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Granary

Granary

A granary is a storehouse for threshed grain or animal feed. In ancient or primitive granaries, pottery is the most common use of storage in these buildings. pottery-1634]] Category:Buildings and structures Category:Agriculture

Cereal

:This article is about grains. See also breakfast cereal Cereal crops are mostly grasses cultivated for their edible seeds (actually a fruit called a caryopsis). Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities worldwide than any other type of crop and provides more food energy to the human race than any other crop. In some developing nations, cereal grains constitute practically the entire diet of common folk. In developed nations, cereal consumption is more moderate but still substantial. The word cereal has its origin in the Roman goddess of grain, Ceres. Staple food grains are traditionally called corn in Britain, though that word became specified for maize in the United States. And a merchant of corn was in Britain called a chandler, which in the United States is an obsolete word for someone who sells candles. maize

Cereal crops

True cereals

The cereal crops are (in approximate order of greatest annual production):
- wheat, the primary cereal of temperate regions
- rice, the primary cereal of tropical regions
- maize, a staple food of peoples in North America, South America, and Africa and of livestock worldwide; called "[Indian] corn" in North America and Australia
- millets, a group of similar but distinct cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.
- sorghums, important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock
- rye and triticale, important in cold climates
- oats, formerly the staple food of Scotland and popular worldwide for livestock
- barley, grown for malting and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat
- teff, popular in Ethiopia but scarcely known elsewhere
- wild rice, grown in small amounts in North America
- spelt, a close relative of wheat Cereal

Pseudocereals

In addition, several non-grasses that are grown for their seed may also be referred to as cereals. These pseudocereals include (in no particular order):
- buckwheat
- amaranth
- quinoa
- kañiwa
- cockscomb

Cultivation

cockscomb.]] While each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereals crops is similar. All are annual plants; consequently one planting yields one harvest. Wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants that grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather (approximately 30 °C but this varies by species and variety). The other warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather. Barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Wheat is the most popular. All cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, but only in the cool highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops in a year.

Planting

The warm-season cereals are grown in tropical lowlands year-round and in temperate climates during the frost-free season. Cool-season cereals are well-adapted to temperate climates. Most varieties of a particular species are either winter or spring types. Winter varieties are sown in the autumn, germinate and grow vegetatively, then become dormant during winter. They resume growing in the springtime and mature in late spring or early summer. This cultivation system makes optimal use of water and frees the land for another crop early in the growing season. Winter varieties do not flower until springtime because they require vernalization (exposure to low temperature for a genetically determined length of time). Where winters are too warm for vernalization or exceed the hardiness of the crop (which varies by species and variety), farmers grow spring varieties. Spring cereals are planted in early springtime and mature later that same summer, without vernalization. Spring cereals typically require more irrigation and yield less than winter cereals.

Harvest

Once the cereal plants have grown their seeds, they have completed their life cycle. The plants die and become brown and dry. As soon as the parent plants and their seed kernels are reasonably dry, harvest can begin. In developed countries, cereal crops are universally machine-harvested, typically using a combine harvester, which cuts, threshes, and winnows the grain during a single pass across the field. In developing countries, a variety of harvesting methods are in use, from combines to hand tools such as scythes. If a crop is harvested during wet weather, the grain may not dry adequately in the field to prevent spoilage during its storage. In this case, the grain is sent to a dehydrating facility, where artificial heat dries it. In North America, farmers commonly deliver their newly harvested grain to a grain elevator, a large storage facility that consolidates the crops of many farmers. The farmer may sell the grain at the time of delivery or maintain ownership of a share of grain in the pool for later sale.

Food value

Cereal grains supply most of their food energy as starch. They are also a significant source of protein, though the amino acid balance is not optimal. Whole grains (see below) are good sources of dietary fiber, essential fatty acids, and other important nutrients. Rice is eaten as cooked entire grains, although rice flour is also produced. Oats are rolled, ground, or cut into bits (steel-cut oats) and cooked into porridge. Most other cereals are ground into flour or meal, that is milled. The outer layers of bran and germ are removed (see grain (fruit) and seed). This lessens the nutritional value but makes the grain more resistant to degredation and makes the grain more appealing to many palates. Health-conscious people tend to prefer whole grains, which are not milled. Overconsumption of milled cereals is sometimes blamed for obesity. Milled grains do keep better because the outer layers of the grains are rich in rancidity-prone fats. The waste from milling is sometimes mixed into a prepared animal feed. Once (optionally) milled and ground, the resulting flour is made into bread, pasta, desserts, dumplings, and many other products. Besides cereals, flour is sometimes made from potatoes, chestnuts and pulses (especially chickpeas). In American English, cold breakfast cereals and porridges are simply called cereal. Cereals are the main source of energy providing about 350 kcal per 100 grams Cereal proteins are poor in nutritive quality, being deficient in essential amino acid lysine. The proteins of maize are still poor, being deficient in lysine and tryptophan (a precursor of niacin) Rice proteins are richer in lysine than other cereal proteins and for this reason, rice protein is considered to be of better quality. Rice is a good source of B group vitamins, especially Thiamine. It is devoid of Vitamines A, D, C and is a poor source of Calcium and Iron.

Animal feed

In agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any foodstuff that is used specifically to feed livestock, such as cattle, sheep, chickens and pigs. Most animal feed is from plants but some fodder is of animal origin. Although most animal foodstuffs are considered safe, mad cow disease spreads due to prion contamination of meat and bone meal, a common feed ingredient.

Common plants specifically grown for fodder

- grass (as grazing pasture and for cropping and storage as hay and silage)
- ryegrass
- bermuda grass
- timothy-grass
- danthonia
- wheat
- millet
- soybean
- oats
- alfalfa (lucerne)
- sorghum
- clover
- red clover
- white clover
- subterranium clover
- maize
- brassicas
- chau moellier
- kale
- rapeseed (Canola)
- rutabaga (swede)
- turnip
- birdsfoot trefoil

Types of fodder

- hay
- silage
- yeast extract

Growing Fodder Hydroponically

yeast extract Fodder may be effectively grown in a hydroponic environment. Growing fodder, instead of feeding the "raw" grain to stock, can greatly increase the value of the grain. For instance, 1 ton of barley can be converted to 7 tons of fodder in less than two weeks.

Pottery

Pottery is a form of ceramic technology, where the clay is formed into vessels, generally with utilitarian purposes in mind. The production of pottery is a process where wet clay is shaped and allowed to dry. The formed clay, or piece, may be "bisque fired" in a kiln to harden it, and then fired a second time after adding a glaze or a piece may be once fired by applying appropriate glaze to the dry unfired clay and firing in one cycle.

Types of pottery

Aesthetic and artistic considerations have often been part of the formation of the pottery vessels, however modern mass production techniques have replaced the traditional role of pottery with mechanized reproduction, which has in turn caused the potter to be more focused on the aesthetic than the utilitarian in industrialized nations. Traditionally, different world regions have produced different types of clay, also called bodies, with the potter digging clay out of natural banks in his own 'back yard.' In modern times, potters will often combine different clays and minerals to produce clay bodies suited to their specific purposes. Pottery that is fired at temperatures in the 800 to 1200 °C range, which does not vitrify in the kiln but remains slightly porous is often called earthenware or terra cotta. Clay formulated to be fired at higher temperatures, which is partially vitrified is called stoneware. Fine earthenware with a white tin glaze is known as faience. Porcelain is a very refined, smooth, white body that, when fired to vitrification, can have translucent qualities. Complex extremely high-fired ceramics, where the glaze and body fuse completely, are generally referred to as "products of ceramic technology." Ceramic technology is used for items such as electronic parts and Space Shuttle tiles.

Techniques

Space Shuttle).]] A person who makes pottery is traditionally known as a potter. The potter's most basic tool is his or her hands, however many of their tools have been created over the long history of pottery, including the potter's wheel, various paddles, shaping tools (or ribs), slab rollers, and cutting tools.

Forming techniques

There are three basic categories of forming techniques used in pottery—handwork, wheel work, and slipcasting. It's very common for wheel-worked pieces to be finished by handwork techniques. Slipcast pieces tend not to be, as that negates one of the prime advantages of casting. Handwork methods are the most primitive and individual techniques, where pieces are constructed from hand-rolled coils, slabs, ropes, and balls of clay, often joined with a liquid clay slurry. No two pieces of handwork will be exactly the same, so it is not suitable for making precisely matched sets of items such as dinnerware. Doing handwork enables the potters to use their imagination to create one-of-a-kind works of art. These methods are often referred to as "handbuilding". art.]] The potter's wheel can be used for mass production, although often it is employed to make individual pieces. The process of making ceramic ware on the potter's wheel is called "throwing" or "turning." A ball of clay is placed in the center of a turntable, called the wheel head, which is turned chiefly using foot power (a kick wheel or treadle wheel) or a variable speed electric motor. Oftentimes, a disk of plastic, wood, or plaster is affixed to the wheel head, and the ball of clay is attached to the disk rather than the wheel head so that the finished piece can be removed easily. This disk is referred to as a bat. The wheel revolves rapidly while the clay is pressed, squeezed, and pulled gently into shape. The process of pressuring the clay into a radial symmetry, so that it does not move from side to side as the wheel head rotates is referred to as "centering" the clay—usually the most difficult skill to master for beginning potters. Wheel work takes a lot of technical ability, but a skilled potter can produce many virtually identical plates, vases, or bowls in a day. Because of its nature, wheel work can only be used to initially create items with radial symmetry on a vertical axis. These pieces can then be altered by impressing, bulging, carving, fluting, faceting, incising, and other methods to make them more visually interesting. Often, thrown pieces are further modified by having handles, lids, feet, spouts, and other functional aspects added using the techniques of handworking. Pottery that is thrown on the wheel is often finished in a process known as trimming. The thrown piece is first allowed to dry to the leather-hard state then it is returned to the potter's wheel, usually with the rim down. The piece must be re-centered to allow trimming of the foot of the pot to create a smooth and well-defined surface. There are two related techniques that improve repeatability of wheelwork. A jigger is a mould that is slowly brought down onto the outside of an object, while it is being turned on a wheel. A solid mould is used to form the inside of the piece. Similarly, a jogger is used to shape the inside of a piece, pressing the outside against a solid mould. Although these techniques have been in use since the 18th century, they are usually considered minor "industrial" methods by modern studio potters. There is contention among potters over whether a "jigged" piece can be considered "hand-produced." Slipcasting is probably the easiest technique for mass-production, especially for shapes not easily made on a wheel. A liquid clay slip is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to harden slightly. This slip can be formulated to mature at a variety of temperatures. Once the plaster has absorbed most of the liquid from the outside layer of clay the remaining slip is poured back into the storage tub, and the piece is left to dry. Finally, the finished piece is removed from the mould, "fettled" (trimmed neatly), and allowed to air-dry. This method is commonly used for smaller decorative pieces such as figurines, which have many intricate details. In the United States, moulds and their slipcast pieces are primarily an industrial product, and are usually called "ceramics" to distinguish them from other pottery.

Decorative and finishing techniques

ceramics.]] Additives can be worked into moist clay, prior to forming, to produce desired characteristics to the finished ware. Various coarse additives, such as sand and grog (fired clay which has been finely ground) give the final product strength and texture, and contrasting colored clays and grogs result in patterns. Colorants, usually metal oxides and carbonates, are added singly or in combinations to achieve a desired colour. Combustible particles can be mixed with clay or pressed into the surface to produce texture. Shredded fiberglass can be used as an additive to improve tensile strength in the finished piece. However, the resulting clay contains sharp fibers, is hard to work with and must be carefully handled. Throughout history, potters have used a mixture of coloured clays as a distinctive decorating technique. In traditional studio pottery in Great Britain, these techniques were known as agateware. The name is derived from the agate stone, which shows bands of colours. In Japan, various techniques for combining coloured clay on the potter's wheel are jointly known as "neriage." An analogue of marquetry can also be made, by pressing small blocks of coloured clays together, and using the resulting mosaic to create distinctive patterns. The Japanese term for this technique is nerikome. Agateware and the other varieties of 'mottled' ware are made by combining two or more colours or varieties of clay into one completed piece. Different colours of clay are lightly kneaded or slapped together before being formed into a vessal or decorative item. This method is most commonly used for handbuilt pieces. Coloured clay can also be added to a base clay after it is centered on the wheel. Although in principle any clays can be combined, differing rates of drying/shrinkage and expansion in firing create structural difficulties. It is best to select a light neutral clay body, and then add a colourant to separate portions of the same body. The different coloured clays can then be joined without significant structural problems. Members of commercial clay 'families' often have a similar chemical composition and a similar shrinkage rate, and can be used together. Burnishing, like the metalwork technique of the same name, involves rubbing the surface of the piece with a polished surface (typically wood, steel, or stone), to smooth and polish the clay. Finer clays give a smoother and shinier surface than coarser clays, as will allowing the pot to dry more before burnishing, although that risks breakage. metalwork To give a finer surface, or a coloured surface, slip can be coated onto the leather-dry clay. Slip produced to a specific recipe is sometimes called an engobe. Slips or engobes can be applied by painting techniques, or the piece can be dipped for a uniform coating. Many pre-historic and historic cultures used slip as the primary decorating material on their ware. Sgraffito involves scratching through a layer of coloured slip to reveal a different colour or the base clay underneath. If done carefully, one colour of slip can be fired before a second is applied prior to the scratching or incising decoration. Often slips/engobes used in this process have a higher silica content, sometimes approaching a glaze recipe. This is particularly useful if the base clay is not of the desired colour or texture.

Glazing and firing techniques

Glazing is the process of coating the piece with a thin layer of a glassy material (often a mix of dolomite, frit, silica/flint, feldspar, sodium borate, clay and whiting plus metal oxides or carbonates). This is important for functional earthenware vessels, which would otherwise be unsuitable for holding liquids due to porosity. Glaze may be applied by dusting it over the clay, spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on a thin slurry of glaze and water. Brushing tends not to give very even covering, but can be effective with a second coating of a coloured glaze as a decorative technique. With all glazed items, a small part of the item (usually on the base of the piece) must be left unglazed, else it will stick to the kiln during firing. Glazes can be formulated to melt within the kiln at various temperatures called cones and denoted by a small triangle and a number, which run upwards from cone 1 at 1154 °C and backwards with a preceding 0. Cone 06, for example, is a lower temperature than cone 1 at approximately 999 °C. Glazes formulated to melt between cone 09 (~923 °C) and cone 01 (~1137 °C) are often referred to as "low fire", while glazes which melt between around cone 6 (~1222 °C) and cone 12 (~1326 °C) are called "high fire". Those which melt in the intermediate range are called "mid fire". The temperature within the kiln is often identified using small triangular Pyrometric cones of carefully formulated chemical mixtures which melt within a specific temperature range and begin to bend slightly—hence the term "cones" being used to denote temperature. Some clays and glazes are oxygen-sensitive, most notably those containing iron and copper, and will change colour depending on the presence of oxygen during the firing. Kilns can either be "oxidized" by opening a port to allow oxygen into the interior or "reduced" by closing off the kiln from outside air to attain colors as desired. A number of various firing techniques can be used in addition to normal glaze-firing. Most of these involve heating the kiln to a high temperature and then delivering an amount of dry chemical into the kiln's interior. Sulfur is commonly used, as are various salts or ashes. Such substances will stick to pieces within the kiln and melt onto their surfaces, often resulting in a mottled texture which has a distinctive "orange peel" feel. Colors generally depend on what chemical is added to the kiln. These techniques can have very unusual and frequently unexpected results whether used on an unglazed piece or in combination with normal glazing. Wood firing is another type of firing which involves using wood, rather than gas or electricity as in most modern kilns, to heat the kiln's interior. An example of a wood fired kiln is the Chinese Anagama, also adopted and used by Korean and Japanese potters. Wood firing is frequently time-consuming, as the kiln must be stoked for days, but the pieces which emerge often have characteristic patches of orange color on the clay itself, known as "blushing". The Western adaptation of Raku firing, a traditional Japanese technique, has enjoyed a deal of popularity due to its relative ease. The kiln is heated to a low temperature, usually no higher than cone 06, and then ware is pulled out of the kiln while still hot (using tongs, of course) and smothered in ashes, paper, or woodchips. This can be done in an enclosed container, which allows the supply of oxygen to be cut off and reduction to take place. The finished products of this process are not suitable for functional use, as the clay remains porous and may have some toxic chemicals held within it as a result of burning the surrounding woodchips or paper used to smother it. However, because of the low temperature, it is an extremely quick and easy technique to do, and the clay has a distinctive black color.

Production stages

All pottery items go through a series of stages during construction. # The raw clay is wedged to make its moisture and other particle distribution homogeneous and to remove air bubbles. It is then shaped either by hand or using tools such as a potter's wheel, an extruder, or a slab roller. Water is used to keep the clay flexible during construction and to keep it from cracking. # Work that is thrown on the wheel often needs to be trimmed or turned to make its thickness uniform and/or to form a foot on the piece. This process is done when the piece has stiffened enough to survive manipulation. This condition is called leather hard. # The piece is allowed to air dry until it is hard and dry to the touch. At this stage it is known as greenware. Items of greenware are very brittle but they can be handled with care. Greenware items are often sanded with fine grade sandpaper to ensure a smooth finish in the completed item. # Sometimes the greenware is given a coating of a liquid clay slip. This is most often done to give a coloured base for decoration, other than the colour of the main clay. # The greenware is often given a preliminary lower range firing in a kiln. Once it has been fired, the clay is known as biscuit ware or bisque. # Biscuit ware is normally a plain red, white, or brown colour depending on which type of clay is used. This is decorated with glaze and then fired again to a higher temperature. # Some pieces are not bisque-fired before being glazed. These pieces are called once-fired.

History

once-fired, Japan.]] Pottery is an ancient technology, and is one of the key technologies in the formation of civilization. The creation of pottery has been advanced as new tools became available to the potter, such as the electric potter's wheel and the electric kiln. Potters also take advantage of more modern innovations in the fields of chemistry and plastics. Broken pottery in archaeological sites, called potsherds, help identify the resident culture and date the stratum, by the formation style and decoration. The relative chronologies based on pottery are essential for dating the remains of non-literate cultures and help in the dating of some historic cultures as well.

Palaeolithic pottery

Pottery found in the Japanese islands has been dated, by uncalibrated radiocarbon dating, to around the 11th millennium BC, in the Japanese Palaeolithic at the beginning of the Jomon period. This is the oldest known pottery. In Europe, burnt clay was already known in the late Palaeolithic (Magdalenian) and was used for female figurines, like the "Venus" of Dolni Vestonice, as well as figures of animals.

Neolithic pottery

In Palestine, Syria, and south-eastern Turkey, the earliest finds of clay pots date from Neolithic times, around the 8th millennium BC (black burnished ware). Before that, clay had been used to make statuettes of humans and animals that were sometimes burned as well. In the preceding pre-pottery Neolithic, vessels made of stone, gypsum, and burnt lime (vaiselles blanches or white ware) had been used. Sometimes a mixture of clay and lime was used—not very successfully—in the earliest pottery.

Reference

- Hamer, Frank and Janet, The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques, A & C Black Publishers, Limited, London, England, Third Edition 1991. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0.
- Rice, Prudence M. Pottery Analysis – A Sourcebook. London and Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 0226711188.

1634

Events

- February 24-25 - Rebellious soldiers kill Albrecht von Wallenstein
- March 1 - Battle at Smolensk, King Ladislaus IV of Poland defeats Russian army.
- March 25 - The first settlers arrive in St. Mary's City, Maryland (led by Lord Baltimore), the fourth permanent settlement in British North America.
- September 5 and September 6 - Battle of Nördlingen (1634) results in Catholic victory
- Moses Amyraut's Traite de la predestination is published
- Curaçao captured by the Dutch
- Treaty of Polianovska
- First meeting of the Académie française
- The witchcraft affair at Loudun
- Jean Nicolet lands at Green Bay, Wisconsin
- Opening of Covent Garden Market in London
- English establish a settlement at Cochin, now Kochi on Malabar coast
- First decennial performance of the Oberammergau Passion Plays
- Oxford University Press receives its charter and becomes the second of the privileged presses

Births

- January 25 - Gaspar Fagel, Dutch statesman (d. 1688)
- March 18 - Marie-Madeleine de La Fayette, French novelist (d. 1693)
- June 20 - Charles Emmanuel II of Savoy (d. 1675)
- July 14 - Pasquier Quesnel, French Jansenist theologian (d. 1719)
- July 18 - Johannes Camphuys, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1695)
- October 18 - Luca Giordano, Italian artist (d. 1705)
- December 15 - Thomas Kingo, Danish poet (d. 1703)
- Marc-Antoine Charpentier, French composer (d. 1704) See also :Category:1634 births.

Deaths

- February 25 - Albrecht von Wallenstein, Austrian general (assassinated) (b. 1583)
- May 12 - George Chapman, English author
- May 15 - Hendrick Avercamp, Dutch painter (b. 1585)
- June 22 - Johann Graf von Aldringen, Austrian soldier (b. 1588)
- June 25 - John Marston, English dramatist (b. 1576)
- August 9 - William Noy, English jurist (b. 1577)
- September 3 - Edward Coke, English colonial entrepreneur and jurist (b. 1552)
- December 29 - John Albert Vasa, Polish bishop (b. 1612)
- Adriano Banchieri, Italian composer (b. 1568) See also :Category:1634 deaths. Category:1634 ko:1634년

Category:Buildings and structures

1220. yıllar

ul 1220.–1229. yıllarınnan tora torğan unyıllıq yomğağı. Meñyıllıq: 1. meñyıllıq 2. meñyıllıq 3. meñyıllıq Yözyıllıq: 12. yöz 13. yöz 14. yöz Unyıllıq: 1170. 1180. 1190. 1200. 1210. 1220. 1230. 1240. 1250. 1260. 1270. Yıllar: 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 --------

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Granary

Cereal

Cereal crops

True cereals

Pseudocereals

Cultivation

Planting

Harvest

Food value

See also

Animal feed

Common plants specifically grown for fodder

Types of fodder

Growing Fodder Hydroponically

See also

Pottery

Types of pottery

Techniques

Forming techniques

Decorative and finishing techniques

Glazing and firing techniques

Production stages

History

Palaeolithic pottery

Neolithic pottery

See also

Reference

See also

1634

Events

Births

Deaths

Category:Buildings and structures

1220. yıllar

Unyıllıq yomğağı

Möxim waqíğalar wä uñışlar

Kürenekle keşelär

Dönya citäkçeläre

Synopsis

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