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Imperialism

Imperialism

Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a meansto use it in any reference to thems In the early 21st Centurhas turned its military, political, and Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel have been directly or otherwise substantially influenced is does not includeish Empire]] holdings of the time — n] and Pakistan.) As there are few other countries with such a capability, it has been said by some that U.S. military actions are partly or mostly acts of militarist imperialas groundless criticism against the U.S. whenever it takes a military action. Two unat the U.S. currently has a much larger and more sophisticated " adequately resembles past incarnations — Roman, British, German or otherwise.

Name dualism

One thing to note in some allegthe "melting" between the name -- and in many times, the sense of n and the other territories controlle including the titular nation itself. Some examples are:
- [[Ottoman Empire]] / [[de:Imperialismus ko:제국주의 ja:帝国主義 nn:[[sv:Imperialism]] [[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยม

Saudi-Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Jordan on the north, Iraq on the north and north-east, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the south and south-east, and Yemen on the south, with the Persian Gulf to its north-east and the Red Sea to its west. It is called "the land of the two holy mosques", a reference to Mecca and Medina, Islam's two holiest places.

History

The Saudi state began in central Arabia in about 1750. A regional ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, joined forces with an Islamic reformer, Muhammad Abd Al-Wahhab, to create a new political entity. Over the next one hundred and fifty years, the fortunes of the Saud family rose and fell several times as Saudi rulers contended with Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and other Arabian families for control on the peninsula. The modern Saudi state was founded by the late King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (known internationally as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud). In 1902 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud captured Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Ahsa, Al-Qatif, the rest of Nejd, and the Hijaz between 1913 and 1926. On 8 January 1926 Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud became the King of Hijaz. On 29 January 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jedda, signed on May 20, 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm, then known as the Kingdom of Hijaz and Nejd. In 1932, these regions were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The discovery of oil in March 1938 transformed the country economically, and has given the kingdom great legitimacy over the years. Besides Liechtenstein, Saudi Arabia remains the only country in the world named after its ruling family. Many opponents of the House of Saud reject the family's legitimacy and decline to speak of the country as "Saudi Arabia".

Politics

House of Saud House of Saud The central institution of Saudi Arabian Government is the Saudi monarchy. The Basic Law adopted in 1992 declared that Saudi Arabia is a monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the first king, Abd Al Aziz Al Saud, and that the Holy Qur'an is the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). There are no recognized political parties or national elections. The king is often classified as an absolute monarch, but his powers are theoretically limited within the bounds of Shari'a and other Saudi traditions. He also must retain a consensus of the Saudi royal family, religious leaders (ulema), and other important elements in Saudi society. The state's ideology is Salafi. This flavour of Islam spreads further by funding construction of mosques and Qur'an schools around the world. The leading members of the royal family choose the king from among themselves with the subsequent approval of the ulema. Saudi kings have gradually developed a central government. Since 1953, the Council of Ministers, appointed by and responsible to the king, has advised on the formulation of general policy and directed the activities of the growing bureaucracy. This council consists of a prime minister, the first and second deputy prime ministers, 20 ministers (of whom the minister of defense also is the second deputy prime minister), two ministers of state, and a small number of advisers and heads of major autonomous organizations. Legislation is by resolution of the Council of Ministers, ratified by royal decree, and must be compatible with the Shari'a (Islamic law). Justice is administered according to the Shari'a by a system of religious courts whose judges are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council, composed of 12 senior jurists. The independence of the judiciary is protected by law. The king acts as the highest court of appeal and has the power to pardon. Access to high officials (usually at a majlis, or public audience) and the right to petition them directly are well-established traditions. Saudi Municipal elections took place in 2005 as a first step to open the way to form political parties in the future. Saudi courts impose capital punishment and corporal punishment, including amputations of hands and feet for serious robbery, and floggings for lesser crimes such as "sexual deviance" (i.e. homosexuality) and drunkenness. The number of lashes is not clearly prescribed by law and varied according to the discretion of judges, and ranges from dozens of lashes to several thousand, usually applied over a period of weeks or months.In 2002, the United Nations Committee against Torture criticised Saudi Arabia over the amputations and floggings it carries out under the Shari'a. The Saudi delegation responded defending "legal traditions" held since the inception of Islam in the region 1400 years ago and rejected interference in its legal system. (Source: BBC, see [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q=saudi+torture&btnG=Google+Search]) Religious police enforce a modest code of dress and many institutions from schools to ministries are gender-segregated. Homosexual men and women are prosecuted (sometimes publicly) and/or executed, if they are found to be engaging in same-sex sexual activities.

Provinces

Homosexual Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 provinces (manatiq, singular - mintaqah). #Al Bahah #Al Hudud ash Shamaliyah #Al Jawf #Al Madinah #Al Gassim #Ar Riyad #Eastern Province #'Asir #Ha'il #Jizan #Makkah #Najran #Tabuk

Geography

Tabuk The kingdom occupies eighty percent of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country's boundaries with the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen are undefined, so the exact size of the country remains unknown. The Saudi government's estimate is 2,217,949 square kilometers (856,355 mi²). Other reputable estimates vary between 2,149,690 square kilometers (830,000 mi²) and 2,240,000 square kilometers (864,869 mi²). The climate is dry and hot. Dry desert with great extremes of temperature and the terrain is mostly uninhabited, sandy desert. In most parts of the country, vegetation is limited to weeds, xerophytic herbs and shrubs. Animals include the ibex, wildcats, baboons, wolves, and hyenas in the highlands. Small birds are found in the oases. The coastal area of the Red Sea, especially the coral reefs, have a rich marine fauna. Saudi Arabia has a coastline of 2,640 kilometers (1,640 mi). Saudi Arabia consists mostly of semi-desert and desert with oases. Almost half of the total country is uninhabitable desert with annual precipitation up to 100 millimetres (4 in) in most regions. The western regions are plateau and the east is lowland. The southwest region has mountains as high as 3000 metres (9,840 ft), and is an area is known for greenest and freshest climate in all of the country. The capital, Riyadh, which is to the center-east has an average temperature in July of 42ºC (108°F) and 14ºC (57°F) in January. In contrast, Jedda on the western coast has 31ºC (88°F) in July and 23ºC (73°F) in January. Less than 2 percent of the total area is suitable for cultivation, and in the early 1990s, population distribution varied greatly among the towns of the eastern and western coastal areas, the densely populated interior oases, and the vast, almost empty deserts, such as the Rub' al Khali (desert), the Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands. There are no permanent rivers and lakes in Saudi Arabia.

Economy

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Also: Oil boom (1974-85) Saudi Arabia has an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. Saudi Arabia is known to be in possession of 260.1 billion barrels of oil reserves as of 2003, about 24% of the world's proven total petroleum reserves. It ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum and plays a leading role in OPEC. Moreover, the proven reserves increase gradually as more oil fields are discovered, unlike most other oil-producing countries. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 40% of the GDP, and 90% of export earnings. About 35% of the GDP comes from the private sector. Saudi Arabia was a key player in the successful efforts of OPEC and other oil producing countries to raise the price of oil in 1999 to its highest level since the Gulf War by reducing production. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. The government is expected to continue calling for private sector growth to lessen the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment opportunities for the swelling Saudi population. Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products. In recent years, Saudi Arabia has experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income has fallen from $25,000 in 1980 to $8,000 in 2003, up from about $7,000 in 1999. The decline in inflation-adjusted per-capita income from 1980 to 1999 set a record, being by far the worst such decline suffered by any nation-state in history. Recently, with higher oil prices, however, Saudi Arabia's oil revenues have increased dramatically. Saudi Arabia's budget surplus has crossed $28 billion (SR110 billion) in 2005. The Tadawul (The Saudi stock market Index) (TASI) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23 percent to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14 percent from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (SR589.93 billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.‏ Saudi Arabia has officially become a WTO member in December 2005.

Forced labor

Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa seeking work. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from third world regions migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia. A minority of these immigrants are trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, begging, or involuntary servitude. Many of these involuntary workers suffer from abuse, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their freedom of movement and non-consensual contract alterations.

Demographics

wage Saudi Arabia's 2003 population is estimated to be about 24.3 million, including about 6.4 million resident foreigners. Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or semi-nomadic; due to rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95% of the population now is settled. The birth rate is 29.74 births per 1,000 people. The death rate is only 2.66 deaths per 1,000 people. Some cities and oases have densities of more than 1,000 people per square kilometre (2,600 /mi²). Most Saudis are ethnically Arab. Some are of mixed ethnic origin and are descended from Turks, Iranians, Malays, and others, most of whom immigrated as pilgrims and reside in the Hijaz region along the Red Sea coast. Many Arabs from nearby countries are employed in the kingdom. There also are significant numbers of South and South East Asian expatriates mostly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines. There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of which live in compounds. According to the CIA World Fact Book, 100% of Saudi Arabias citizens are Muslims. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html#People] The exit and entry visa cards ask applicants for their religious affiliation and officially bans entry to atheists, Israelis or anyone with an official stamp from the State of Israel.

Culture

Israel]] Israel]] Israel
- Music of Saudi Arabia
- Islam in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian culture revolves almost entirely around the religion of Islam. Islam's two holiest sites, Mecca and Medina, are located in the country. Every day, five times a day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which dot the country. The weekend consists of Thursday and Friday. Islam itself derives from the same monotheistic roots as Judaism and Christianity, and traditionally Muslims generally regarded other religions with respect Jews and Christians are considered fellow 'People of the Book'. However the public practice of Christianity, the presence of churches and open possession of Christian religious materials are outlawed in Saudi Arabia. Israelis are also banned from entering the country. Islam's holy book The Qur'an is Saudi Arabia's constitution, and Shari'ah (Islamic law) is the foundation of its legal system. See Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia One of Saudi Arabia's most compelling folk rituals is the Ardha, the country's national dance. This sword dance is based on ancient Bedouin traditions: drummers beat out a rhythm and a poet chants verses while sword-carrying men dance shoulder to shoulder. Al-sihba folk music, from the Hijaz, has its origins in Arab Andalusia, a region of medieval Spain. In Mecca, Medina and Jeddah, dance and song incorporate the sound of the al-mizmar, an oboe-like woodwind instrument. The drum also an important instrument according to traditional and tribal customs. Saudi Arabian dress is strongly symbolic, representing the people's ties to the land, the past, and Islam. The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering garments reflect the practicalities of life in a desert country as well as Islam's emphasis on conservative dress. Traditionally, men usually wear an ankle-length shirt woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a ghutra (a large square of cotton held in place by a cord coil) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. Women's clothes are decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. However, Saudi women must wear a long cloak (abaya) and veil (niqab) when they leave the house to protect their modesty. The law does not apply to foreigners at such a high degree, but both men and women are told to dress modestly. Islam forbids the eating of pork and the drinking of alcohol, and this law is followed strictly throughout Saudi Arabia. Arabic unleavened bread, or khobz, is eaten with almost all meals. Other staples include cooked lamb, grilled chicken, felafel (deep-fried chickpea balls), shwarma (spit-cooked sliced lamb), and fuul (a paste of fava beans, garlic and lemon). Traditional coffee houses used to be ubiquitous, but are now being displaced by food-hall style cafes. Arabic tea is also a famous custom, which is used in both casual and formal meetings between friends, family and even strangers. The tea is black (without milk) and has herbal flavoring that comes in many variations. Public theatres and cinemas are prohibited, as Wahabbi tradition deems those institutions to be incompatible with Islam. However, in private compounds such as Dhahran and Ras Tanura public theaters can be found, but often are more popular for local music, arts, and theatre productions rather than the exhibition of motion pictures. Recently plans for some cinemas that will allow Arabic cartoons to be featured in cinemas for women and children were announced. The cultural heritage is celebrated at the annual Jenadriyah Cultural festival. An institution found in Saudi Arabia is the Mutaween, or religious police, also known as the Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice. There are 3,500 officers assisted by thousands of volunteers, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2399885.stm] whose job it is to enforce religious doctrine (Muslim Shari'a law as defined by the Saudi government) and to root out "un-Islamic" activities. They have the power to arrest any unrelated males and females caught socializing, and to ban consumer products and media, such as games and toys, various Western musical groups, and television shows. The Mutaween recently launched a website where people can file anonymous tips about "un-Islamic" activities. On March 11, 2002 the Mutaween prevented schoolgirls from escaping from their burning school in Mecca because the girls were not wearing headscarves and abayas (black robes). Fifteen girls died and 50 were injured as a result. There was widespread public criticism, and the Saudi government and religious leaders condemned the Mutaween for their actions. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm]. Although their influence and power has declined recently, they had been the focus of a few human rights concerns.

Miscellaneous topics

- Mecca
- Medina
- Communications in Saudi Arabia
- Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia
- Holidays in Saudi Arabia
- Insurgency in Saudi Arabia
- List of Arabian Houses
- List of cities in Saudi Arabia
- List of Saudi Arabian companies
- List of Saudi Arabian universities
- Military of Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Aramco
- Transportation in Saudi Arabia
- Human rights in Saudi Arabia
- Human trafficking in Saudi Arabia
- Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia
- Green Party of Saudi Arabia
- Irrigation in Saudi Arabia

Bibliography

- Baer, Robert, Sleeping With The Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude (Crown, 2003) ISBN 1400050219
- Gold, Dore, Hatred's Kingdom : How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (Regnery Publishing, Inc. 2004) ISBN 0895260611
- Lippman, Thomas W. "Inside the Mirage: America's Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia" (Westview 2004) ISBN 0813340527
- Mackey, Sandra, The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) ISBN 0395411653
- Ménoret, Pascal, The Saudi Enigma: A History (Zed Books, 2005) ISBN 1842776053
- al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge University Press, 2002) ISBN 052164335

References

- [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/10/international/middleeast/10saudi.html The New York Times "Asterisk Aside, First National Vote for Saudis" February 10, 2005]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4230685.stm BBC "Q&A: Saudi municipal elections"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4252305.stm BBC "Saudis' first exercise in democracy"]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1874471.stm "Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue"]
- [http://www.hesbah.com/disapprove.asp Hesbah.com site of Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice] Form for Saudis to anonymously report "un-Islamic" activities to the Mutaween.
- [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=8696492 "Saudi says US human trafficking criticism unfounded"]

External links

Government
- [http://www.saudinf.com Saudi Arabian Information Resource] from the Saudi Ministry of Culture and Information Overviews
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791936.stm BBC News Country Profile - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sa.html CIA World Factbook - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2419.htm US State Department - Saudi Arabia] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saud/ PBS Frontline - "House of Saud"] February 2005 documentary Directories
- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/saudi.htm Arab Gateway - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.findouter.com/Saudi_Arabia Findouter - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Saudi_Arabia/ Open Directory Project - Saudi Arabia] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Saudi_Arabia/ Yahoo! - Saudi Arabia] directory category News
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&cid=34&in=world&cat=saudi_arabia Yahoo! News Full Coverage - Saudi Arabia] news headline links Other
- [http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Asia/saudiarc.htm Saudi Arabia: Historical Demographic Data Factsheet]
- [http://www.asinah.org/travel-guides/saudiarabia.html Asinah - Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.bbg-jed.org British Business Group, Jeddah]
- [http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/fara/Fara1st02/COUNTRY/SAUDIARA.HTM#2165 U.S. Department of Justice: Foreign Agents Registration Act]
- [http://www.TourSaudiArabia.com/ A Virtual Tour of Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2004/01/07/5 Amir Butler: Leave change in Saudi Arabia to the Saudis] (Discusses the question of Saudi liberalization) Category:Arab League Category:Arabia Category:Persian Gulf states Category:Monarchies Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries Category:Arab Gulf states zh-min-nan:Saudi Arabia ko:사우디아라비아 ms:Arab Saudi ja:サウジアラビア th:ประเทศซาอุดีอาระเบีย

Lebanon

The Republic of Lebanon or Lebanon is a small, largely mountainous country situated at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Middle East. It is bordered by Syria on the east and north, and Israel on the south, with a narrow coastline on its west. The name Lebanon derives from the Semitic word Laban, meaning the "white" peaks of the Lebanon Mountains. Its flag features the Lebanon Cedar.

Name

The country was named after Mount Lebanon; the word "lebanon" (also "Loubnan" or "Lebnan") comes from the Aramaic word laban which means "white" and refers to snow-capped mountains. An Arabic cognate of the word laban also means "yogurt".

History

Lebanon is one of the fifteen present-day countries that comprise what is considered to be the Cradle of Humanity. It is historic home of the Phoenicians, Semitic traders whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years. The region was a territory of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages was involved in the Crusades. It was then taken by the Ottoman Empire. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that make up present-day Lebanon to France. Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of political power among the major religious groups. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's history from independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. Beirut's

Civil War (1975-1990)

Until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut, the capital of Lebanon, noted for its wide boulevards, French-style architecture, and modernity, was called the Paris of the Middle East. Lebanon as a whole at that time was known as the Switzerland of the Middle East (Sweesra Al Shark), enjoying a similar conflict-free status title as Costa Rica in Central America and (until recently) Uruguay in South America. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees who had fled from Israel. More Palestinian refugees arrived in Lebanon after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and Black September, and by 1975, they numbered more than 300,000, led by Yassir Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In the early 1970s the PLO created a "state within a state" in southern Lebanon, and full-scale civil war broke out in April 1975, leaving the nation with no effective central government. On one side were a number of mostly Maronite militias, the most important of which was the one linked to the Phalangist Party; its commander was Bachir Gemayel. The other side comprised a coalition of Palestinians, Sunni, and Druze forces. By early 1976, the war was going poorly for the Maronites, and Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun; that Baathist Syrians were fighting against Palestinian forces was and remains ironic. In the same year in 1976, the Palestinian militia committed the Damour massacre. By 1978, many of the Maronites had become convinced that the Syrians were really occupying Lebanon for reasons of their own, and by September of that year, they were openly feuding. The Syrian forces remained in Lebanon, effectively dominating its government, into the first years of the twenty-first century. Cross-border attacks from Lebanon against Israeli territory led to an Israeli invasion on March 15 1978, in what was titled the Litani River Operation. Israel withdrew its forces thirteen days later, in response to the United Nations Security Council Resolution 425 on March 19, and the establishment of an international peace-keeping force for South Lebanon, the United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon (UNIFIL). The PLO's armed forces continued to use Lebanon as a base to attack Israel with rockets and artillery, and in 1982 Israel again invaded Lebanon with the objective of evicting the PLO. Israeli forces occupied areas from the southern Lebanese border with Israel northward into areas of Beirut. It was during this invasion that the first Sabra and Shatila massacre was committed by the Phalangist militia (under the command of Elie Hobeika). Israeli plans for Lebanon suffered a severe setback on 14 September 1982, with the assassination of the Phalangist leader and President-elect Bachir Gemayel, who was regarded as secretly sympathetic to Israel. A multinational force landed in Beirut on August 20, 1982 to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon and U.S. mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. This period saw the rise of radicalism among the country's different factions, and a number of landmark terrorist attacks against American forces, including the destruction of the United States Embassy by a truck bomb and an even deadlier attack on the U.S. Marines barracks. Concurrently, in 1982 Hezbollah was created by some of the old members of Amal with other religious clerics. 1988 and 1989 were years of unprecedented chaos. The Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Amine Gemayel (who had replaced his slain brother Bachir in 1982), whose term expired on 23 September. Fifteen minutes before the expiry of his term, Gemayel appointed an interim administration headed by the army commander, General Michel Aoun. His predecessor, Selim al-Hoss, refused to accept his dismissal in Aoun's favour. Lebanon was thus left with no President, and two rival governments that feuded for power, along with more than forty private militias. The Arab League-sponsored Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war. In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 15 year war. On May 22 2000, Israel unilaterally completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 from 1978. On September 2 2004, the United Nations Security Council, recalling previous resolutions, especially 425 (1978), 520 (1982) and 1553 (July 2004), approved Resolution 1559, sponsored by the United States and France, demanding that Syria, though not mentioned by name, should withdraw its troops from Lebanon. "All foreign forces should withdraw from Lebanon" to allow for free elections. The country is recovering from the effects of the civil war, with foreign investment and tourism on the rise. Syrian forces occupied large areas of the country until April 2005 (see Cedar Revolution below), and Iran exercises heavy influence over Hezbollah forces in the Beqaa Valley and Southern Lebanon. Nevertheless, areas of Lebanon and Beirut in particular are moving toward a sense of normality and stability. Lebanese civil society enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world.

Cedar Revolution (Intifada of Independence)

Note: Although international media prefer calling it the "Cedar Revolution", Lebanese called it the Intifada of Independence On February 14, 2005, after 10 years of relative political stability, Lebanon was shaken by the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri in a car-bomb explosion. It is widely believed that Syria was responsible for the attack (though it denies any involvement), because of its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, as well as the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the extension of President Lahoud's term. After Hariri's assassination, Druze leader Walid Jumblatt alleged that a shaken Hariri had told him months before that he was personally threatened by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad during a 15-minute meeting in the Syrian capital Damascus in August 2004: "[President of Lebanon] Lahoud is me. ... If you and Chirac want me out of Lebanon, I will break Lebanon."[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/20/international/middleeast/20lebanon.html?ei=5094&en=441b692d8c0ef46a&hp=&ex=1111294800&partner=homepage&pagewanted=all&position=]. Jumblatt said "When I heard him telling us those words, I knew that it was his condemnation of death." This testimony is contained, but not confirmed, in the UN's FitzGerald Report, issued 24 March 2005. Up to this point, no person or party has been directly accused of the murder. The Report has called for a further, much more extensive international inquiry. This has been seconded by the UN Secretary General and agreed to by the Lebanese government, but with reservations about respect for Lebanese sovereignty and the participation (not supremacy) of Lebanese agencies.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4383321.stm] Hariri's rift with Assad began with the former's vehement opposition to the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment that extended pro-Syrian president Lahoud's term in office. Hariri resigned over the incident. It was reported by some sources that upon hearing purportedly leaked information from the United Nations' special investigation report that the Lebanese authorities had covered up evidence of the murder, Hariri's two sons fled Lebanon after being warned that they too were in danger of assassination. [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/fisk/story.jsp?story=619657] However, both sons strenuously denied these claims, asserting that they were called away by business which had been on hold since their father's murder. The assassination resulted in huge anti-Syrian protests by Lebanese citizens in Beirut demanding the resignation of the pro-Syrian government. Following the examples of the Rose Revolution and Orange Revolution in 2004, the popular action was dubbed the "Cedar Revolution" by the US State Department, a name which quickly caught on among the international media. On February 28, 2005, as over 70,000 people demonstrated in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned, after the parliament named him twice to assemble the cabinet, as a part of the constitution, they remained in office temporarily in a caretaker role prior to the appointment of replacements. In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration, staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs. Hezbollah is a secondary target of Resolution 1559, which demands all Lebanese militias be disarmed; it has since been trying to rally masses to protest against foreign intervention. This demonstration was much larger than earlier anti-Syrian protests. Anti-Syrian protests have been subjected to controversy, due to extensive anti-Syrian agitation by the Hariri-owned Future TV Lebanese network and other Hariri-linked media outlets, which dwarf Hezbollah's. CNN noted some news agencies estimated the crowd at 200,000 [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/03/08/lebanon.syria/index.html], the Associated Press news agency estimated that there were nearly 500,000 pro-Syrian protestors, while the New York Times and Los Angeles Times simply estimated "hundreds of thousands". [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/08/international/middleeast/08cnd-beirut.html], [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-030805syria_wr,0,2144599.story?coll=la-home-headlines] Al-Jazeera reported a figure of 1.5 million, citing an unnamed official and the television station run Amal. Amal On March 14, one month after Hariri's assassination, approximately 800 thousand rallied in Martyrs' Square, in the largest gathering to date. Protestors of all sects (even including a number of Shiites) marched for the truth of Hariri's murder and for what they call independence from Syrian occupation. The march reiterated their will for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony. In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damages were mostly material, these acts demonstrate the danger of Lebanon relapsing into sectarian strife. After weeks of unsuccessful negotiations to form a new government, Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned the post for the third time in his political career on 13 April 2005. Two days later, Najib Mikati, a US-educated millionaire businessman and former Minister of Transportation and Public Works, was appointed as Prime Minister-designate. A moderate pro-Syrian, Mikati secured the post through the support of the Opposition, which had previously boycotted such negotiations. During the first parliamentary elections held after the Syrian withdrawal from the country in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The combinations were quite interesting as in some areas, the anti-Syrian coalition allied with Hezbollah and others with Amal. They were denied the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian appointed President Emile Lahoud by the unexpectedly strong showing of retired army general Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon. Aoun has established himself as the dominant Christian figure in the new parliament. Known previously for his strong anti-Syrian sentiment, Aoun aligned himself with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: Soleiman Franjieh Jr and Michel Murr. Aoun's party joined forces with these two to dominate the North and the Matn district of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and Walid Joumblat joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Bekaa, and Baabda-Aley district of Mount Lebanon. After the elections, Hariri and his Future Movement party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be the new Prime Minister. His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament despite the lack of representation of Gen. Aoun. On July 18, Lebanon's newly elected parliament, which is dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition, approved a motion to pardon Samir Geagea, who had spent most of the past 11 years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Emile Lahoud the next day. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4716701.stm] On September 1, 4 current and former officials of Lebanon: Maj Gen Jamil al-Sayyad, former head of General Security, Maj Gen Ali Hajj, former chief of police, Brig Gen Raymond Azar, former military intelligence chief, and Mustafa Hamdan, Republican Guard commander are charged in the connection of assassination of Hariri.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4206530.stm] On October 21, Detlev Mehlis, lead investigator in the UN Hariri Probe released the report of the investigation. The report said that "many leads point to the direct involvement of Syrian Officials". [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4362698.stm] On the press conference Mr. Mehlis insisted that part of the names in the report "were given by a witness whose reliability required further investigation", and given information the report is becoming public he would have removed more names under the presumption of innocence. [http://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2005/051021_Mehlis_Briefing.doc.htm] [http://www.un.org/news/dh/docs/mehlisreport/pdf/report.pdf]

Withdrawal of Syrian troops

Maj. Gen. Jamil Sayyed, the top Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on Monday, 25 April, just a day before the final Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon. On 26 April 2005, the last 250 Syrian troops left Lebanon. During the departure ceremonies, Gen. Ali Habib, Syria's chief of staff, said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been "rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state." UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by Security Council resolution 1559.

Politics

Lebanon is a republic in which the three highest offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups:
- the President must be a Maronite Christian,
- the Prime Minister must be a Sunni Muslim, and
- the Speaker of the Parliament must be a Shi'a Muslim.
- the seat for the Minister of Defence must be a Druze. This arrangement is part of the "National Pact" (al Mithaq al Watani), an unwritten agreement which was established in 1943 during meetings between Lebanon's first president (a Maronite) and its first prime minister (a Sunni), although it was not formalized in the Constitution until 1990, following the Taif Agreement. The pact included a promise by the Christians not to seek French protection and to accept Lebanon's "Arab face", and a Muslim promise to recognize the independence and legitimacy of the Lebanese state in its 1920 boundaries and to renounce aspirations for union with Syria. This pact was thought at the time to be an interim compromise, necessary until Lebanon formed its own sense of a national identity. Its continued existence and the fallout from subsequent civil wars continue to dominate politics in Lebanon. The pact also stipulated that seats in the Parliament would be allocated by religion and region, in a ratio of 6 Christians to 5 Muslims, a ratio based on the 1932 census, which was taken at a time when Christians still had a slight majority. The Taif Agreement adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions, but some argue that they still do not reflect current demographics: owing to a higher Muslim birthrate and a higher rate of emigration among Christians, Muslims are now believed to have a slight majority, 59 percent of the population counting the Druze. However a majority of Lebanese living abroad are Christians. The Constitution grants the people the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years. The last parliament election was in 2000; the election due to be held in 2004 was postponed for one year. The parliament composition is based on more ethnic and religious identities rather than ideological features. The distribution of parliament seats has been modified recently. The Parliament elects the President of the republic to a six-year term. Consecutive terms for the president are forbidden. This constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad-hoc amendment twice in recent history, however, at the urging of the Syrian government. Elias Hrawi's term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years. This procedure was repeated in 2004 to allow Emile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007. Pro-democracy campaigners denounced the moves. The last presidential election was in 1998. The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the Parliament. Lebanon has numerous political parties, but their role is less important than in most parliamentary systems. Most represent, in practice if not in theory, sectarian interests; many are little more than ad-hoc lists of candidates endorsed by a well-known national or local figure. Electoral tickets are often formed on a constituency-by-constituency basis by negotiation among local leaders of clans, religious groups, and political parties; these loose coalitions generally exist only for the election and rarely form cohesive blocs in the Parliament subsequently. Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels - courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s foundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Lebanon has been under Syrian domination since 1990. More information is available [http://www.LGIC.org here]. Many Lebanese are unhappy with what they see as the undue influence exerted by the Syrian government over their affairs. The pro-Syrian administration of Emile Lahoud has curbed freedom of speech, and has attempted (successfully, until recently) to ban demonstrations. Recently, after the assassination of former prime minister Rafic Hariri, international pressure on Syria was dramatically increased, demanding a complete and immediate withdrawal of its forces, including intelligence personnel, from Lebanon. On Monday February 28, 2005, the Syrian-backed government of Prime Minister Omar Karami announced its resignation, staying on in a caretaker role. However, Karami was reappointed and asked to head a national unity government on Wednesday March 9, 2005, one day after a massive demonstration expressing support for Syria. Negotiations over the formation of the national unity government have stalled, however, over the demands of some politicians for the immediate withdrawal of Syrian forces, and over the reluctance of others (such as Walid Jumblatt) to serve in a government under President Lahoud. On March 14, the anti-Syrian opposition party responded with a protest that by an Associated Press estimate by reporters on the scene put the number at much higher than the approximately 500,000 (around a million ) who attended the 8 March pro-Syrian rally, however, CNN and The Guardian estimated the crowd at only 200,000, in line with their estimates for the March 8 rally.

Administrative divisions

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohafazat, singular - mohafazah), which are further subdivided into 25 districts (Aqdya, singular - qadaa), also divided into several municipalities englobing a group of cities or villages.
- Governorates of Lebanon
- Districts of Lebanon
- Cities and Villages in Lebanon

Geography

Cities and Villages in Lebanon A Middle Eastern country, Lebanon is demarcated to the west by the Mediterranean (Coast: 225 kilometres) and to the east by the Syro-African Depression. Lebanon borders Syria for 375 kilometres to the north and to the east and Israel for 79 kilometres to the south. The border with Israel has been approved by the United Nations (see Blue Line (Lebanon)), although a small piece of land called "Shebaa Farms" located in the Golan Heights is claimed by Lebanon but occupied by Israel, who claim that it is actually Syrian land. The UN has officially declared this region not to be Lebanese territory, but Lebanese resistance occasionally launches attacks against Israeli positions within it.

Economy

Lebanon has a competitive and free market regime and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism. There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement, and bank secrecy is strictly enforced. Lebanon has recently adopted a law to combat money laundering. There are practically no restrictions on foreign investment. The 1975-1991 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.

Demographics

The population of Lebanon comprises different ethnic groups and religions: Muslims: (Shi'ites and Sunnis), Christians (Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Greek-Catholic Melkites, Armenians, Copts) and others (including the Druze and Alawite sects). No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance. It is estimated that a slight majority of the resident population is Muslim; the rest is Christian, predominantly Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Chaldeans, Copts as well as a minority of Protestants. There is a small minority of Jews, mostly living in the eastern region of Beirut. Also, a small community (less than 1%) of Kurds (also known as Mhallamis or Mardins) live in Lebanon. There are approximately 15 million people of Lebanese descent, mainly Christians, spread all over the world. While 360,000 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948, estimates of those remaining range between 160,000 and 225,000. The urban population, concentrated mainly in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, is noted for its commercial enterprise. A century and a half of migration and return have produced Lebanese commercial networks around the globe from North and South America to Europe, the Gulf, and Africa. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labor compared with many other Middle Eastern countries.

Culture

Lebanon has been a major crossroads of civilizations for millennia, so it is perhaps unsurprising that this small country would possess an extraordinarily rich and vibrant culture. Lebanon's wide array of ethnic and religious groups contributes to the country's rich cuisine, musical and literary traditions, and festivals. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theaters, and public spaces. Lebanese society is modern, educated, and very comparable to other European societies of the Mediterranean. Despite their European resemblance, the Lebanese are proud of their Levantine heritage and have made Lebanon and in particular Beirut, the cultural center of the Arab world. Lebanon is a member state of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. This is why most Lebanese are bilingual, speaking Arabic and French; however, English has become very popular, especially among university students. The country is not only where Christianity intermingles with Islam, but Lebanon is also the Arab gateway to Europe and the European bridge to the Arab world. Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at [http://www.baalbeck.org.lb Baalbeck], [http://www.beiteddine.org Beiteddine], and [http://www.byblosfestival.org Byblos], where the elite and eclectic line-ups perform against the backdrop of some of Lebanon's most famous and spectacular historical sites.
- Lebanon football
- Music of Lebanon

Foreign relations

The foreign policy of Lebanon reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade. Lebanon's foreign policy has been heavily influenced by Syria, which maintained forces throughout parts of Lebanon prior to the Cedar Revolution. Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is in the process of accession to the World Trade Organization. Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of its Arab neighbors (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq). Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran. Lebanon does not have diplomatic or trade relations with Israel. In May 1983 Israel and the Christian government of Lebanon signed a de facto peace treaty that would have established bilateral ties but this treaty has been abrogated. Lebanon's official stance on relations with Israel is that relations can only happen after a comprehensive Israeli-Palestinian settlement and a return of the Golan Heights to Syria. Lebanon and Israel have one remaining boundary dispute, over a district in southern Lebanon, on the north side of the Golan Heights, called Shebaa Farms. Lebanon claims that the Shebaa farms are occupied Lebanese territory, while Israel claims they are occupied Syrian territory (and thus should be dealt with in an Israel-Syrian treaty). Lebanon would also like Israel to take back a quarter million Palestinian refugees, who have been in Lebanon for decades.

References

- [http://www.lgic.org/ Lebanon History, Politics, Photos] Introduces Lebanon to the world
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4097965.stm Beirut rises from the ruins]-Jim Muir BBC News 16 December 2004
- [http://www.destinationlebanon.com/ Destination Lebanon]
- [http://photos.eisenbach.at/voyages/lebanon/ Travel Log and Photos of Lebanon (Austrian website)]
- [http://www.rediscoverlebanon.com/ Rediscover Lebanon]
- [http://www.juancole.com/2005/03/lebanon-realignment-and-syria-it-is.html/ Informed Comment: "Lebanon Realignment and Syria" by Juan Cole]

External links

Government
- [http://www.informs.gov.lb/EN/Main/index.asp? Official Governmental site of Lebanon]
- [http://www.presidency.gov.lb/ Official Presidential site of Lebanon]
- [http://www.cas.gov.lb/ Central Administration for Statistics]
- [http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/ Ministry of Tourism] News
- [http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/318 NewsXS] aggregated news headlines and rss-feed
- [http://www.un.org/news/dh/docs/mehlisreport/ United Nations - Mehlis Report] official report of the investigation into Hariri's death
- [http://www.tahawolat.com Tahawoalt Magazine] Tahawolat Magazine General information
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/le.html CIA World Factbook - Lebanon]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Lebanon Open Directory Project - Lebanon] directory project
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2414.htm US State Department - Lebanon] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- Category:Levant Category:Arab League Category:Near Eastern countries Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries zh-min-nan:Lebanon ko:레바논 ms:Lubnan ja:レバノン simple:Lebanon th:ประเทศเลบานอน

Israel

The State of Israel (Hebrew: , transliteration: Medinat Yisra'el; Arabic: دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل, transliteration: Dawlat Isrā'īl) is a country in the Middle East on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a parliamentary democracy and the world's only Jewish state. The name "Israel" means "One Who Struggles with God," and is rooted in the Biblical passage Genesis 32:28 wherein Jacob is renamed Israel after struggling with an unnamed assailant. Israel is bordered by Lebanon and Syria in the north, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip in the south-west, and has coastlines on the Mediterranean in the west and the Gulf of Eilat (also known as the Gulf of Aqaba) in the south. Israel captured the West Bank and the Golan Heights during the Six-Day War of 1967. It withdrew all troops and settlers from the Gaza Strip on September 12 2005. The future status of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights remains to be determined.

History

Historical roots

Most believe that the land on which the State of Israel now exists was the birthplace of Judaism in the 10th century BCE or earlier, although some scholars dispute this. The earliest mention of the name 'Israel' is in Ancient Egyptian accounts of conquered lands in Asia minor, dating back to about 1500 BCE. For over 3,000 years, Jews have held the Land of Israel to be their homeland, both as a Holy Land and as a Promised Land, while non-Jews have also later maintained similar claims. The Land of Israel holds a special place in Jewish religious obligations, encompassing Judaism's most important sites including the remains of the First and Second Temple. Starting around 1200 BCE, a series of Jewish kingdoms and states existed intermittently in the region for over a millennium until the failure of the Great Jewish Revolt against the Roman Empire resulted in widescale expulsion of Jews (see Destruction of Jerusalem). Under Roman, Byzantine, and (briefly) Persian rule, Jewish presence in the province dwindled, but the Mishnah and Jerusalem Talmud, two of Judaism's most important religious texts, were composed in Palestine during this period. The Arabs conquered the land from the Eastern Roman Empire in 638 CE and the area was ruled by various Arab states before becoming part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Throughout the centuries, the size of the Jewish population in the land fluctuated widely, with the population in the region of present day Israel numbering approximately 20-25,000 in 1881 of a total population of 470,000.

Zionism and Aliyah

Ottoman Empire on May 14 1948 in Tel Aviv.]] The first wave of Jewish emigration to Israel, or Aliyah (עלייה) started in the late 1800s as Jews fled persecution. The end of the 19th century saw the founding of Zionism, the national movement to create a Jewish political entity in Palestine, leading to the Second Aliyah during the first two decades of the 20th century with the influx of around 40,000 Jews. In 1917 the British Foreign Secretary Arthur J. Balfour issued the historic Balfour Declaration that "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". In 1920 Palestine became a League of Nations mandate administered by Britain (see British Mandate of Palestine). Jewish immigration resumed in third and fourth waves after World War I. Later, the rise of Nazism in 1933 led to a fifth wave of Aliyah, and the Jews in the region increased from 11% of the population in 1922 to 30% by 1940. The subsequent Holocaust in Europe led to additional immigration from other parts of Europe. By the end of World War II, the number of Jews in Palestine was approximately 600,000. In 1939 the British abandoned the idea of a Jewish national home, and abandoned partition and negotiations in favour of the unilaterally-imposed White Paper of 1939, which capped Jewish immigration. Its other stated policy was to establish a system under which both Jews and Arabs were to share one government. As a result of impending world war, the plan was never fully implemented, but the White Paper policy was implemented well into the end of WWII, and enforced even when refugees who survived the Holocaust were fleeing from Nazi persecution. (See Struma article.)

Establishment of the State and the War of Independence

In 1947, following increasing levels of violence by militant groups, alongside unsuccessful efforts to reconcile the Jewish and Arab populations, the British government decided to withdraw from the Palestine Mandate. Fulfillment of the 1947 UN Partition Plan would have divided the mandated territory into two states, Jewish and Arab, giving about half the land area to each state. Under this plan, Jerusalem was intended to be an international region under UN administration to avoid conflict over its status. Immediately following the adoption of the Partition Plan by the United Nations General Assembly, the Palestinian Arab leadership rejected the plan to create the as-yet-unnamed Jewish state and launched a guerilla war. On May 14 1948, before the expiring of the British Mandate of Palestine on midnight of the May 15 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed. The surrounding Arab states supported the Palestinian Arabs in rejecting both the Partition Plan and the establishment of Israel, and the armies of six Arab nations attacked the State of Israel. Over the next 15 months Israel captured an additional 26% of the Mandate territory west of the Jordan river and annexed it to the new state. Most of the Arab population fled or were expelled during the war. The continuing conflict between Israel and the Arab world resulted in a lasting displacement that persists to this day. 1948 edition of Yishuv newspaper The Palestine Post, soon renamed into The Jerusalem Post. In the news: Egyptian Air Force bombs Tel-Aviv, Transjordan shells Jerusalem. 15 May was Shabbat.]] Immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab lands doubled Israel's population within a year of independence. Over the following decade approximately 600,000 Mizrahi Jews, who fled or were expelled from surrounding Arab countries, migrated to Israel (with another 300,000 or so settling in France and North America, leaving only a tiny remnant, mostly in Morocco and Tunisia). Israel's Jewish population continued to grow at a very high rate for some years, and was fed by further waves of Jewish immigration following the collapse of the USSR.

Wars

The refusal of Arab countries to recognize the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 has been a source of repeated wars and other conflicts with Arab nations such as Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. The state of war between Egypt and Israel ended with the signing of the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty on March 26, 1979. The state of war with Jordan officially ended with the signing of the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace on October 26 1994. Sporadic negotiations with Lebanon and Syria have not as yet resulted in peace treaties. Israel is currently also embroiled in an ongoing conflict with Palestinians in the territories controlled since the Six Day War in 1967, despite the signing of the Oslo Accords on September 13 1993, and the ongoing efforts of Israeli, Palestinian and global peacemakers. Palestinians want Gaza and the West Bank to become part of a (preferably contiguous) future state. Israel currently plans on expanding existing large West Bank settlement blocs, and maintains the current impasse in the peace process —negotiations toward a permanent peace treaty featuring a two-state solution— cannot be restarted until the Palestinian government dismantles terrorist groups.

Articles related to the wars

- 1948 Arab-Israeli War "The Independence War" (see also: 1949 Armistice Agreements). Also called "War of Liberation" מלחמת העצמאות או מלחמת השחרור
- 1956 Suez War "Operation Kadesh" מבצע קדש או מלחמת סיני
- 1967 Six Day War מלחמת ששת הימים
- 1970 War of Attrition מלחמת ההתשה
- 1973 Yom Kippur War מלחמת יום כיפור
- 1982 Lebanon War "Operation Peace For Galilee" מבצע שלום הגליל
- First Intifada אינתיפדה
- 1990/1 Gulf War מלחמת המפרץ
- al-Aqsa Intifada אינתיפדת אל-אקצא The Israeli Defense Forces codenamed it "אירועי גיאות ושפל" ("Ebb and Tide events") but it is unofficially referred to as the Oslo War in some Israeli circles.

Politics and law

Israel is a parliamentary democracy based on universal suffrage and proportional representation. Israel's legislative branch is a 120-member parliament known as the Knesset. Membership in the Knesset is allocated to parties based on their proportion of the vote. Elections to the Knesset are normally held every four years, but the Knesset can decide to dissolve itself ahead of time by a simple majority, known as a vote of no-confidence. The President of Israel is head of state, serving as a largely ceremonial figurehead. The President selects the leader of the majority party or ruling coalition in the Knesset as the Prime Minister, who serves as head of government.²

Constitution

Israel has not completed a written constitution. Its government is based on the laws of the Knesset, especially by "Basic Laws of Israel", which are special laws (currently there are 15 of them), by the Knesset legislature which will become the future official constitution. In mid-2003, the Knesset's Constitution, Law, and Justice Committee began [http://www.cfisrael.org drafting a full written Constitution to be proposed to the Knesset floor.] This effort is still underway as of late 2005. The declaration of the State of Israel has a significance in this matter as well. Israel's legal system is a western legal system best classified as "mixed": it has a strong Anglo-American influence, but in some parts has borrowed heavily from civil law tradition. Despite the Anglo-American influence, the jury system was not adopted in Israel, and court cases are decided by professional judges.

Judiciary and Legal System

The Judiciary branch of Israel is made of a three-tier system of courts: at the lowest level are the Magistrate Courts, situated in most cities. Above them, serving both as an appellate court and as a court of first instance are the District Courts (six of them, situated in the six judicial districts of Jerusalem, South, Tel Aviv, Centre, Haifa and Nazareth). At the top of the judicial pyramid is the Supreme Court seated in Jerusalem. The current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is Aharon Barak. Religious tribunals (Jewish, Sharia'a, Druze and Christian) have exclusive jurisdiction on annulment of marriages. The Israeli Supreme Court serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and as the body for a separate institution known as the High Court of Justice. The HCOJ has the unique responsibility of addressing petitions presented to the Court by individual citizens. The respondents to these petitions are usually Governmental agencies (including the Israel Defense Forces). The result of such petitions, which are decided by the HCOJ, may be an instruction by the HCOJ to the relevant Governmental agency to act in a manner prescribed by the HCOJ. Judges are elected by a committee made of Members of the Knesset (Parliament), Supreme Courts Judges and Members of the Israeli Bar. According to the Courts Law, judges retire at the age of 70. Registrars to all courts are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, with the approval of the Minister of Justice. Israel's legal system is part of the Western legal systems. It is a mixed system, influenced by Anglo-American, Continental and Jewish law principles. As for the Anglo-American influence, the Israeli legal system is based on the principle of stare-decisis (precedent). It is an adversarial system, not an inquisitorial one, in the sense that the parties (e.g. plaintiff and defendant) are the ones that bring the evidence before the court. The court does not conduct any independent investigation on the case. There is no jury in Israeli courts, and cases are decided upon by professional judges. As for Civil Law influences, several major Israeli statutes (such as the Contract Law) are based on Civil Law principles. Israeli statute body is not comprised of Codes, but rather of individual statutes. However, a Civil Code draft has been completed recently, and is planned to become a bill.

Military

Israel's military consists of a unified Israel Defense Forces (IDF), known in Hebrew by the acronym Tzahal (צה"ל). Historically, there have been no separate Israeli military services. The Navy and Air Force are subordinate to the Army. There are other paramilitary government agencies which deal with different aspects of Israel's security (such as MAGAV and the Shin Bet). See further discussion: Israel Security Forces. The IDF is considered one of the strongest military forces in the Middle East and ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the world, having had to defend the country in five major wars. The IDF's main resource is the training quality of its soldiers, but it also relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems (both developed and manufactured in Israel for its specific needs, and also largely imported from the United States), and expert manpower, rather than possession of overwhelming manpower. Most Israelis, males and females, are drafted into the military at the age of 18. Exceptions are Israeli Arabs, confirmed pacifists, those who cannot serve due to injury or disability, and women who declare themselves religiously observant. Compulsory service is three years for men, and 20 months for women. Circassians and Bedouin actively enlist in the IDF. Since 1956, Druze men have been conscripted in the same way as Jewish men, at the request of the Druze community. Men studying full-time in religious institutions can get a deferment from conscription; most Haredi Jews extend these deferments until they are too old to be conscripted, a practice that has fueled much controversy in Israel. Following compulsory service, Israeli men become part of the IDF reserve forces, and are usually required to serve several weeks every year as reservists, until their 40's.

Geography

Haredi Jews The total area of the sovereign territory of Israel —excluding all territories captured by Israel in 1967 — is 20,770 (20,330 land) square km; the total area under Israeli law —including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights — is 22,145 (21,671 land) square km; the total area under Israeli control — including the military-controlled and Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank — is 28,023 (27,549 land) square km.

Metropolitan areas

As of 2004, The Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics defines three metropolitan areas: Tel Aviv (population 2,933,300), Haifa (population 980,600) and Be'er Sheva (population 511,700) [http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton55/st02_15.pdf]. Jerusalem may also be considered a metropolitan area, though its limits are hard to define since it spans communities in Israel proper and the West Bank, both Israeli and Palestinian, and even the boundaries of Jerusalem city itself are disputed. As of 2005, the official population of Jerusalem city is 706,368.

Economy

Israel has a technologically advanced market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of fossil fuels (crude oil, natural gas, and coal), grains, beef, raw materials, and military equipment. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Israel is largely self-sufficient in food production except for grains and beef. Diamonds, high-technology, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers) are leading exports. Israel usually posts sizable current account deficits, which are covered by large transfer payments from abroad and by foreign loans. Israel possesses extensive facilities for oil refining, diamond polishing, and semiconductor fabrication. Roughly half of the government's external debt is owed to the U.S., which is its major source of economic and military aid. A relatively large fraction of Israel's external debt is held by individual investors, via the Israel Bonds program. The combination of American loan guarantees and direct sales to individual investors, allow the state to borrow at competitive and sometimes below-market rates. The influx of Jewish immigrants from the former USSR topped 750,000 during the period 1989-1999, bringing the population of Israel from the former Soviet Union to 1 million, one-sixth of the total population, and adding scientific and professional expertise of substantial value for the economy's future. The influx, coupled with the opening of new markets at the end of the Cold War, energized Israel's economy, which grew rapidly in the early 1990s. But growth began slowing in 1996 when the government imposed tighter fiscal and monetary policies and the immigration bonus petered out. Those policies brought inflation down to record low levels in 1999.

Demographics

1999 According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2004, of Israel's 6.9 million people, 76.2% were Jews, 19.5% Arabs, and 4.3% "others".[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf] Among Jews, 68% were Sabras (Israeli-born), mostly second or third generation Israelis, and the rest are olim — 22% from Europe and the Americas, and 10% from Asia and Africa, including the Arab countries.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pdf] Israel has two official languages; Hebrew and Arabic (See also: Languages of Israel). Hebrew is the major and primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the large Arab minority and by some members of the Mizrahi and Teimani Jewish communities. English is studied in school and is widely understood. Other languages spoken in Israel include Russian, Yiddish, Ladino, Romanian and French. American and European popular television shows are commonly presented. Newspapers can be found in all languages listed above as well as others, such as Farsi. As of 2004, 224,200 Israeli citizens lived in the West Bank in numerous settlements, (including towns such as Ma'ale Adummim and Ariel, and a handful of communities that were present long before the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and were re-established after the Six-Day War such as Hebron and Gush Etzion). Around 180,000 Israelis lived in East Jerusalem [http://fmep.org/settlement_info/stats_data/jerusalem/east_jerusalem_population_area_2000-2002.html], which came under Israeli law following its capture from Jordan during the Six-Day War. About 8,500 Israelis lived in settlements built in the Gaza Strip, prior to their evacuation by the government in the summer of 2005 as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan.

Religion in Israel

According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2004, 76.2% of Israelis were Jews by religion. Muslims made up 16.1% of Israelis, 2.1% were Christian, 1.6% were Druze and the remaining 3.9% (including Russian immigrants and some Jews) were not classified by religion.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf] Israel, however, is not a theocracy and religions other than Judaism are supported. Roughly 6% of Israeli Jews define themselves as haredim (ultra-orthodox religious); an additional 9% are "religious" ; 34% consider themselves "traditionalists" (not strictly adhering to Jewish halacha); and 51% are "secular" (termed "hiloni"). Among the seculars, 53% believe in God.[http://www.geocities.com/demokratya/dat/shavit.htm] Israelis tend not to align themselves with a movement of Judaism (such as Reform Judaism or Conservative Judaism) but instead tend to define their religious affiliation by degree of their religious practice. Of the Arab Israelis 82.6% were Muslim, 8.8% were Christian and 8.4% were Druze.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]

Culture and religion

Footnotes

¹ Jerusalem is Israel's officially designated capital, and the location of its presidential residence, government offices and the Knesset, Israel's Parliament. In 1980, the Israeli Knesset confirmed Jerusalem's status as the nation's "eternal and indivisible capital", by passing the Basic Law: Jerusalem — Capital of Israel. However, many countries dissent from this designation, and consider the status of Jerusalem as an unresolved issue, due to Israel's capture of the eastern half of Jerusalem (and subsequent reunification) from Jordan during the Six Day War. They believe that the final issue of the status of Jerusalem will be determined in future Israeli-Palestinian negotiations; Therefore, those countries locate their embassies in other major cities like Tel-Aviv, Ramat-Gan, Herzliya, etc., instead, to avoid political sensitivities. Moreover, some of the dissenting countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, due to what they perceive as illegal Israeli action in designating the city to be its capital in the first place (1950), as well as Israel's capture of the eastern half from Jordan, in 1967. These states instead recognize Tel-Aviv, the temporary capital for a time in 1948, when Jerusalem was under Arab control, as the continuous legitimate capital, and as a result keep their embassies there. Other entities maintain that Jerusalem must be internationalized as originally envisioned by the United Nations General Assembly. See the article on Jerusalem for more. ² For a short period in the 1990s the prime minister was directly elected by the electorate. This change was not viewed a success and was abandoned.

Annotated List of Israeli Media Sources

General references to the Israeli media:
- [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/culture/the%20printed%20media-%20israel-s%20newspapers The Printed Media: Israel's Newspapers] Summary from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- List of Israeli newspapers English-language periodicals:
- Globes [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/nodeView.asp?fid=942] English-language website of Israel's business and technology daily
- Ha'Aretz [http://www.haaretz.com/] Online English edition of the relatively highbrow Hebrew-language newspaper, Haaretz has a liberal editorial stance similar to that of The Guardian.
- IsraelInsider [http://www.israelinsider.com] - Independent, right wing outlet. Target audience is American Jewry.
- Jerusalem Newswire [http://www.jnewswire.com/ ] Independent, right-wing Christian-run news outlet
- The Jerusalem Post [http://www.jpost.com/] Israel's oldest English-language newspaper, considered to have a right-of-center editorial slant
- Jerusalem Report [http://www.jrep.com/] Left-of-center English weekly newspaper
- Maariv [http://www.maarivintl.com/] English edition of the centrist second largest Hebrew-language newspaper
- YNetNews [http://www.ynetnews.com/] English-language website of Israel's largest newspaper Yedioth Ahronoth Hebrew-language periodicals:
- Globes [http://www.globes.co.il/ ] business and technology daily
- Ha'Aretz [http://www.haaretz.co.il/] Relatively highbrow Israeli newspaper with a liberal editorial stance similar to that of The Guardian
- Hamodia Daily newspaper serving Israel's Haredi community. English editions are also published in the U.S. and the U.K. and serve local Jewish Orthodox communities in those countries. Hamodia is not available online.
- Hazofe [http://www.hazofe.co.il] daily newspaper with a religious Zionist point of view Hebrew-language periodicals (continued):
- Maariv [http://www.maariv.co.il/] Second largest Israeli newspaper, centrist.
- Makor Rishon [http://www.makorrishon.net] Conservative weekly newspaper
- Yated Ne'eman Daily newspaper serving the Haredi community
- Yedioth Ahronoth [http://www.ynet.co.il/], Israel's largest newspaper, centrist Arabic-language periodicals:
- Al-Ittihad Arabic-language daily newspaper Israeli broadcast media:
- [http://www.iba.org.il/ Israel Broadcasting Authority], TV News in Hebrew, some English.
- [http://www.radioisrael.com Radio Israel]
- [http://www.israelnationalnews.com/ Arutz Sheva] news site representing the settler community, right-wing religious (English)
- [http://www.israelradio.org/ Kol Israel - Voice of Israel] Also produced by the IBA. In Hebrew, French, English, Spanish, Ladino, Russian, Persian, Yiddish, etc.
- [http://www.isracast.com IsraCast] - Independent, multimedia broadcast and distribution network that focuses on Israeli foreign affairs and defense issues (English) Important Internet sources:
- Indymedia Israel [http://israel.indymedia.org/], primarily left-wing and anti-zionist, mostly in Hebrew Relevant non-Israeli media:
- Electronic Intifada [http://electronicintifada.net], Independent website covering Palestinian affairs and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
-
- Jewish Telegraphic Agency [http://www.jta.org/], New York-based news agency covering worldwide Jewish news, centrist (English)
- Yahoo News [http://news.yahoo.com/fc/world/israel] news headline links

External links

-
- [http://www.telavivguide.net Tel Aviv travel guide with information about sightseeing and activities in and around Tel Aviv]

General information

- [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575008/Israel_(country).html#s1 Encarta Encyclopedia entry on Israel]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/803257.stm BBC News Country Profile - Israel and Palestinian Territories]
- [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/israel.html Jewish Virtual Library Israel articles], including information on history, economics, and military issues. From the American-Israel Cooperative Enterprise, an Israel-advocacy group.
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html CIA World Factbook - Israel]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/israel/ US State Department - Israel] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Israel.html Columbia University Libraries - Israel] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Israel/ Open Directory Project - Israel] directory category
- [http://www.sabranet.com SABRAnet - Where Israel comes alive on the Internet]
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Israel/ Yahoo! - Israel] directory category

Government

- [http://www.gov.il/FirstGov/english Government Portal of Israel]
- [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel]
- [http://www.president.gov.il/defaults/default_en.asp The President of the state of Israel]
- [http://www.pmo.gov.il/PMOEng Prime Minister's Office]
- [http://www.cbs.gov.il/engindex.htm Bureau of Statistics]
- [http://www.idf.il/ Israel Defence Force site]
- [http://www.seamzone.mod.gov.il/pages/eng/purpose.htm Israel Security Fence Project]

The Knesset (Parliament)

- [http://www.knesset.gov.il/ The Knesset (Parliament)]

Legislation and the Legal System

- [http://62.90.71.124/eng/home/index.html The Courts]
- [http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod1.htm Basic Laws], legal code of Israel
- [http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Israeli Commercial, Banking, Tort and Insurance Laws - in English]

Imperialism

Name dualism

Saudi-Arabia

History

Politics

Provinces

Geography

Economy

Forced labor

Demographics

Culture

Miscellaneous topics

Bibliography

References

External links

Lebanon

Name

History

Civil War (1975-1990)

Cedar Revolution (Intifada of Independence)

Withdrawal of Syrian troops

Politics

Administrative divisions

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Foreign relations

See also

References

External links

Israel

History

Historical roots

Zionism and Aliyah

Establishment of the State and the War of Independence

Wars

Articles related to the wars

Politics and law

Constitution

Judiciary and Legal System

Military

Geography

Metropolitan areas

Economy

Demographics

Religion in Israel

Culture and religion

Footnotes

See also

Annotated List of Israeli Media Sources

External links

General information

Government

The Knesset (Parliament)

- [http://www.knesset.gov.il/ The Knesset (Parliament)]

Legislation and the Legal System

- [http://62.90.71.124/eng/home/index.html The Courts] - [http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod1.htm Basic Laws], legal code of Israel - [http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Israeli Commercial, Banking, Tort and Insurance Laws - in English]

History<

- [http://62.90.71.124/eng/home/index.html The Courts]
- [http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod1.htm Basic Laws], legal code of Israel
- [http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Israeli Commercial, Banking, Tort and Insurance Laws - in English]