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Church

Church

:This article is about the Christian buildings of worship. For other uses of the word, see Church (disambiguation). A church building (or simply church) is a building used in Christian worship. See also altar, altar rails, apse, confessional, dome, lych gate, nave, narthex, pew, pulpit, sanctuary.

Etymology

sanctuary The word church is derived through Middle and Old English cirice, circe from the Greek κυριακον "Lord's". However, most English versions of the New Testament use the word church to translate ecclesia, in Greek ἐκκλησία, literally "the called out" referring to those who are saved and not to a religious assembly. The Scots and Scottish English word kirk has a related etymology and is a cognate. In English, the word can be used in reference to a gathering of people for a religious meeting but is sometimes used to refer to a building or group of buildings. It is also used to refer to a denomination that places the leadership of all congregations in a central location, such as the "Roman Catholic Church"; in this context it is usually capitalized. It can also be used in an institutional sense to refer to all churches, such as "the church today". Although the Christian Bible says that the church is actually the body of believers, in Jewish times, the temple at Jerusalem held the presence of God in a place called the Holy of Holies. After the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Bible says that the Holy Spirit (the presence of God) dwells within each believer.

Origins of Christian places of worship

The architecture of Christian worship space grew out of the regular meetings of the followers of Christianity in private houses and synagogues, and occasionally in catacombs when necessary. When either the size of the community outgrew the space or the complexity of the uses of the space outpaced the architectural adaptation of houses, buildings began to be built specifically for worship. This became much more feasible and common when Constantine stopped the Roman persecution of Christians by issuing the Edict of Milan in 313.

In the first century

The first Christians were, like Jesus, Jews resident in Palestine who worshipped on occasion in the Temple in Jerusalem and weekly in local synagogues. Temple worship was a ritual involving sacrifice, occasionally including the sacrifice of animals in atonement for sin, offered to Yahweh. The New testament includes many references to Jesus visiting the Temple, the first time as an infant with his parents. The early history of the synagogue is controverted, but it seems to be an institution developed for public Jewish worship during the Babylonian captivity when the Jews did not have access to the Jerusalem Temple for ritual sacrifice. Instead, to give a rough summary, they developed a daily and weekly service of readings from the Torah or the prophets followed by commentary. This could be carried out in a house if the attendance was small enough, and in many towns of the Diaspora that was the case. In others more elaborate architectural settings developed, sometimes by converting a house and sometimes by converting a previously public building. The minimum requirements seem to have been a meeting room with adequate seating, a case for the Torah scrolls, and a raised platform for the reader and preacher. Diaspora] Jesus himself participated in this sort of service as a reader and commentator (see Gospel of Luke 4: 16-24) and his followers probably remained worshippers in synagogues in some cities. However, following the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70, the new Christian movement and Judaism increasingly parted ways. The Church became overwhelmingly Gentile sometime in the second century. For the history of how services take place within a church, see worship or do a search on any particular religious denomination that you might be interested in.

Early examples of church architecture

religious denominationThe Syrian city of Dura-Europos on the West bank of the Euphrates was an outpost town between the Roman and Parthian empires. During a siege by Parthian troops in A.D. 257 the buildings in the outermost blocks of the city grid were partially destroyed and filled with rubble to reinforce the city wall. Thus were preserved and securely dated the earliest decorated church and a synagogue decorated with extensive wall paintings. Both had been converted from earlier private buildings. The church at Dura Europos has a special room dedicated for baptisms with a large baptismal font. A common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles, and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary). These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world. Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the "west" end of the church or over the crossing.

Compare

- Basilica
- Cathedral
- Monastery
- Temple
- Chapel
- Parish
- Particular church
- House church
- Stave church
- Church in a pub
- Storefront church
- Double Church

External links

- [http://www.goarch.org/access/Companion_to_Orthodox_Church/art_and_architecture.html Orthodox Art and Architecture]
- [http://followchrist.info/e_church.html The Church]
- [http://www.soca.cjb.net The Syrian Orthodox Church]
- [http://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html The Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt]
- Category:Christianity ja:教会 simple:Church

Church (disambiguation)

The word church has several meanings, including:
- Church — a building used for religious services, usually referring specifically to those for Christian worship. See also temple for more general information.
- In Christian theology, translating the Koine word ecclesia in the New Testament. Also known as the "capital C" Church or the "wider church".
- An assembly of Christian believers who worship together.
- The Body of Christ composed of Jesus and all Christians, living and dead, in this sense used in the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds, see Ecclesia (Church), Catholic Church.
- Ecclesiology — the body of Christian theology that deals with the doctrine of the church.
- A religious organization or denomination within Christianity (such as the Catholic Church or Lutheran Church). See: List of religious organizations.
- NB Several non-Christian religious groups also use the word "Church" in self-reference; for instance, the Church of All Worlds, the Church of Scientology, or the Buddhist Churches of America. However, Muslim, Jewish, or Hindu groups do not generally use the term either the worshippers or the buildings of their respective faiths. See mosque, synagogue, and temple for buildings of worship of these and other faiths.
- Churchiness - also know as Churchianity -- a critique of Christianity saying that it tends towards expression of religious forms rather than the Gospel.
- The Church, a rock band formed in Sydney, Australia in the 1980s.
- Church, a town in Lancashire, England
- Church is the family cat in Stephen King's novel, Pet Semetary
- A surname. Those with the surname "Church" include:
- The logician Alonzo Church, (famous for the Church-Turing thesis)
- Benjamin Church, the first Surgeon General of the Continental Army and grandson of Captain Benjamin Church
- Captain Benjamin Church, a colonial officer during King Philip's War
- Charlotte Church, a British soprano singer
- The writer Francis Pharcellus Church (famous for the editorial "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus")
- Video game designer Doug Church
- Frank Church, a four-term U.S. Senator from Idaho
- The painter Frederic Edwin Church
- George W. Church, Sr., founder of Church's Chicken, a chain of franchised fried chicken restaurants
- John A. Church, an expert on sea-level and its changes
- Judith Church, a politician in the United Kingdom
- Mike Church, a Southern US radio commentator often considered to be a shock jock
- Sir Richard Church, a British military officer and general in the Greek army
- Richard William Church, an English divine and nephew of the general.
- Richard Thomas Church, an English poet and man of letters
- Thomas Hayden Church, an American actor in television and film.
- Thomas Langton Church, a Canadian politician
- Thomas Dolliver Church, an American landscape architect
- Walter Greene Church, Sr., a member of the North Carolina General Assembly ja:チャーチ

Altar

An altar is any structure upon which sacrifices or other offerings are offered for religious purposes.

Altars in the Hebrew Bible

Altars (Hebrew mizbe'ah, from a word meaning "to slay") in the Hebrew Bible were typically made of earth (Ex. 20:24) or unwrought stone (20:25). Altars were generally erected in conspicuous places (Genesis 22:9; Ezekiel 6:3; 2 Kings 23:12; 16:4; 23:8.) The first altar recorded in the Hebrew Bible is that erected by Noah (Genesis 8:20). Altars were erected by Abraham (Genesis 12:7; 13:4; 22:9), by Isaac (Genesis 26:25), by Jacob (33:20; 35:1, 3), and by Moses (Exodus 17:15, "Adonai-nissi"). In the Tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars were erected. (1.) The altar of burnt offering (Ex. 30:28), called also the "brasen altar" (Ex. 39:39) and "the table of the Lord" (Mal. 1:7) upon which the korbanot were offered. This altar, as erected in the tabernacle, is described in Ex. 27:1-8. It was a hollow square, 5 cubits in length and in breadth, and 3 cubits in height. It was made of shittim wood, and was overlaid with plates of brass. Its corners were ornamented with horns (Ex. 29:12; Lev. 4:18). In Ex. 27:3 the various utensils used with the altar are enumerated. They were made of brass. (Comp. 1 Sam. 2:13, 14; Lev. 16:12; Num. 16:6, 7.) In Solomon's temple the altar was of larger dimensions (2 Chr. 4:1. Comp. 1 Kings 8:22, 64; 9:25), and was made wholly of brass, covering a structure of stone or earth. This altar was renewed by Asa (2 Chr. 15:8). It was removed by Ahaz (2 Kings 16:14), and "cleansed" by Hezekiah, in the latter part of whose reign it was rebuilt. It was finally broken up and carried away by the Babylonians (Jer. 52:17). Ahaz After the return from captivity it was re-erected (Ezra 3:3,6) where it had formerly stood. (Comp. 1 Macc. 4:47.) When Antiochus IV Epiphanes pillaged Jerusalem he defiled the altar of burnt offering by erecting a pagan altar upon it. Judas Maccabeus renewed the altar when he re-took Jerusalem. It was likely refurbushed by Herod during his extensive building activity on the Temple Mount, and remained in its place until the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 A.D. The fire on the altar was not permitted to go out (Lev. 6:9). In the Mosque of Omar, immediately underneath the great dome, which occupies the site of the old temple, there is a rough projection of the natural rock, of about 60 feet in its extreme length, and 50 in its greatest breadth, and in its highest part about 4 feet above the general pavement. This rock seems to have been left intact when Solomon's temple was built, and may have been the site of the altar of burnt offering. Underneath this rock is a cave, which may have been the granary of Araunah's threshing-floor (1 Chr. 21:22). (2.) The altar of incense (Ex. 30:1-10), called also "the golden altar" (39:38; Num. 4:11), stood in the holy place "before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony." On this altar sweet spices were continually burned with fire taken from the brazen altar. The morning and the evening services were opened by the high priest offering incense on this altar. The burning of the incense was a type of prayer (Ps. 141:2; Rev. 5:8; 8:3, 4). incense This altar was a small movable table, made of acacia wood overlaid with gold (Ex. 37:25, 26). It was 1 cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height. In Solomon's temple the altar was similar in size, but was made of cedar-wood (1 Kings 6:20; 7:48) overlaid with gold. In Ezek. 41:22 it is called "the altar of wood." (Comp. Ex. 30:1-6.) In the temple built after the Exile the altar was restored. Antiochus Epiphanes took it away, but it was afterwards restored by Judas Maccabeus (1 Macc. 1:23; 4:49). Among the trophies carried away by Titus on the destruction of Jerusalem the altar of incense is not found, nor is any mention made of it in Hebrews 9. It was at this altar Zacharias ministered when an angel appeared to him (Luke 1:11).

Altars in Jewish synagogues

Known as the bimah, the altar in a synagogue can be a large over-sized elevated platform with a wide table on top of it roughly in the center of the synagogue upon which the Torah scroll/s (Sifrei Torah) are placed and unrolled so that they can be read after they have been removed and brought over from the "Ark" (aron in Hebrew) where they are stored (which is at the front of the synagogue). The synagogue altar usually has a few steps upwards when it is elevated. The altar may also be simply a large table or a large flat-topped cabinet in the center of the synagogue. Traditionally, when the Torah is opened to be cantillated ("read" with a special tune) on the altar, two people stand on either side of it as a mark of respect. In some synagogues the Hazan (the one leading the prayers) stands on the altar facing most of the congregation, and in other synagogues the altar is only used for the Torah readings, but further prayers are led from the front of the synagogue away from the altar itself.

Christianity

prayers. As the parish offers Tridentine Rite Masses, this altar is still used for such services.]] The word is used in Acts ( 14:13) and Hebrews 13:10 for the sacrifice offered upon it - the sacrifice Jesus offered. Paul of Tarsus found among the many altars erected in Athens one bearing the inscription, "To the unknown God" (Acts 17:23), or rather "to an [i.e., some] unknown God." The reason for this inscription cannot now be accurately determined. It afforded the apostle the occasion of proclaiming the gospel to the "men of Athens."

Altars in Christian churches

Altars occupy a prominent place in the sanctuary of many churches, especially in Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, Episcopal, Methodist, and other highly liturgical denominations. In some churches it may be surrounded by altar rails. In Eastern Christian churches, there is usually some form of iconostasis or "icon wall" in front of it. It is used primarily to hold and, in some cases, to prepare the bread and wine used in the Eucharist. In Reformed or Presbyterian churches, a table that serves the function of an altar is often called a communion table. In some Protestant denominations, the word altar is used to denote the chancel or sanctuary area of the church, although this usage is technically incorrect. Some Catholic and Orthodox altars are built with a reliquary to hold relics of saints. This practice began in the early centuries of Christianity, when many Christians were forced to hide and worship in catacombs. In these places, the altar was often a coffin holding the body of a Christian, out of simple necessity. The practice of placing relics within an altar is observed even today. Also, some Catholic churches are built with the altar integral with the foundation, so as to make it near impossible to remove. This is done to make it more likely that the church building would not be converted to some other usage.

Altars in Roman Catholic Churches

Until the Second Vatican Council, the altar in the Catholic Church was a table standing on a platform with three steps (altar steps), and placed under one or more statues or a picture of a saint or a sacred event. Most churches would usually have three altars - a main altar called the high altar, a side altar dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and another dedicated to Saint Joseph. Up until the council the Tridentine Mass was celebrated in Catholic churches. The priest used to stand with his back to the congregation for most of the mass. During the canon he would offer up bread and wine towards the altar, taking the role of a mediator between God and the people. Since the council and the introduction of the new order (Novus Ordo) of the Mass, the altar is a table where the priest celebrates the Eucharist facing the people. The celebrant raises the consecrated hosts and wine up in front of the people now. In some cases the new altar is usually placed in front of the old high altar. In other cases either the side altars or all the old altars are removed - but that is usually a controversial move. The altar can be made from a variety of materials, such as wood or stone. Eucharist. The original high altar is behind the screen. This altar contains a reliquary holding the remains of Saint Cessianus, a Roman Catholic Saint and Martyr killed during the persecutions of the Roman Emperor Diocletian.]] In churches that have retained the original high altar, the tabernacle is kept on the old altar. With many old altars, the tabernacle is built directly into the altar. For those churches that were built after the council, or for those that have removed the old altars the tabernacle is placed on a stand of its own. The tabernacle may also be in a special side chapel called the Blessed Sacrament chapel, and consecrated hosts would be kept there. Such chapels are found in churches built before and after Vatican II. The chapel may or may not have its own altar. See also:
- Cathedral diagram
- Back-choir

Altars in Eastern Christian Churches

"Altar" has a meaning in Orthodoxy that varies with context. Its most common usage does not denote the table itself, but the area surrounding it, behind the iconostasis, that is also called the sanctuary. When one enters the sanctuary, one is said to be "going into the altar". The table may alternately be referred to as the Holy Table or the Throne. This section will describe the Holy Table, not the sancutary. Orthodox altars are typically about one meter high, and although they may be made of stone they are generally built out of wood. The exact dimensions may vary, but it must be square in plan of a size in reasonable proportion to the sanctuary. It has five legs: one at each corner plus a central pillar for supporting the altar's relics. Over all is a plain linen cover bound to the altar with cords, and this cover is never removed after the altar is consecrated. (Since the altar is never seen uncovered thereafter, they tend to be constructed more with sturdiness than aesthetics in mind.) Above this first cover is a second ornamented cover, often in a brocade of a color that may change with the liturgical season. Atop the altar is the tabernacle, a miniature shrine sometimes built in the form of a church, inside of which is a small ark containing the reserved Sacrament for use in communing the sick. Also kept on the altar is the Gospel book and the antimension, a silken cloth imprinted with an icon of Christ being prepared for burial, which has a relic sewn into it and bears the signature of the bishop. The Divine Liturgy must be served on an antimension even if the altar has been consecrated and contains relics. When not in use, the antimension is left in place wrapped in the eiliton, a cloth of plain silk, linen or cotton. The altar may only be touched by ordained men, and nothing which is not itself consecrated or an object of veneration ought to be placed on it. Objects may also be placed on the altar as part of the process for setting them aside for sacred use. For example, icons are usually blessed by laying them on the altar for a period of time or for a certain number of Divine Liturgies before sprinkling them with holy water. In place of the outer covering, some altars have a permanent solid cover which may be highly ornamented, richly carved, or even plated in precious metals. A smaller brocade cover is used on top of this if it is desired that the altar decorations reflect the liturgical season.

High places

High places are elevated spots on which altars were erected for worship in the belief that, as they were nearer heaven than the plains and valleys, they were more favourable places for prayer. The practice of worship on these spots, though from the first forbidden, became frequent among the Hebrews, and was with difficulty abolished, though denounced time after time by the prophets as an affront to God.

External link

[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/pujaaltar.htm Setting Up a Puja Altar] [http://www.angelfire.com/stars5/shant/gems-altar.htm How to make your own Altar, and the use of gem stones] Category:Religious objects Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh events Category:Torah events Category:Tabernacle and Jerusalem Temples Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services Category:Churches

Apse

This article is about an architectural feature; for the astronomical term see apsis. apsis In Romanesque, Byzantine and Gothic Christian abbey, cathedral and church architecture, the apse (Latin absis "arch, vault"; sometimes written apsis; plural apses) is the semi-circular or polygonal section of the sanctuary at the liturgical east end beyond the altar (plan, right). The semicircular projection (which may be polygonal on the exterior, or reveal the radiating projections of chapels) may be roofed with a half-dome or with radiating vaulting. A simple apse may be merely embedded within the wall of the east end. Eastern orthodox churches may have a triple apse, which is usually a mark of Byzantine influence when it is seen in Western churches. Smaller subsidiary apses may be found around the choir or even at the ends of transepts. Compare the exedra of Classical architecture, which may be considered apsidal, a feature of the secular Roman basilica, which provided some prototypes for Early Christian churches. The apse in the Roman basilica was often raised (as the sanctuary generally still is) as a hieratic feature that set apart the magistrates who deliberated within it. Where an apse contains an altar or throne it can be architecturally referred to as a tribune tribune An exedra or apse may be reduced in scale to form a niche within the thickness of walling; a niche does not reveal its presence by projecting on the exterior. The interior of the apse is traditionally a focus of iconography, bearing the richest concentration of mosaics, or painting and sculpture, towards which all other decoration may tend. Various architectural features that may form part of the apse are drawn together here:

Chancel

The word "chancel" derives from the French usage of chancel from a Late Latin word cancelli meaning "lattice" ([http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=c&p=9 Online Etymology Dictionary]). The grating in question separated the chancel from the nave, thus "chancel" refers to the part of a church near the main altar used by the priests and open to the choir.

Presbytery

In the presbytery or sanctuary directly to the east beyond the choir is the High Altar, where there is one (Compare communion table. This area is reserved for the clergy. The word derives from the Greek `presbuteros` meaning elder.

Choir

According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, the word `choir` in an architectural context means the part of a church `between the altar and the nave`, used by the church choir.

Chevet

nave] In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses were built as radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth known as the chevet (French, "headpiece"), when the resulting structure was too complicated to be merely an "apse." Famous northern French examples of chevets are in the Gothic cathedrals of Amiens, Beauvais and Reims. Such radiating chapels are found in England in Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, but the fully-developed feature is essentially French, though the Francophil connoisseur Henry III introduced it into Westminster Abbey.

Ambulatory

The word `ambulatory` refers to a curving aisle in the apse that passes behind the choir, giving access to chapels in the chevet. An "ambulatory" ("walking space") may refer to the arcaded passages that enclose a cloister in a monastery. See also:
- Cathedral architecture
- Byzantine architecture
- Abbey has some architectural history and floorplans that identify apses Category:Church architecture

Dome

A dome is a common structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Domes do not have to be perfectly spherical in cross-section, however; a dome may be a section through an ellipse. If the baseline is taken parallel to the shorter of an ellipse's two diameters, a tall dome results, giving a sense of upward reach. A section across the longer axis results in a low dome, capping the volume instead. A very low dome is a saucer dome (see below). All the surfaces of any dome are curved. A spectacular innovation, one that is at the heart of Baroque style, is the oval dome, of Bernini and Borromini which gives axial direction and movement to the space beneath it. Three domes that have been disproportionately influential in later architecture have been those of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Pantheon in Rome. In Western architecture, the most influential domes built since the Renaissance have been those of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and Jules Hardouin-Mansart's dome at Les Invalides in Paris. The dome of St. Paul's Cathedral in London was the inspiration for the United States Capitol in Washington, which in turn inspired domes of most of the US state capitols. See further influential domes below. In the 20th century, thin "eggshell" domes of pre-stressed concrete by architect-engineers such as Nervi opened new directions in fluid vaulted spaces enclosed beaneath freeform domed space which now might be supported merely at points rather than in the traditional constricting ring.

Characteristics

A dome can be considered as an arch which has been rotated around its vertical axis. As such, domes have a great deal of structural strength. A small dome can be constructed of ordinary masonry, held together by friction and compressive forces. Larger domes built after Brunelleschi dome in Florence have all been double domes, with inner and outer shells. Brunelleschi] The concave triangular sections of vaulting that provide the transition between a dome and the square base on which it is set and transfer the weight of the dome are called pendentives. (A less sophisticated version of a pendentive is a squinch.) Under the dome illustrated at left, the pendentives bear circular medallions in bas relief. A half-dome forms the head of an exedra or its smaller version, a niche. In Late Antiquity, the exedra developed into the apse, with separate developments in Romanesque and Byzantine practice. Many domes are topped by a lantern, a structure with openings (or windows) to admit light in the cupola. Many sports stadiums are domed, especially in climates that have widely-variable summer and winter weather. The first such stadium was the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. A major improvement to the domed stadium was accomplished with the construction of SkyDome in Toronto, Ontario, the first domed stadium with a retractable roof. Toronto, Ontario

Saucer dome

A saucer dome is the architectural term used for a low pitched shallow dome. Described geometrically as being of circular base and a segmental (less than a semicircle) section. Gaining in popularity from the 18th century onwards, the saucer dome is often a feature of interior design, viewed from below it resembles the shallow concave shape of a saucer. The dome itself being often contained in the space between ceiling and attic is invisible externally. These domes are usually decorated internally by ornate plaster-work, occasionally they are frescoed. They are seen occasionally externally in Byzantine churches and mosques. mosques

Onion dome

:Main article: onion dome. The onion dome resembles more than half of a sphere, exemplified by Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow and the Taj Mahal. They are found mostly in eastern architecture, particularly in Russia, Turkey, the Middle East, and even India.

Famous domes

Listed in order of their completion:
- 27 BC - The Pantheon, Rome, Italy.
- 537 - Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, Turkey.
- 691 - Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.
- 1312 - Dome of Soltaniyeh, Iran.
- 1436 - The Duomo, Florence, Italy.
- 1502 - The Tempietto, Rome, Italy.
- 1593 - St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, Italy.
- 1616 - The Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey.
- 1653 - The Taj Mahal, Agra, India.
- 1659 - Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur Karnataka India
- 1708 - Les Invalides, Paris, France.
- 1708 - St Paul's Cathedral, London, England.
- 1749 - The Radcliffe Camera, Oxford, England.
- 1858 - St Isaac's Cathedral, St Petersburg, Russia.
- 1850s - The United States Capitol, Washington, DC, USA.
- 1965 - The Astrodome, Houston, TX, USA.
- 2000 - The Millennium Dome, London, England.

Xanadu House

The Xanadu House was a home that used the concept of domes heavily in its shape and design. The home was one of the first non-indigenous homes to use curved surfaces throughout the exterior and interior.

External links

- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/florence/the_dome_of_brunelleschi.htm The Dome of Brunelleschi, Florence] virtual reality movie and pictures Category:Architectural elements ko:돔 ja:ドーム th:โดม

Lych gate

]] A lych gate (from Old English lic, corpse) is a gateway covered with a roof, the traditional entrance to an British church yard. It is where the bier rests before burial. Lych gates consist of a roofed porch like structure over a gate, often built of wood. They sometimes have recessed seats on either side of the gate itself. wood Category:Architectural elements

Nave

Links to full descriptions of the elements of a Gothic floorplan are also found at the entry Cathedral diagram. Cathedral diagram Cathedral diagram In Romanesque and Gothic Christian abbey, cathedral and church architecture, the nave is the central approach to the high altar. "Nave" ( Medieval Latin navis, "ship,") was probably suggested by the keel shape of its vaulting. The nave of a church, whether Romanesque, Gothic or Classical, extends from the entry—which may have a separate vestibule, the narthex— to the [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Chancel chancel] and is flanked by lower aisles separated from the nave by an arcade. Though to a modern visitor the impressive nave seems to be the principal part of a Gothic church, ambitious churches were built in a series of campaigns as funds were available, working outward from the liturgically essential sanctuary, and many were consecrated before their nave was completed. Many naves were not completed to the initial plan, as tastes changed, and some naves were never completed at all. In Gothic architecture, the precise number of arcaded bays in the nave was not a material concern. The height of the nave provides space for clerestory windows above the aisle roofs, which give light to the interior, leaving the apse in shadow, as at the abbey of Saint-Georges-de-Boscherville (illustration, above right). The architectural antecedents of this construction lay in the secular Roman basilica, a kind of covered stoa sited adjacent to a forum, where magistrates met and public business was transacted. forum, Bath, England Suppression of the triforium offers a great expanse of clerestory windows.]] In Romanesque constructions, where a gallery was required to allow passage above the aisles, an addition to the elevation of the nave was inserted, called a triforium. In later styles the triforium was eliminated, the aisles lowered and great expanses of stained glass took the place of the clerestory windows, as at Bath Abbey (illustration, left). triforium, built in the 1420s]] The crossing is the part of the nave that also belong to the transepts that intersect its space. The crossing may be surmounted by a tower or spire, or by a dome in Eastern churches, a feature that was reintroduced to the West at the Renaissance, first in Filippo Brunelleschi's San Lorenzo (illustration right). Brunelleschi restored the original Roman form of the basilica and consciously revived Roman details, such as the flat coffered ceiling. Clerestory windows still light San Lorenzo's nave, setting apart in dimness the crossing, with its small dome. In other contexts, lanterns and openings above the transept might bathe the crossing in more light instead. The crossing may be further distinguished from the nave by the rhythm of its architecture: wider-spaced piers supporting the higher vaulting of the transepts. The nave, ecclesiastically considered, was the area reserved for the non-clergy (the "laity"), while the chancel and choir were reserved for the clergy, and a rood screen (cancellus) separated the sanctuary from the nave. (Rood screens were swept away by Protestant reformers in the 16th century. Fixed pews in the nave are a comparatively modern, Protestant innovation.

Some naves

- Longest nave: Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, New York City
- Longest nave in England: St Albans Cathedral (91 meter (300 feet), in thirteen arched bays) has been outdone by Liverpool Cathedral
- Longest nave in France: Bourges (91 meter (300 feet), including choir where a crossing would be if there were transepts)
- Longest nave in Germany: Cologne cathedral (58 meter (190 feet), including two bays between the towers)
- Longest nave in Spain: Seville (60 meter (200 feet), in five bays)
- Longest nave in Italy: St Peters Basilica in Rome (91 meter (300 feet) in four bays)

- Highest vaulted nave: Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, 38 meter (124 feet) (Beauvais is 46 meter (150 feet) high in the choir.)

Narthex

The narthex of a church is the entrance or lobby area, located at the western end of the nave, at the far end from the church's main altar. Traditionally the narthex was a part of the church building, but was not considered part of the church proper. It was either an indoor area separated from the nave by a screen or rail, or an external structure such as a porch. The purpose of the narthex was to allow those not eligible for admittance into the general congregation (particularly catechumens and penitents) to hear and partake in the service. The narthex would often include a baptismal font so that infants could be baptized there before entering the nave, and to remind other believers of their baptisms as they gathered to worship. Later reforms removed the requirement to exclude people from services who were not full members of the congregation, which in some traditions obviated the narthex. Church architects continued, however, to build a room before the entrance of the nave. This room could be called an inside vestibule (if it is architecturally part of the nave structure) or a porch (if it is a distinct, external structure). Some traditions still call this area the narthex as it represents the point of entry into the church, even if everyone is admitted to the nave itself. Category:Church architecture

Pulpit

:For other uses of Ambo, see Ambo, Ethiopia and ambulance. ambulance church in Spielfeld, Styria, Austria]] A pulpit (from Latin pulpitum "scaffold", "platform", "stage") is a small elevated platform where a member of the clergy stands in order to read the Gospel lesson and deliver a sermon. In many Christian churches, there are two speaker’s stands in the front of the church. Typically, the one on the left (as viewed by the congregation) is called the pulpit. Since the Gospel lesson is often read from the pulpit, the pulpit side of the church is sometimes called the gospel side. The other speaker's stand, usually on the right (as viewed by the congregation), is known as the lectern. The word lectern comes from the Latin word meaning "to read", because the lectern primarily functions as a reading stand. It is typically used by lay people to read the scripture lessons (except for the Gospel lesson), to lead the congregation in prayer, and to make announcements. Because the epistle lesson is usually read from the lectern, the lectern side of the church is sometimes called the epistle side. From the pulpit is often used metaphorically for something which is said with official church authority.

Ambo

In churches where there is only one speaker's stand in the center of the front of the church, it serves the functions of both lectern and pulpit and is properly called the ambo. In common usage, however, ambos are incorrectly called pulpits. The word ambo comes from a Greek word meaning an elevation. It was originally an elaborate raised platform in the middle of the nave from which the Epistle and Gospel would be read, and was occasionally used as a speaker's platform for homilies. It was joined to the sanctuary by a raised walkway called the soleas. In modern Eastern Christian use, this form of the ambo is now very rare. Instead, the area directly in front of the Beautiful Gates of the iconostasis from which the Gospel is typically read is called the ambo, and the entire low elevation above the level of the nave in front of the iconostasis is called the soleas. In larger churches, the ambo might be distinguished by three curved steps from which one might reach it from the nave. In Eastern Orthodox cathedrals there is usually a low platform in the center of the nave called the episcopal ambo where the bishop is vested prior to the Divine Liturgy and where he is enthroned until the Little Entrance. If the bishop is serving in a simple parish church, an episcopal ambo is set temporarily in place.

Middle English

Middle English is the name given by historical linguistics to the diverse forms of the English language spoken between the Norman invasion in 1066 and the mid-to-late 15th century, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, began to become widespread, a process aided by the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in the 1470s. The language as spoken after this time, up to 1650, is known as Early Modern English. Unlike Old English, which tended largely to adopt Late West Saxon scribal conventions in the immediate pre-Conquest period, Middle English as a written language displays a wide variety of scribal (and presumably dialectal) forms. It should be noted, though, that the diversity of forms in written Middle English signifies neither greater variety of spoken forms of English than could be found in pre-Conquest England, nor a faithful representation of contemporary spoken English (though perhaps greater fidelity to this than may be found in Old English texts). Rather, this diversity suggests the gradual end of Wessex's role as a focal point and trend-setter for scribal activity, and the emergence of more distinct local scribal styles and written dialects, and a general pattern of transition of activity over the centuries which follow, as the north east, East Anglia and London emerge successively as major centres of literary production, with their own generic interests.

Literary and Linguistic Cultures

Middle English was one of the three languages current in England. Though never the language of the church, which was always Latin, it lost status as a language of courtly life, literature and documentation, being largely supplanted by Anglo-Norman. It remained, though, the spoken language of the majority, and may be regarded as the only true vernacular language after about the mid-twelfth century, with Anglo-Norman becoming, like Latin, a learned tongue of the court. English did not cease to be used in the court: it retained a cartulary function (being the language used in royal charters); nor did it disappear as a language of literary production. Even during what has been called the 'lost' period of English literary history, the late eleventh to mid-twelfth century, Old English texts, especially homilies, saints' lives and grammatical texts, continued to be copied, used and adapted by scribes. From the later twelfth and thirteenth century there survives huge amounts of written material of various forms, from lyrics to saints' lives, devotional manuals to histories, encyclopaedias to poems of moral (and often immoral) discussion and debate, though much of it remains unstudied in part because it evades or defies modern, arguably quite restricted, categorisations of literature. Middle English is more familiar to us as the language of Ricardian Poetry and its followers, the fourteenth- and fifteenth-century literature cultures clustered around the West Midlands and around London and East Anglia: the poetry of William Langland and the Gawain Poet, or of London writers heavily influenced by European conventions and the city's writers such as Chaucer, Lydgate, and Gower, Malory or Caxton, the work of gifted Chaucerians like Gower and Hoccleve, and in particular of Chaucer himself in his Canterbury Tales and other shorter poems, which consistently revalues and reinvents older traditions which it nevertheless refuses to abandon entirely.

History

1000

:Syððan wæs geworden þæt he ferde þurh þa ceastre and þæt castel: godes rice prediciende and bodiende. and hi twelfe mid. And sume wif þe wæron gehælede of awyrgdum gastum: and untrumnessum: seo magdalenisce maria ofþære seofan deoflu uteodon: and iohanna chuzan wif herodes gerefan: and susanna and manega oðre þe him of hyra spedum þenedon; :-- Translation of Luke 8.1-3 from the New Testament Although it is possible to overestimate the degree of culture shock which the transfer of power in 1066 represented, the removal from the top levels of an English-speaking political and ecclesiastical hierarchy, and their replacement with a Norman-speaking one, both opened the way for the introduction of French as a language of polite discourse and literature and fundamentally altered the role of Old English in education and administration. Although Old English was by no means as standardised as modern English, its written forms were less subject to broad dialect variations than post-Conquest English. Even now, after a thousand years, the Norman influence on the English language is still visible. Consider these Modern English words derived from Old English: pig, cow, wood, sheep, house, worthy, bold. Contrast these with this set of related but overlapping Modern English words (in Modern English), all derived from Anglo-Norman French: pork, beef, forest, mutton, mansion, honourable, courageous. The role of Anglo-Norman as the language of government and law can be seen by the abundance of Modern English words for the mechanisms of government derived from Anglo-Norman: court, judge, jury, appeal, parliament. Also prevalent are terms relating to the chivalric cultures which arose in the twelfth century as a response to the requirements of feudalism and crusading activity. Early on, this vocabulary of refined behaviour begins to work its way into English: the word 'debonairte' appears in the 1137 Peterborough Chronicle, but so too does 'castel', another Norman import that makes its mark on the territory of the English language as much as on the territory of England itself. This period of trilingual activity developed much of the flexible triplicate synonymity of modern English. For instance, English has three words meaning roughly "of or relating to a king": kingly from Old English, royal from French and regal from Latin. Deeper changes occurred in the grammar. Bit by bit, as we have seen, the wealthy and the government anglicized again, though French remained the dominant language of literature and law for several centuries, even after the loss of the majority of the continental possessions of the English monarchy. The new English did not look the same as the old. Old English had a complex system of inflectional endings, but these were gradually lost and simplified in the dialects of spoken English. Gradually the change spread to be reflected in its increasingly diverse written forms. This loss of case-endings was part of a general trend from inflectional to fixed-order words which occurred in other Germanic languages, and cannot be attributed simply to the influence of French-speaking layers of the population. English remained, after all, the language of the majority. It certainly was a literary language in England, alongside Anglo-Norman and Latin from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries. In the later fourteenth century, Chancery Standard (or London English) - itself a phenomenon produced by the increase of bureaucracy in London, and a concomitant increase in London literary production - introduced a greater deal of conformity in English spelling. While the fame of Middle English literary productions tends to begin in the later fourteenth century, with the works of Chaucer and Gower, an immense corpus of literature survives from throughout the Middle English period.

c.1400

The Establishment is using English increasingly around this time. Parliament used English increasingly from around the 1360s, and the king's court used mainly English from the time of Henry V (acceded 1413). With some standardization of the language, English begins to exhibit the more recognisable forms of grammar and syntax that will form the basis of future standard dialects: :And it is don, aftirward Jesus made iourne bi cites & castelis prechende & euangelisende þe rewme of god, & twelue wiþ hym & summe wymmen þat weren helid of wicke spiritis & sicnesses, marie þat is clepid maudeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten out & Jone þe wif off chusi procuratour of eroude, & susanne & manye oþere þat mynystreden to hym of her facultes :-- Luke 8.1-3 A text from 1391: Geoffrey Chaucer's [http://art-bin.com/art/oastro.html Treatise on the Astrolabe]. However, this was a time of upheaval in England. Five kings were deposed between 1399 and 1500, and one of them was deposed twice. New men came into positions of power, some of them from other parts of the country or lower levels in society. Stability only came gradually after 1485 with the Tudor dynasty. The language changed too - there was much change during the 15th century. But towards the end of that century, a more modern English was starting to emerge. Printing started in England in the 1470s. With a standardized, printed, English Bible and Prayer Book being read to church congregations from the 1540s, a wider public became familiar with a standard language, and the era of Modern English was underway.

Construction

Key points

With its simplified case-ending system, Middle English is closer to modern English than its pre-Conquest equivalent.

Nouns

Despite losing the slightly more complex system of inflexional endings, Middle English retains two separate noun-ending patterns from Old English. Compare, for example, the early Modern English words 'engel' (angel) and 'nome' (name):

singular:	nom/acc:	engel	nome
	gen:	engles -	nome
	dat:	engle	nome
plural:	nom/acc:	engles	nomen
	gen:	engle(ne) -	nomen
	dat:	engle(s)	nomen

The strong -s plural form has survived into Modern English, while the weak -n form is rare (oxen, children, brethren).

Verbs

As a general rule (and all these rules are general), the first person singular of present tense verbs ends in -e (ich here), the second person in -(e)st (þou spekest), and the third person in -eþ (he comeþ). (þ is pronounced like the voiced th in "that"). In the past tense, weak verbs are formed by an -ed(e), -d(e) or -t(e) ending. These, without their case endings, also form past participles, together with past-participle prefixes derived from the old English ge-: i-, y- and sometimes bi-. Strong verbs form their past tense by changing their stem vowel (e.g. binden -> bound), as in Modern English.

Pronouns

Post-Conquest English inherits its pronouns from Old English: First and Second Person

	First Person		Second Person
	singular	plural	singular	plural
nom.	ich, I	we	þu	ye
acc.	me	us	þe	yow, ow
gen.	min, mi	ure	þin	yower, ower
dat.	me	us	þe	yow, ow

Third Person

	masc.	neut.	fem.	pl.
nom.	he	hit	ho, heo, hi	hi, ho, heo
acc.	hine	hit	hi, heo	hi
gen.	his	his	hire, hore	hore, heore
dat.	him	him	hire	hom, heom

First and second pronouns survive largely unchanged, with only minor spelling variations. In the third person, the masculine accusative singular became 'him'. The feminine form was replaced by a form of the demonstrative that developed into 'she', but unsteadily - 'ho' remains in some areas for a long time. The lack of a strong standard written form between the eleventh and the fifteenth century makes these changes hard to map.

Pronunciation

Generally, all letters in Middle English words are pronounced. (Silent letters in Modern English come from pronunciation shifts but continued spelling conventions.) Therefore 'knight' is pronounced (with a pronounced K and a 'gh' as the 'ch' in German 'nicht'), not , as in Modern English. :Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages :And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes :To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; ::(Chaucer, Canterbury Tales) Words like 'straunge' are disyllabic. 'Palmeres' is trisyllabic. The differences between Old English and Middle English (and indeed Modern English) have led some to claim English is a glorified creole.

Chancery Standard

Chancery Standard was a written form of English used by government bureaucracy and for other official purposes from the late 14th century. It is believed to have contributed in a significant way to the development of the English language as spoken and written today.

Why did the Chancery Standard Develop?

Due to the differing dialects of English spoken and written across the country at the time, the government required a clear and unambiguous form for use in its official documents. Chancery Standard was developed to meet this need.

History of the Chancery Standard

The standard was developed during the reign of King Henry V, 1413 to 1422, in response to his order for government officials to use, like himself, English rather than Anglo-Norman or Latin. It had become broadly standardized by about the 1430s. It was largely based on the London and East Midland dialects, as those areas were the political and demographic "centres of gravity." However, it used other dialectical forms where they made meanings more clear, for example the northern "they", "their" and "them" were used rather than the London "hi/they", "hir" and "hem." This was perhaps because the London forms could be confused with words such as he, her, him. In its early stages of development, the clerks that used it would have been familiar with French and Latin. The strict grammars of those languages influenced the construction of the standard. It was not the only influence on later forms of English - its level of influence is disputed and a variety of spoken dialects continued to exist - but it provided a core around which Early Modern English could crystallise. By the mid-15th century, Chancery Standard was used for most official purposes except the Church (which used Latin) and some legal matters (which used French and some Latin). It was disseminated around England by bureaucrats on official business, and slowly gained prestige. Chancery Standard provided a widely-intelligible form of English for the first printers, who appeared later in the 15th century. Category:History of the English language

Greek language

Greek (Greek Ελληνικά, IPA – "Hellenic") is an Indo-European language with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, the former Yugoslavia, particularly The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Turkey. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in Melbourne, Australia which is the third-largest Greek-populated city in the world, after Athens and Thessaloniki. Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet, the first true alphabet, since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in Linear B and the Cypriot syllabaries. Greek literature has a long and rich tradition.

History

This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on Proto-Greek language. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since the 2nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the Linear B tablets dating from 1500 BC. The later Greek alphabet (q.v.) is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the Phoenician alphabet (abjad); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:
- Mycenean Greek: the language of the Mycenean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 16th century BC onwards.
- Classical Greek (also known as Ancient Greek): In its various dialects was the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained known in the Byzantine world, and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to Italy.
- Hellenistic Greek (also known as Koine Greek): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with Attic (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great, but after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of Christianity, as the Apostles used it to preach in Greece and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the Alexandrian dialect, Post-Classical Greek or even New Testament Greek (after its most famous work of literature).
- Medieval Greek: The continuation of Hellenistic Greek during medieval Greek history as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the Byzantine Empire, and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the 15th century. Also known as Byzantine Greek.
- Modern Greek: Stemming independently from Koine Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the late Byzantine period (as early as 11th century). Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: Dhimotikí (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and Katharévousa (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today. It has been claimed that an "educated" speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē , the version of Greek used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint, is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers. Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: astronomy, democracy, philosophy, thespian, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, isomer, biomechanics etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary. See English words of Greek origin, and List of Greek words with English derivatives.

Classification

Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, Ancient Macedonian language (which may be regarded as a dialect of Greek) and Phrygian, are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, Armenian seems to be the most closely related to it.

Geographic distribution

Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in Greece and Cyprus. There are also Greek-speaking populations in Georgia, Ukraine, Egypt, Turkey, Albania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Southern Italy. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.

Official status

Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside Turkish, the official language of Cyprus. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus, Greek is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.

Phonology

This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language. :All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet

Vowel sounds

Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic:

New Testament

The New Testament, sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, is the name given to the part of the Christian Bible that was written after the birth of Jesus. The phrase "New Testament" is a translation of the Greek Η Καινή Διαθήκη, which is also often translated as The New Covenant. The phrase was originally used by early Christians to refer to the new covenant with God that formed the new basis for their relationship with God (see Jeremiah 31:31; Luke 22:20; 2 Corinthians 3:6; and Hebrews 9:15-20). About two centuries later, at the time of Tertullian and Lactantius, the phrase was being used to designate a particular collection of books that embodied this covenant. In recent times, the Biblical term New Covenant is also used by some to refer to the books of the New Testament.

Naming of the New Testament

Tertullian, in the 2nd century, was the first to use the terms novum testamentum/new testament and vetus testamentum/old testament, for example, in Against Marcion book 3 [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian123.html], chapter 14, he wrote: :This may be understood to be the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel and in book 4 [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html], chapter 6, he wrote: :For it is certain that the whole aim at which he has strenuously laboured even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets. Lactantius, in the 3rd century, in his Divine Institutes, book 4, chapter 20 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-07.htm#P1533_624437], wrote: :But all Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ - that is, the law and the prophets - is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: [Jer. 31:31-32] "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that that which was to be given by Christ would be complete. The Vulgate translation, in the 5th century, used testamentum in 2nd Corinthians 3 [http://www.latinvulgate.com/verse.aspx?t=1&b=8&c=3]: :(6)Who also hath made us fit ministers of the new testament, not in the letter but in the spirit. For the letter killeth: but the spirit quickeneth. (Douay-Rheims) :(14)But their senses were made dull. For, until this present day, the selfsame veil, in the reading of the old testament, remaineth not taken away (because in Christ it is made void). (Douay-Rheims) However, the more modern NRSV translates these verses from the Koine Greek as such: :(6)who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant, not of letter but of spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life. :(14)But their minds were hardened. Indeed, to this very day, when they hear the reading of the old covenant, that same veil is still there, since only in Christ is it set aside. Thus, it is common to conflate the English terms testament and covenant, even though they are not synonymous.

Books of the New Testament

The 27 books of the New Testament were written by various authors at various times and places. Unlike the Old Testament, the New Testament was written in a relatively narrow span of time, probably over less than a century, from c. AD 50 to c. AD 125. The following is a list of the New Testament books, followed by the author traditionally associated with that book.

The Gospels

The Gospels focus on the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus:
- The Gospel of Matthew - Matthew, a tax-collector and apostle.
- The Gospel of Mark - Mark, a follower of Peter and also of Paul.
- The Gospel of Luke - Luke, possibly a follower of Paul.
- The Gospel of John - John, a fisherman and apostle. None of the Gospels identifies its author by name; rather, traditions about authorship are based on early Christian writings that identify them. The earliest references to the Gospels do not indicate an author - such as Justin Martyr who refers to "memoirs of the apostles" also "called Gospels", but gives no names; or Aristides who refers to the (singular) "Gospel, as it is called", but also gives no name(s).

History

The history of the early Christian church after the death of Christ is related here.
- The Acts of the Apostles - Luke

Epistles

The epistles contain various letters written sometimes to individuals but mainly to early Christian congregations. These epistles expound important theological points and give insight into the developing Christian church. The NT epistles are of varying quality and it is not at all certain if they were actually written by the person whose name they bear. Modern scholars argue that many of the epistles are pseudepigraphical.

Pauline Epistles

The Pauline Epistles (or Corpus Paulinum) constitute those epistles traditionally attributed to Paul (for modern views, see below under Authorship). Their names are based on the Christian groups or individuals to whom they are addressed. Some of the Pauline epistles (such as the Pastoral Epistles) are considered by some to not be written by Paul.
- Epistle to the Romans - Paul the Apostle to the Gentiles
- First Epistle to the Corinthians - Paul
- Second Epistle to the Corinthians - Paul
- Third Epistle to the Corinthians - Armenian Orthodox
- Epistle to the Galatians - Paul
- Epistle to the Ephesians - Paul
- Epistle to the Philippians - Paul
- Epistle to the Colossians - Paul
- First Epistle to the Thessalonians - Paul
- Second Epistle to the Thessalonians - Paul
- First Epistle to Timothy - Paul (Pastoral Epistles)
- Second Epistle to Timothy - Paul (Pastoral Epistles)
- Epistle to Titus - Paul (Pastoral Epistles)
- Epistle to Philemon - Paul
- Epistle to the Laodiceans - Vulgate apocrypha

General Epistles

:See main article: General Epistles The General or Catholic Epistles are those written to the church at large. They are named after their traditional author, but many contemporary scholars believe they are all pseudepigraphical. In medieval times, they were often collected not with the Pauline epistles but with Acts to form the Praxapostolos.
- Epistle to the Hebrews - Anonymous. Historically attributed to Paul, though few scholars would identify him as the author today.
- Epistle of James - James, the brother of Jesus
- First Epistle of Peter - Peter the Apostle
- Second Epistle of Peter - Peter the Apostle (normally considered to be written by another author by modern scholars)
- First Epistle of John - John the Apostle (the Johannine letters are usually attributed to members of the community of his disciples, though 1 John closely resembles the Gospel of John in style and vocabulary)
- Second Epistle of John - John the Apostle
- Third Epistle of John - John the Apostle
- Epistle of Jude - Jude, brother of James

Prophecy

- Revelation - John "the Divine." Traditionally identified with John the Apostle. There is still some debate as to whether this is John the Apostle or another prophet by the same name.
- Bible prophecy

Language

The common language spoken in the time of Jesus was Aramaic. However, the original text of the New Testament was most likely written in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in first-century Roman provinces, and has since been widely translated into other languages, most notably Latin, Syriac, and Coptic. (However, some of the church fathers seem to imply that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or more likely Aramaic, and there is another contention that the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews wrote in Hebrew, which was translated into Greek by Luke. Neither view holds much support among contemporary scholars, who argue that the literary quality of Matthew and Hebrews suggests that they were composed directly in Greek, rather than being translated.) It is notable that many books of the New Testament, especially the gospel of Mark and the book of Revelation, are written in relatively poor Greek. They are far from the refined Attic or Classical Greek one finds composed by the higher classes, ruling elites, and trained philosophers of the time. Relative exceptions to this include the gospels of Luke and John and the Acts of the Apostles, the latter probably written or redacted by the same person who wrote or redacted Luke. A very small minority of scholars consider the Aramaic version of the New Testament to be the original and believe the Greek is a translation (see Aramaic primacy).

Gospel sources

The sources of the Gospels, and their relationship, is a matter of some debate (see the Synoptic Problem). Some of the Church Fathers said that the Gospel of Matthew was the first written. Many scholars now believe that the Gospel of Mark and the Q document are the main primary sources of the Gospels - the Two-Source Hypothesis. However, as noted below, the nature and existence of Q is hypothetical. (Main article: Historicity of Jesus)

Authorship

The New Testament was written by many different people. The traditional view is that all the books were written by apostles or their followers (e.g. Mark and Luke). Modern scholars now largely discount this assumption aside from seven of Paul's letters. Except for Hebrews, no serious question about the authorship of any of the books was raised in the church before the 18th century, when critical inquiry into the New Testament began. However, it should be noted that scholars such as A. N. Sherwin-White, F.F. Bruce, John Wenham, Gary Habermas and others argue for a high degree of historical reliability of the key New Testament events or the New Testament as a whole (see: Resurrection of Jesus for details).[http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html] [http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/ffbruce/ntdocrli/ntdocont.htm][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wenham][http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/historical_apologetics/habermas-nt.html] Prominent liberal scholar John A.T. Robinson argued for early dates of the entire New Testament and ascribed many of the key New Testament texts to their traditional authors. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robinson_%281919-1983%29] Seven of the epistles of Paul are now generally accepted by most modern scholars as authentic; these "undisputed" letters include Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Scholars are divided over the Pauline authorship of 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, and Ephesians (listed in decreasing order of support). It is mainly evangelical scholars who hold Pauline authorship of the Pastorals (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus). Almost no current mainstream scholar, however, holds that Paul wrote Hebrews. In fact, controversy about the authorship of Hebrews, the only anonymous epistle, goes back to the early Church fathers. The exact authorship of most other books has not been agreed upon. The issue is somewhat different for the gospels, because they are all technically anonymous; so the question is whether the traditional attributions (to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) are correct. The Johannine writings, particularly the Gospel and the first epistle, have been accepted by many as coming from circles around John the Evangelist; the question there is whether Revelation is ascribed to the circles. Of key concern is the role of presuppositions in Biblical scholarship, especially gospel and historical Jesus studies. It is now widely recognized that every individual comes to historical study with their own experiences, religious beliefs, and philosophical assumptions, and that these factors can play a defining role in the final product that any particular scholar produces. In the case of the gospels, modern research has been approached from a number of perspectives: Jewish, feminist, Protestant, Roman Catholic, agnostic, materialist, historical, and social-scientific, to name just a few. A prime example of this diversity of opinion is represented in the numerous, often contradictory, "historical Jesus" books published in the past 25 years (compare, for example, the work of the Jesus Seminar, B. Mack, John Dominic Crossan with that of John P. Meier, James Dunn, and N. T. Wright). This has often had the effect of creating reconstructions of Jesus in the images of the particular authors, as opposed to narrating who Jesus really was, what he did, and what he taught. Nevertheless, most scholars are of the opinion that this process of often heated debate has produced viable results. The problems with correctly assigning authorship to ancient works like those in the New Testament can be demonstrated by looking at its four gospels. Because of the many similarities between Matthew, Mark, and Luke, they are often referred to as the "Synoptic Gospels" ("seeing-together"). The Gospel of John, in contrast, contains much unique narrative and dialogue and is considered to be different in its emphasis from the other three gospels. The question of how the similarities between the synoptic gospels arose is known as the synoptic problem. How material from each gospel was introduced to other gospels brings up significant problems in assigning authorship. Was each written by one individual, the four simply relaying in their own words the events of Jesus' life they themselves witnessed? Was there a first author and gospel whose work substantially contributed to the later gospels? Was each gospel written over a relatively short or long period of time? Was each gospel written by only one person? The dominant view among critical scholars, the Two-Source Hypothesis, is that both Matthew and Luke drew significantly upon the Gospel of Mark and another common source, known as the "Q Source". from Quelle, the German word for "source". The nature and even existence of Q is speculative. Most Q scholars believe that it was a single written document, while a few contest that "Q" was actually a number of documents or oral traditions. No information about its author, if it existed, can be obtained from the resources currently available, and, indeed, little or any direct biographical information about their authors is assumed to be traceable. Modern scholars are also skeptical about authorship claims for non-canonical books, such as the Nag Hammadi corpus discovered in Egypt in 1945. This corpus of fifty-two Coptic books, dated to about 350-400, includes gospels in the names of Thomas, Philip, James, John, and many others. Like almost all ancient works, they represent copies rather than original texts. None of the original texts has been discovered and scholars argue about the dating of the originals. Suggested dates run from as early as 50 or as late as the late second century. See Gospel of Thomas and New Testament Apocrypha.

Date of composition

According to tradition, the earliest of the books were the letters of Paul, and the last books to be written are those attributed to John, who is traditionally said to have lived to a very old age, perhaps dying as late as 100, although evidence for this tradition is generally not convincing. Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185, stated that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were written while Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome, which would be in the 60s, and Luke was written some time later. Evangelical and Traditionalist scholars continue to support this dating. Some other modern critical scholars concur with the dating of the majority of the New Testament, except for the epistles and books that they consider to be pseudepigraphical (i.e. those thought not to be written by their traditional authors). Some do not. For the Gospels, they tend to date Mark no earlier than 65, and Matthew some time between 70-85. Luke is usually placed in the 80-95 time frame. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was 1 Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing. Of the pseudepigraphical epistles, Christian scholars tend to place them somewhere between 70 and 150, with 2 Peter usually being the latest. However, John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (1976), proposed that all of the New Testament was completed before 70, the year the temple at Jerusalem was destroyed. Robinson argued that because the destruction of the temple was prophesied by Jesus in Matthew 24:15-21 and Luke 23:28-31, the authors of these and other New Testament books would not have failed to point out the fulfillment of this prophecy. Robinson's position is popular among some Evangelicals. In the 1830s, German scholars of the Tübingen school dated the books as late as the third century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts, not including some of the later writings, dating as far back as 125 has called such late dating into question. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95, quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore some of the books of the New Testament were at least in a first draft stage, although others were probably not completed until later, while editing, some minor, some major, continued until the present day.

The canonization of the New Testament

:Main article: Biblical canon The process of canonization was complex and lengthy. It was characterized by a compilation of books that early Christians found inspiring in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Hebrew Testament (early Christian communities were primarily Jewish). In this way, the books considered authoritative revelation of the New Covenant were not hammered out in large, bureaucratic Church council meetings, but in the secret worship sessions of lower-class peasant Christians. While an episcopal hierarchy did develop and finally solidify the canon, this was a relatively late development. In the first three centuries of the Christian Church, there was no New Testament canon that was universally recognized. Nevertheless, by the 2nd century there was a common collection of letters and gospels that a majority of church leaders considered authoritative. These contained the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian (all 2nd century), held these to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired. Other books were held in high esteem, but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament apocrypha. One of the earliest attempt at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, who rejected the entire Old Testament, all but one gospel (Luke), and three of the Pauline letters. His unorthodox canon was rejected by a majority of Christians, as was he and his theology, Marcionism. Around 200 the Muratorian fragment was written, listing the accepted works. This list was very similar to the modern canon, but also included the Wisdom of Solomon (now part of the Deuterocanonical books) and the Apocalypse of Peter. The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted by all at the Third Council of Carthage in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, theologian and reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. Even today, German-language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than their traditional order for other Christians. Due to the fact that some of the recognized Books of the Holy Scripture were having their canonicity questioned in the 16th century by Protestants, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional canon of the Scripture as a dogma of the Catholic Church.

Views on New Testament authority

All Christian groups respect the New Testament, but they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authorititativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy and/or authorititativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the fol