 656.

Biography

Uthman was born into the wealthy Umayyad (Banu Umayya) clan of the Quraish tribe in Mecca, a few years after Muhammad. He was an early convert to Islam, and was well known for using his wealth to benefit charities. This put him into opposition to his powerful clan, which was Muhammad's greatest enemy. During the life of Muhammad, he was also part of the first Muslim emigration to the city of Axum in Ethiopia, and the later emigration from Mecca to Medina. He frequently served as Muhammad's secretary. Uthman became caliph after the assassination of Umar ibn al-Khattab (Caliph Umar) in 644. Prior to his death, Umar appointed a group of six men to choose his successor from among themselves. Included in this group were Uthman and Ali. The committee chose Uthman. Some accounts say that he was chosen because he promised to continue the policies of Abu Bakr and Umar, whereas Ali would make no such promise (Aslan, No God But God, 2005). He reigned for twelve years, and during his rule, all of Iran, most of North Africa, the Caucasus and Cyprus were added to the Islamic empire. In order to strengthen his control over the empire, Uthman appointed many of his kinsmen as governors. The kindest explanation for this reliance on his kin is that the Muslim empire had expanded so far, so fast, that it was becoming extremely difficult to govern, and that Uthman felt that he could trust his own kin not to revolt against him. However, many Muslims did not see this as prudence; they saw it as nepotism, and an attempt to rule like a king rather than as the first among equals. Many of his governors were accused of corruption and misrule. Some of his kinsmen were also involved in the murder of a son of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, which further alienated many influential Muslims. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, Muhammad's widow, was particularly vehement in her denunciations of Uthman. One of Uthman's actions, controversial at the time, is now the act for which he is remembered. He headed a committee that established the basic text of the Qur'an. Various Muslim centers, like Kufa and Damascus, had begun to develop their own traditions for reciting and writing down the Qur'an. Uthman feared that the nascent Islamic empire would fall apart in religious controversy if it did not have a sacred text recognized by everyone. Sometime during the end of his reign, the committee produced a text. Uthman had it copied and sent copies to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, commanding that variant versions of the Qur'an be destroyed, and only his version used. Many devout believers believed that his actions were high-handed and accused Uthman of tampering with the sacred book. (Note that John Wansbrough and some Western historians believe that the Qur'an was completed later than Uthman's time; theirs is a minority opinion. See the article on the Qur'an.) Anger at Uthman grew so general that soldiers from Egypt and Iraq traveled to Medina to address their grievances to Uthman directly. According to some accounts, Uthman is said to have promised to mend his ways, then, when the delegations had left, reneged on his promises. The soldiers returned and laid siege to his house for more than twenty days in 656. Despite the crowds outside his home, Uthman refused to shed Muslim blood, strictly observing Muhammad's commandments in this regard. The siege ended when some of the rebels broke into Uthman's house and killed the caliph as he sat reading the Qur'an. Uthman was eventually buried in Medina. He was succeeded by Ali, and then, after Ali had been assassinated in his turn, by Muawiyah I, Uthman's kinsman and the Umayyad governor of Syria. Some scholars therefore count Uthman as the first of the Umayyad dynasty, though the scholarly consensus is that Muawiyah is the first.

Sunni view of Uthman

According to the Sunni account of U