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Crucifixion

Crucifixion

:Crucify redirects here. For the song, see Crucify (song). Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution, where the victim was tied or nailed to a large wooden cross (Latin: crux) and left to hang there until dead. It was a fairly common form of execution from the 6th century BC, especially among the Persians, Egyptians, Carthaginians, and Romans, until c. 313 AD, when Christianity became the dominant faith in Rome. Crucifixion has special significance in Christianity as Jesus was put to death by the Romans by being nailed to a cross. The cross or the crucifix has become the main Christian symbol.

Details of crucifixion

Crucifixion was hardly (if ever) performed for ritual or symbolic reasons; usually, its purpose was only to provide a particularly painful, gruesome, and public death, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. In fact, crucifixion is only one of a much wider spectrum of slow, cruel and painful execution methods, including various forms of impalement, hanging from hooks, burning at the stake, exposure to wild beasts, etc. Therefore, the details of crucifixion must have varied considerably with location and epoch, and even from case to case; and little can be said about the practice in general.

Cross shape

The horizontal beam of the cross, or transom, could be fixed at the very top of the vertical piece, the upright, to form a capital T called a tau cross or Saint Anthony's cross. The horizontal beam could also be affixed at some distance below the top, often in a mortise, to form a lowercase t-shape called a Latin cross, more often depicted in Christian imagery. Alternatively, the cross could consist of two diagonal beams to form an X, alternatively known as the decussate cross (after decem, Latin for 'ten', insofar as 'X' is the Roman numeral for ten) or as Saint Andrew's cross. (This shape may be recognized from its white-on-blue manifestation in the flag of Scotland.) For reasons of simplicity, a single, upright wooden pole (crux simplex), with no transom at all, was also often used for ancient crucifixions; the original Greek word for "cross" (stauros) is generally understood to indicate a simple upright pole or stake. On such, malefactors were nailed for execution. Both the noun, and the verb staurein, "to fasten to a stake or pole", are distinct from the ecclesiastical symbol of the two-beamed "cross". According to some theories, the shape of the latter had its origin in ancient Babylonia as the symbol of the god Tammuz, being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the Greek initial of his name. By the middle of the 3rd century AD, pagans received into the churches sometimes retained their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, with the cross-piece lowered, is said to have been adopted to stand for the "cross" of Christ. Of course, this theory that the cross symbol was adopted purely as a symbol from pagan practice seemingly overlooks all the archaeological and literary evidence discussed elsewhere in this article, that actual crosses were indeed used as a very real means of execution.

Location of the nails

Scotland For the sake of expediency, the victim was probably affixed to the cross by ropes, nails, or some combination of the two. In popular depictions of crucifixion (possibly derived from a literal reading of the translated description in the Gospel of John, of Jesus' wounds being "in the hands"), the victim is shown supported only by nails driven straight through the feet and the palms of the hands. However, the flesh of the hands cannot support a person's body weight, so some other means must have been used to support most of the weight, such as tying the wrists to the cross beam. Another possibility, that does not require tying, is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, between the two bones of the forearm (the radius and the ulna). The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four carpal bones (which is the location shown in the Shroud of Turin). As some historians have suggested, the Gospel word χειρ (cheir) that is translated as "hand" may have in fact included everything below the mid-forearm. Indeed, Acts 12:7 uses this word to report chains falling off from Peter's "hands", although the chains would be around what we would call "wrists". This shows that the semantic range of χειρ is wider than the English "hand", and can incorporate nails through the wrist. Another possibility, suggested by Frederick Zugibe, is that the nails may have been driven in on an angle, entering in the palm in the crease that delineates the bulky region at the base of the thumb, and exiting in the wrist, passing through the carpal tunnel. A sedile, or a seat, was often attached to the cross, for the purpose of taking the man's weight off the wrists. This was most likely a simple peg or slab of wood, upon which the man would rest. A nail was often hammered through the genitals (penis and scrotum), into the sedile, as a means of securing the man to the seat.

Cause of death

Death could come in hours or days, depending on exact methods, the health of those crucified, and environmental circumstances. A theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. He conjectured that when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the victim would have severe difficulty exhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the lungs. The victim would therefore have to draw himself or herself up by his or her arms, or have his or her feet supported by tying or by a wood block. Indeed, Roman executioners were said to break the victim's legs, after he or she had hung for some time, in order to hasten his or her death. Once deprived of support and unable to lift himself or herself, the victim would die within a few minutes. If death did not come from asphyxiation, it could result from a number of other causes, including physical shock caused by the scourging that preceded the crucifixion, and the nailing itself, dehydration, and exhaustion. Experiments by Frederick Zugibe have revealed that, when suspended with arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical, test subjects had no difficulty breathing, only rapidly increasing discomfort and pain. This would correspond to the Roman use of crucifixion as a prolonged, agonizing, humiliating death. Zugibe claims that the breaking of the crucified victim's legs to hasten death, mentioned in the Gospel accounts, was done in order to cause severe traumatic shock or death by fat embolism, and only as a coup de grace. Crucifixion on a single pole with no transom, with hands affixed over one's head, would precipitate rapid asphyxiation if no block was provided to stand on, or once the legs were broken.

Archeological evidence for ancient crucifixion

Despite the fact that the ancient Jewish historian Josephus, as well as other sources, refer to the crucifixion of thousands of people by the Romans, there is only a single archeological discovery of a crucified body dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus. It is not surprising that there is only one such discovery, because a crucified body was usually left to decay on the cross and therefore would not be preserved. The only reason these archeological remains were preserved was because family members gave this particular crucified criminal a customary burial. The remains were found accidentally in an ossuary with the crucified man’s name on it, “Yehohanan, the son of Hagakol.” The ossuary contained a heel with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the heels may have been driven through the sides of the tree (one on the left side, one on the right side, and not with both feet together in front). The nail had olive wood on it indicating that he was crucified not on a beam but on an olive tree. Since olive trees are not very tall, this would suggest that victims were crucified at eye level. His legs were found broken. Important references for the ancient practice of crucifixion and an examination of archeological evidence:
- Tzaferis, Vassilios. “Crucifixion -- The Archaeological Evidence.” Biblical Archaeology Review 11, February, 1985: 44–53.
- Zias, Joseph. “The Crucified Man from Giv’at Ha-Mivtar: A Reappraisal.” Israel Exploration Journal 35(1), 1985: 22–27.

History of crucifixion

Persia and Alexander

Crucifixion probably originated with ancient Persians. There is evidence that captured pirates were crucified in the port of Athens in the 7th century BC. Alexander the Great is reputed to have executed 2000 survivors from his siege of the city of Tyre, as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's friend Hephaestion. Some historians have also conjectured that he crucified Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, after Callisthenes objected to the adoption by Alexander of the royal Persian ceremony of adoration.

Roman Empire

Romans adopted the custom from Carthage and used it for slaves, rebels, pirates and especially despised enemies and criminals. Therefore crucifixion was considered a most ignominious way to die. Condemned Roman citizens were usually exempt from crucifixion (like feudal nobles from hanging) except for major crimes against the state, such as high treason. The Romans used it during the Spartacus rebellion, during the Roman Civil War, and the destruction of Jerusalem. Josephus tells a story of the Romans crucifying people along the walls of Jerusalem. He also says that the Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. In Roman style crucifixion, the victim took days to die slowly from suffocation - lack of oxygen caused by the victim's blood-supply slowly draining, eventually to a quantity insufficient to supply the required oxygen to vital organs. The dead body was not removed from the cross but was left on the cross for vultures and other birds to consume. The goal of Roman crucifixion was not just to kill the criminal, but also to wreck and dishonour the body of the condemned. In ancient tradition, an honourable death required burial, so to wreck the body and not permit them to be buried, but to leave them hanging on a cross to decay, was a grave dishonour on the person. Under ancient Roman penal practice, crucifixion was not only a means of execution, but also a means of exhibiting the criminal’s low social status. It was the most dishonourable death imaginable. The elite of Roman society (only about 10% of the population) were almost never subject to corporal punishments; instead, they were fined or exiled. Josephus mentions Jews of high rank who were crucified, but this was to point out that their status had been taken away from them. Control of one’s own body was vital in the ancient world. Capital punishment took away control over one’s own body, thereby implying a loss of status and honour. The Romans often broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death. Burial afterwards was not usually permitted. A common prelude was scourging, which would cause the victim to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. The prisoner then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in Latin) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross. Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and four soldiers. When it was done in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) was sometimes permanently embedded in the ground. The victim was usually stripped naked -- the New Testament gospels, dated to around the same time as Josephus, describe soldiers gambling for the robes of Jesus. The "nails" were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 in. (13 to 18 cm) long, with a square shaft 3/8 in. (1 cm) across. In some cases, the nails were gathered afterwards and used as healing amulets. Emperor Constantine, the first Emperor known to receive a Christian baptism, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire at the end of his reign.

Japan

Tokugawa Shogunate

Crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate. It was called Haritsuke in Japanese. The victim—usually a sentenced criminal—was hoisted upon a T-shaped cross. Then, executioners killed him with spears. The body was left to hang for a time before burial. In 1597, twenty-six Christians were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki, Japan. Among those executed were Paul Miki and Pedro Bautista, a Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the Philippines.

Mesoamerica

There are some reports that, after the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica in the 16th century, some natives performed human sacrifice by crucifixion due to their superficial understanding of Christianity.

Modern death on the cross


- Execution by crucifixion, while rare in recent times, was used at Dachau during the Holocaust and in a number of wars, such as in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge and during the Sino-Japanese war, where it was among the many methods of torture and execution used by Japanese soldiers against Chinese civilians—largely in emulation of medieval Japanese military practices.
- During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified an Allied (Canadian) soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by private George Barrie of the Canadian First Division, as follows: :"On 24 April at St Julien I saw a small party of Germans about 50 yards away. I lay still and in about half an hour they left. I saw what appeared to be a man in British uniform. I was horrified to see that the man was literally crucified, being fastened to the post by eight bayonets. He was suspended about 18" from the ground, the bayonets being driven through his legs, shoulders, throat and testicles. At his feet lay an English rifle, broken and covered with blood." [http://www.freedominion.ca/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t=8270] :According to a Red Cross Nurse and multiple testimonies from men of the same unit, the event supposedly happened to a Harry Banks of Canadian 48th Highland Regiment. This story was widely used in the black propaganda of the time, together with a similar rumor that Germans had bayoneted Belgian babies. Such rumours made for highly graphic and disturbing pictures and were ideal for helping to demonize the enemy. :After the war, investigators tried to determine the veracity of the story of the crucified soldier, but it was inconclusive.
- There are persistent stories that crucifixions continue to occur in certain parts of Africa, particularly in Sudan. According to reports, hundreds if not thousands of Christian Sudanese have been nailed to crude crosses on the plains, in remote areas where access by reporters and Western witnesses is limited. Al Jazeera reported in 2002 of the crucifixion of 32 Christian priests and other males, some as young as their early teens. They were allegedly whipped severely and affixed to crosses with six-inch nails through their hands, ankles, and genitals. Other reports suggest that crucifixion has been making a comeback in such fundamentalist Muslim nations as Nigeria and Yemen.

Modern crucifixions without death

Crucifixion as a devotional practice

Since at least the mid-1800s, a group of Catholic flagellants in New Mexico called Hermanos de Luz ("Brothers of Light") have annually conducted reenactments of Jesus Christ's crucifixion during Holy Week, where a penitent is tied--but not nailed—to a cross. [http://holly.colostate.edu/~tlucero/penitente/week.htm] Some very devout Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday, to imitate the suffering of Jesus Christ. A notable example is the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of Mexico City, since 1833. [http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=23257] Devotional crucifixions are also common in the Philippines, sometimes even driving nails through the hands. In San Pedro Cutad, devotee Ruben Enaje has been crucified 18 times, as of 2004, during Passion Week celebrations. [http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/international/international-philippines-crucifixions.html] In many cases the person portraying Jesus is previously subjected to flagellation (e.g. flailing) and/or wears a crown of thorns. Sometimes there is a whole passion play, sometimes only the mortification of the flesh.

Parody

In a more jocular context, the victim of a prank (such as a a bridegroom in 'macho' circles where he is traditionally abused at the end of his stag night) or of hazing may be bound to a cross as a variation of treeing.

Famous crucifixions


- Jesus of Nazareth
- Spartacus' revolt: Spartacus himself died in battle, but approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200 km road between Capua and Rome circa 71 BC, as a warning to any other would-be rebels.
- Saint Peter, Christian apostle: according to tradition, Peter was crucified upside down at his own request, as he did not feel worthy to die the same way as Jesus (for he had denied Him three times previously)
- Saint Andrew, Christian apostle: according to tradition, crucified on an X-shaped cross, hence the name St. Andrew's Cross
- Archbishop Joachim of Nizhny Novgorod: crucified upside down, on the Royal Doors of the Cathedral in Sevastopol, USSR in 1920

Related topics


- Asphyxiation
- Death penalty
- Execution
- Hanging
- Impalement
- Torture

External links


- [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=lw195 New Scientist] article on cause of death in crucifixion.
- [http://e-forensicmedicine.net/Turin2000.htm "Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion" by Dr. Frederick Zugibe]
- [http://www.joezias.com/CrucifixionAntiquity.html "Crucifixion in antiquity - The Anthropological evidence"] By Joe Zias
- [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=C Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion] Category:Ancient_Rome Category:Christianity Category:Sorrowful Mysteries Category:Jesus Category:Persia Category:Corporal punishments Category:Death penalty Category:Torture Category:Human body positions Category:Cross symbols Category:Gospel episodes Category:Christian hagiography ja:磔

Crucify (song)

"Crucify" is a song written and performed by Tori Amos from her album Little Earthquakes. Released in 1992, it was the fifth single from the album, and was featured on the US Crucify EP, the UK Crucify (Part 1) single, the UK Crucify (Part 2) single, the France Crucify vinyl and cassette single, and the Australia Crucify cassette single.

Personnel


- Tori Amos – acoustic piano, vocals
- Jef Scott – bass
- Ed Green – drums
- Paulinho Dacosta – percussion
- John Chamberlin – mandolin
- Eric Williams – ukulele
- Nancy Shanks (Beene), Tina Gullickson – backgrounds
- John Beverly Jones – sound recording
- Leslie Ann Jones – assistance
- Paul McKenna – mixing
- Davitt Sigerson – producer

Chart positions

"Crucify" reached #15 on the UK charts, which caused Little Earthquakes to re-enter the album charts there. In addition, "Crucify" hit #22 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart in the United States. This, despite Amos's claims of censorship: :"I've been in the alternative stations because they won’t play my lyrics. The whole Bible-belt banned me for 'Crucify' because they thought I was being sacrilegous. They felt that it was detrimental material for their children and that it was blasphemous." [Hollywood Report - September 10, 1992]

Samples

Appearances of the song on television

Live performances

Tori Amos performed "Crucify" on David Letterman's show in May, 1992, and on CBS This Morning on September 9, 1992. She also played it on Jay Leno's show on January 13, 1993, along with the song "Winter." Additionally, she played "Crucify" live on MTV in 1992, as well as on Top of the Pops.[http://www.hereinmyhead.com/collect/videos/compli.html]

Music video

Top of the Pops The "Crucify" video, directed by Cindy Palmano (photographer and video director) and Atlantic Records, was released in 1992 as well. It was shot using the radio edit of "Crucify" that can be found on the EP and singles. It includes images of Tori at the piano shot using overhead cameras, twin Toris who sing together at a counter, clothing "reminiscent of Anne Boleyn"[http://www.hereinmyhead.com/videos/cru.html], and shots of Tori climbing into a bathtub fully dressed, then dancing in the wet dress. EP Beavis and Butt-head riffed on the "Crucify" video, like they did to many other music videos. Much of what they said made very little sense, but there was one pointed comment that viewers, fans and non-fans of Amos alike, had to admit was true: Butt-Head: How many videos are they going to make with chicks in a bathtub?
Beavis: Yeah... at least if they showed them naked it would be cool.
Butt-Head: Yeah. How come they never show chicks in showers?[http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=4&url=http%3A//www.white-man-killer.com/tori-amos/about.html&ei=9g4iQ7HfBoGo-gHs0tmQAw] Beavis and Butt-head Cindy Palmano has said that Atlantic Records finished the video because "I took it to a certain stage and then the record company wanted to edit it in a different way." Yet she approves of the bathtub sequence: "I like when she steps into the bath and comes out of the bath. It all looks really Hitchcock, I love it."[http://www.hereinmyhead.com/videos/cru.html] (Palmano also directed the videos Silent All These Years, Winter, China and Pretty Good Year, this last one from Amos' second album, Under the Pink.) You can find this music video on Little Earthquakes and Tori Amos: Complete Videos 1991-1998.

Later appearances of "Crucify"

In 2004, Tori Amos released the compilation album Tales of a Librarian, which included remastered versions of many of her most popular songs. The original LP version of "Crucify" was one of them. Amos has performed "Crucify" differently live in recent years. The verses are a lot slower and have some degree of repetition. One example of how she plays it now can be found on the Welcome to Sunny Florida DVD.

External links


- [http://www.hereinmyhead.com/collect/earth/le1.html Lyrics and other information] on the song
- [http://www.yessaid.com/talk/1crucify.html Quotes on the song by Tori Amos] Category:Tori Amos songs Category:Tori Amos singles Category:1992 songs

Latin

Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.

Main features

Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs. There are six noun cases: #nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative), #genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun), #dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for), #accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases), #ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from), #vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed). In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin. There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb "laudare" ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active voice:

Primary sequence tenses

# present (laudo, "I praise") # imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising") # future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")

Secondary sequence tenses

# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised") # pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised") # future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised") The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the primary sequence.

Latin and Romance

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese. The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative. In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.

Latin and English

See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition. English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English. During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word." Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.

Latin education

The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate). Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.

See also

About the Latin language


- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin

About the Latin literary heritage


- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum

Other related topics


- Roman Empire
- Internationalism

References


- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237

External links


- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English. Category:Classical languages Category:Ancient languages Category:Fusional languages Category:Languages of Italy Category:Languages of Vatican City als:Latein zh-min-nan:Latin-gí ko:라틴어 ja:ラテン語 simple:Latin language th:ภาษาละติน

Persians

:This article is about the ethnic Persians (Iranians) of Iran. For information about Central Asian Persians see Tajiks. For the ancient empire, see Persian Empire. The Persians of Iran (officially named "Persia" by West until 1935 while still referred to as Persia by some) are an Iranian people who speak Persian (locally named Fârsi by native speakers) and often refer to themselves as ethnic Iranians as well. Religiously, most of the Persians in Iran follow the Shia sect of Islam, while small minorities of Sunni Muslims, Persian Jews, Persian Christians, Zoroastrians, and Bahá'ís remain. The ancient Persians from the province of Pars (Fars) became the rulers of a large empire under the Achaemenid dynasty (The Persian pronunciation is Ha-Khuh-Manesh-ee-yun) in the sixth century BC. Over the centuries Persia was ruled by various dynasties; some of them were ethnic Persians (the Sassanids, Buwayhids, Samanids, Safavids and others), and some of them were not (the Seleucids, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, and others). The Persian civilization spawned three major religions: Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and Manichaeanism. All of these reflect the extreme dualism of Persian culture which has also significantly influenced Judeo-Christianity and Western civilization. In addition, Persian civilization has affected its neighbors through culture, religion, and language. According to the 2004 CIA World Factbook, 51% of Iran's current population is ethnically Persian. Other estimates put the figure as high as 60%. A number of other ethnic groups are represented in Iran, including the non-Persian Aryan group Kurds; the Turkic Azerbaijanis and Turkmen; and a few Arabs (approximately 3%), Baluchis, and other minorities. See Demographics of Iran for more detail. Significant numbers of Persians reside outside of Iran with the largest communities found in the United States, Turkey, and Iraq. Smaller communities are also found in surrounding countries and the Arabian Peninsula.

Origins and roots

The Persians of Iran are mainly descended from the Indo-Iranian branch of the Aryans, an Indo-European people that migrated to the region between 2000-1000 BCE as well as indigenous populations such as the Elamites and Dravidians. The Persians have been, over time, genetically and/or socially modified and impacted by various groups including the Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, ancient Hebrews, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and various other Eurasian invaders. The Persian Jews are a good example of a Hebrew population that moved to Iran about 2,700 years ago and assimilated and mixed with the Persians so that today they speak Persian and are virtually identical to other Persians except for religion. The Persian language and other Iranian tongues all arrived with the Aryans. The first record of the Persians comes from an Assyrian inscription from the 800s BCE which calls them the Parsu and mentions them alongside another Aryan group, the Madai (Medes). See also Persian Empire and History of Iran.

Related sub-groups

Ethnic Persians can also be found outside of Iran and include the Tajiks and Parsiwan (also known as the Farsiwan) who can be found in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and Xinjiang, while another group called the Tats lives mainly in the Caucasus region concentrated in Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russian Dagestan. The Parsis of India and eastern Pakistan are also largely descended from Persian Zoroastrian refugees who fled from Persia following the Arab conquests. In addition, a group called the Hazara are a Persianized Turkic-Mongol ethnic group.

Persian language

Main article: Persian language. The Persian language is one of the world's oldest languages still in use today. It is called Farsi in Iran and Dari or Tajiki east of Iran. It is part of the Iranian sub-section of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Persian-speakers are today in the majority in Iran, Tajikistan, and possibly Afghanistan[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm], and form a large minority in Uzbekistan as well. Smaller groups of Persian speakers are found in western Pakistan and western China, as well as in Bahrain and Iraq and Azerbaijan.

Persian Art

Azerbaijan

Persian Music

Main article: Music of Iran. The music of Persia goes back to the days of Barbod in the royal Sassanid courts, and even earlier.

Persian Architecture

Main article: Iranian architecture. Architecture is one of the areas where Persians have made outstanding contributions.

Persian rugs

Main article: Persian rug. Gottfried Semper called rugs "the original means of separating space". Rug weaving was thus developed by ancient civilizations as a basis of architecture. Persian rugs have a history as old as humanity itself.

Persian Gardens

Main article: Persian Gardens. The Persian Garden was designed as a reflection of paradise on earth; the word "garden" itself coming from Persian roots.

Persian Women

Main article: Persian Woman. She is the star of 1001 Nights. She is the source of color and life in Persia. Who is the Persian woman? Oriental, yet markedly distinguishable.

Persian contributions to humanity

Main article: Culture of Iran. From the humble brick, to the windmill. Persians have strived to create a better world by mixing creativity with art.

See also


- Demographics of Iran
- Culture of Iran
- History of Iran
- Tajiks

External links


- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pes Ethnologue information for Western Persians]
- [http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=107987 Statistics on geographic distribution of Persians worldwide]
- Category:Ethnic groups of Iran
- Category:Iranian peoples
- Category:Ethnic groups of Asia
- Category:Ethnic groups of the Middle East

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile extending from as far south as Jebel Barkal, Napata [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05329b.htm], and then northward to the Mediterranean Sea, though varying in size throughout its history between circa 3200 BC and 343 BC, ending with the conquest of Alexander the Great. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.

Geography

Most of Egypt is in North Africa; though the Sinai Peninsula is in Southwest Asia. The country has shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea; it borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip, Palestine and Israel to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. Somewhat counter-intuitively, Upper Egypt was in the south and Lower Egypt in the north, named according to the flow of the Nile. The Nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the Mediterranean rather than southward from a northerly point. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the Stone Age and Naqada cultures. Two kingdoms formed Kemet ("the black land", in Ancient Egyptian Kmt), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. The desert was called Deshret ("the red land"), c.f. Herodotus: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that Libya is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12).

People

Libya]] A recent genetic study links the maternal lineage of a traditional population from Upper Egypt to Eastern Africa . A separate study further narrows the genetic lineage to Northeast Africa () and reveals also that modern day Egyptians "reflect a mixture of European, Middle Eastern, and African." Champollion the Younger, who deciphered the Rosetta Stone, claimed in Expressions et Termes Particuliers ("Expression of Particular Terms") that Kmt did not actually refer to the soil but to a negroid population in the sense of "Black Nation." Modern day professional Egyptologists, linguists and historians, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the soil rather than the people. Herodotus wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are black-skinned (melanchrôs) and wooly-haired (oulothrix)" (Histories Book 2:104). Later authors, including Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus, repeated Herodotus' description of "black-skinned". Melanchros is also used of the sunburnt complexion of Odysseus (Od. 16.176). Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet , mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders . A few teams of European scientists reported that cocaine, hashish and nicotine have been found in the skin and hair of Egyptian mummies . The results of these studies have been harshly criticized (e.g., ref. ) by mainstream scientists and Egyptologists as flawed and inaccurate.

History

:Main article: History of ancient Egypt The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called Punt, or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"). Once commonly thought to be located on what is today the Somali coast, Punt now is thought to have been in either southern Sudan or Eritrea. The history of ancient Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3000 BC. Though archaeological evidence indicates a developed Egyptian society may have existed for a much longer period (see Predynastic Egypt). Along the Nile, in 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering peoples using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society (see Nile: History). There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC. By 6000 BC ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Mortar (masonry) was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture. Some authorities however begin the Predynastic Period earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic (see Predynastic Egypt). Egypt unified as a single state circa 3000 BC. Egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptaica.
- List of pharaohs: The pharaohs stretch from before 3000 BC to around 30 BC.
- Dynasties (see also: List of Egyptian dynasties):
  - Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. 27th century BC)
  - Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries BC)
  - First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties)
  - Middle Kingdom of Egypt (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC)
  - Second Intermediate Period (14th to 17th Dynasties)
    - Hyksos (15th to 16th Dynasties)
  - New Kingdom of Egypt (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC)
  - Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC)
  - Late Period of Ancient Egypt (26th to 31st Dynasties; 7th century BC to 332 BC)
    - Achaemenid Dynasty
  - Graeco-Roman Egypt (332 BC to AD 639)
    - Ptolemaic Dynasty
    - Roman Empire

Government

Nomes were the subnational administrative divisions of Upper and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh was the ruler of these two kingdoms and headed the ancient Egyptian state structure. The pharaoh served as monarch, spiritual leader and commander-in-chief of both the army and navy. The pharaoh was supposed to be divine, a connection between men and gods. Below him in the government, were the viziers (one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt) and various officials. Under him on the religious side were the high priest and various other priests. Generally, the position was handed down from father to eldest son. Sometimes this rule was broken, and occasionally a woman assumed power.

Language

The ancient Egyptians spoke an Afro-Asiatic language related to Chadic, Berber and Semitic languages. Records of the ancient Egyptian language have been dated to about 3200 BC. Scholars group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions:
- Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
- Old Egyptian (2600–2000 BC)
- Middle Egyptian (2000–1300 BC)
- Late Egyptian (1300–700 BC)
- Demotic Egyptian (7th century BC–4th century AD)
- Coptic (3rd–12th century AD)

Writing

For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3200 BC. However recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on Gerzean pottery, c.4000 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms . Also in 1998 a German archeological team under Gunter Dreyer excavating at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) uncovered tomb U-j, which belonged to a Predynastic ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphics dating to the Naqada IIIA period, circa 33rd century BC , . Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as hieroglyphs, today standing as the world's earliest known writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ideographic. Hieratic is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term Demotic, in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the Nubian 25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Coptic language survived into the Middle Ages as the liturgical language of the Christian minority. Beginning from around 2700 BC, Egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds -- both vowel and consonant vocalizations (see Hieroglyph: Script). By 2000 BC, 26 pictograms were being used to represent 24 (known) main vocal sounds. The world's oldest known alphabet (c. 1800 BC) is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other Egyptian hieroglyphs. The hieroplyphic script finally fell out of use around the 4th century and began to be rediscovered after the 15th century (see Hieroglyphica).

Literature


- c. 2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
- c. 1800 BC: Story of Sinuhe
- c. 1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
- c. 1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
- c. 1000 BC: Story of Wenamun

Culture

The Egyptian religions, embodied in Egyptian mythology, were the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, until the coming of Christianity and Islam. These were conducted by Egyptian priests or magicians, but the use of magic and spells is questioned. The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. Ancient Egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order. Evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient Egypt indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures, transmitted in one way over the Silk Road. Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually symbolic.

Ancient achievements

symbolic See Predynastic Egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the Sahara region before the Protodynastic Period. The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as surveying). These skills were used to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic Cement was first invented by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai Peninsula. The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet, decimal system and complex mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids.

Timeline

(All dates are approximate.)

Predynastic

See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.
- 3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
- 3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest known earthenware

Dynastic


- 3300 BC: Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
- 3200 BC: Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt)
- 3200 BC: Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document
- 3100 BC: Decimal system, , world's earliest (confirmed) use
- 3100 BC: Wine cellars, world's earliest known
- 3100 BC: Mining, Sinai Peninsula
- 3050 BC: Shipbuilding in Abydos,
- 3000 BC: Exports from Nile to Israel: wine (see Narmer)
- 3000 BC: Copper plumbing (see Copper: History)
- 3000 BC: Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
- 3000 BC: Medical Institutions
- 2900 BC: possible steel: carbon-containing iron,
- 2700 BC: Surgery, world's earliest known
- 2700 BC: precision Surveying
- 2700 BC: Uniliteral signs, forming basis of world's earliest known alphabet
- 2600 BC: Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue
- 2600s–2500 BC: Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh Sahure. See also , .
- 2600 BC: Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian pyramids: Construction)
- 2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building
- 2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite
- 2600 BC: Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work granite]
- 2580 BC: Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure until AD 1300
- 2500 BC: Beekeeping,
- 2400 BC: Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity
- 2200 BC: Beer,
- 1860 BC: possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt)
- 1800 BC: Alphabet, world's oldest known
- 1800 BC: Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, , 2nd order algebraic equations
- 1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum
- 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series
- 1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces as far back as c. 3000 BC
- 1550 BC: Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
- 1500 BC: Glass-making, world's earliest known
- 1258 BC: Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses II, )
- 1160 BC: Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic and topographic map
- 5th–4th century BC (or perhaps earlier): battle games petteia and seega; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins of chess)

Other


  - c.2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
  - c.1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
  - c.1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
  - c.1400 BC: Tulli Papyrus
  - c.1300 BC: Brugsch Papyrus
  - Unknown date: Rollin Papyrus

Open problems

There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated. Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or batteries. The relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kites or gliders. Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.

See also


- List of Ancient Egyptians
- Egyptology
- Unsolved problems in Egyptology
- History of Egypt
- List of Ancient Egyptian sites
- Egyptian Museum
- Race of the Ancient Egyptians
- Egypt in the European imagination

Further reading


- John Baines & Jaromir Malek, The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt, revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN 0816040362
- Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, Routledge, 1991. ISBN 0415063469
- Bill Manley (ed.), The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500051232
- Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0192804588

External links


- [http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/ Ancient Egypt] - maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
- [http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientegypt/ Ancient Egypt and Egyptians] articles and resources from About Archaeology
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians] - provides a reliable general overview and further links
- [http://www.ancientneareast.net/egypt.html Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt] - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt
- [http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ Egyptology Resources] - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt
- [http://www.kv5.com/ The Theban Mapping Project] - although focusing on the Theban region (modern Luxor), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt

Notes

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # Category:Ancient Egypt ja:古代エジプト ms:Mesir purba

Carthaginians

:This article is about the ancient city-state of Carthage in North Africa. For other uses of the word, see Carthage (disambiguation). Carthage (disambiguation)). The map also shows Italy and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.]] Carthage (from the Phoenician Qart-Hadasht "New City" (written without vowels as QRT HDŠT קרת חדשת), was an ancient city in North Africa located on the eastern side of Lake Tunis, across from the center of modern Tunis in Tunisia. It remains a popular tourist attraction.

Founding of Carthage

In approximately 814 BC, Carthage was founded by Phoenician settlers from the city of Tyre, bringing with them the city-god Melqart. Traditionally, the city was founded by Dido, and a number of foundation myths have survived through Greek and Roman literature. (See Byrsa for one example.) Carthage's early years were defined by a long rivalry between the landholding and maritime families. In general, due to the city's dependence on maritime trade, the maritime faction controlled the government, and during the 6th century BC, Carthage began to acquire dominance over the Western Mediterranean. Merchants and explorers established a vast network of trade, bringing wealth and power to the city-state. In the early 6th century BC, Hanno the Navigator is supposed to have sailed down the African coast as far as Nigeria. Meanwhile, under a leader named Malchus, the city began a systematic conquest of both the African interior and the coastal lands. In 509 BC a treaty was signed between Carthage and Rome indicating a division of influence and commercial activities. It is the first known source that indicated Carthage had gained control over Sicily and Sardinia. By the beginning of the 5th century BC, Carthage was the commercial center of the region, a position it would retain until overthrown by the Roman Republic. The city had conquered the territory of the old Phoenician colonies, such as Hadrumetum, Utica and Kerkouane, and the Libyan tribes, spreading its control along the North African coast from modern Morocco to the borders of Egypt. Its influence had also spread into the Mediterranean, with control over Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands and the western half of Sicily. Colonies had also been established in Iberia. Iberia

Life in Carthage

Carthaginian Commerce

The early trading empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade with Tartessos and other cities of the Iberian peninsula, from which it obtained vast quantities of silver and, even more importantly, tin ore, which was essential to the manufacture of bronze objects by the civilizations of antiquity. Carthage followed trade routes already established by her parent city, Tyre. When Tartessos fell, the Carthaginian ships went directly to the primary sources of tin in the northwestern section of the Iberian peninsula and further north, in Cornwall in the British Isles. Other Carthaginian ships went down the Atlantic coast of Africa and brought back gold from Senegal. One account has a Carthaginian trading vessel exploring Nigeria, including identification of distinguishing geographic features, such as a coastal volcano and an encounter with gorillas. (See Hanno the Navigator.) Non-permanent trade relations were established as far west as Madeira and the Canary Islands, and as far south as southern Africa. If the epic poetry of Greece and the contemporary historians of imperial Rome record the military opposition of Carthage to the forces of the Greek city states, and later to Rome, then it is very much to the Greek theatre and Greek comedies that we are indebted for depictions of the generic Carthaginian merchant, hawking cloth, pots and jewellery. He was usually portrayed as an amusing scoundrel, a relatively peaceful and colourful trader intent on making a profit and cheating noble but innocent Greeks of every spare penny they might have. Diggings show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles, ceramics and fine metalwork. Before and in between the wars Carthaginian merchants were in every port in the Mediterranean, buying and selling, establishing warehouses where they could, or just bargaining in open-air markets after getting off their ship. The Etruscan language has not yet been deciphered, but archaeological excavations of Etruscan cities show that the Etruscan civilization was for several centuries a customer and a vendor to Carthage, long before the rise of Rome. The Etruscan city-states were, at times, both commercial partners of Carthage and military allies.

Carthaginian Government

Carthage's government was an oligarchy, not unlike that of republican Rome, but few details are known. Roman writers referred to its heads of state as reges "kings"; Punic inscriptions and Greco-Roman accounts show the indigenous term was Sōfetīm "Judges" (the same name early rulers are given in the Bible), which might originally have been the title of the city's governor installed by the mother city of Tyre. Later, one sōfet or two sōfetêm, who were believed to have exercised judicial and executive (but not military) functions, were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families. These aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council comparable to the Roman senate that had a wide range of powers. However, it is not known whether the sōfetīm were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people. Although the city's administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs, democratic elements were to be found as well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unions and town meetings. There was a system of checks and balances, as well as public accountability: the Head of the Admiralty would have to pay with his life for military defeat. Eratosthenes, head of the Greek library of Alexandria, noted that the Greeks had been wrong to describe all non-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as well as the Romans had a constitution. Aristotle also knew and wrote about the Carthaginian constitution in his Politics (Book II, Chapter 11).

Carthaginian Religious Practices

Carthage under the Phoenicians was notorious to its neighbors for child sacrifice. Plutarch (ca. 46-120 CE) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius and Diodorus Siculus. Livy and Polybius do not. Modern archeological excavations could be taken to confirm Plutarch's view. In a single child cemetery called the Tophet an estimated 20,000 urns were deposited between 400 BC and 200 BC, with the practice continuing until the early years of the Christian period. The urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and 2-year-olds. These remains have been interpreted to mean that in the cases of stillborn babies, the parents would sacrifice their youngest child. There is a clear correlation between the frequency of sacrifice and the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poor harvests) sacrifices became more frequent, indicating an increased assiduousness in seeking divine appeasement. It is sometimes argued, however, that these bodies were merely the cremated remains of children that died naturally, although in light of other Canaanite evidence this seems less likely. The few Carthaginian texts which have survived make absolutely no mention of child sacrifice. It has been argued by some modern scholars that evidence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is sketchy at best and that it is far more likely to have been part of Roman propaganda against the Carthaginians to justify their conquest and destruction. The debate is ongoing among modern archeologists and other antiquarians. While the surviving Punic texts mention no practices of religious sacrifices, they are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions, for a variety of prices. Carthage had many gods. The supreme divine couple was that of Tanit and Ba`al Hammon. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most of the population. In the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions. The goddess Astarte seems to have been popular in early times. At the height of its cosmopolitan era Carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of Greece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states.

Conflict with the Greeks and Romans

First Sicilian War

Carthage's success led to the creation of a powerful navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the Greeks, the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean. The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts. Small battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries. By 480 BC, Gelon, the tyrant of Greek Syracuse, backed in part by Greek support, was attempting to unite the island under his rule. This imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage - possibly as part of an alliance with Persia, then engaged in a war with Greece - fielded its largest military force to date, under the leadership of the general Hamilcar. Traditional accounts give Hamilcar's army a strength of three hundred thousand men; though these are almost certainly exaggerated, it must nonetheless have been of formidable force. En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suffered losses (possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day Palermo), he was then decisively defeated by Gelon at the Battle of Himera. He was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. The loss severely weakened Carthage, and the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic.

Second Sicilian War

By 410 BC Carthage had recovered under a series of successful rulers. It had conquered much of modern day Tunisia, strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, and sponsored Mago Barca's journey across the Sahara Desert and Hanno the Navigator's journey down the African coast. Although, in that year, the Iberian colonies seceded—cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper—Hannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar, began preparations to reclaim Sicily, while expeditions were also led into Morocco and Senegal, and also into the Atlantic. In 409 BC, Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He was successful in capturing the smaller cities of Selinus (modern Selinunte) and Himera, before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched, and in 405 BC Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition, this time to claim the island in its entirety. This time, however, he met with fierce resistance and ill-fortune. During the siege of Agrigentum, the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, Hannibal Mago himself succumbing to it. Although his successor, Himilco, successfully extended the campaign by breaking a Greek siege, capturing the city of Gela and repeatedly defeating the army of Dionysius, the new tyrant of Syracuse, he, too, was weakened by the plague and forced to sue for peace before returning to Carthage. In 398 BC, Dionysius had regained his strength and broke the peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian stronghold of Motya. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured Messina. Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself. The siege met with great success throughout 397 BC, but in 396 BC plague again ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed. Sicily by this time had become an obsession for Carthage. Over the next sixty years, Carthaginian and Greek forces engaged in a constant series of skirmishes. By 340 BC, Carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest corner of the island, and an uneasy peace reigned over the island.

Third Sicilian War

In 315 BC Agathocles, the tyrant of Syracuse, seized the city of Messene (present-day Messina). In 311 BC he invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the current peace treaty, and laid siege to Akragas. Hamilcar, grandson of Hanno the Navigator, led the Carthaginian response and met with tremendous success. By 310 BC he controlled almost all of Sicily and had laid siege to Syracuse itself. In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland, hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. In this, he was successful: Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and mo