Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Pope Alexander IV

Pope Alexander IV

Alexander IV, né Rinaldo Conti (Anagni, ca. 1199 – Viterbo, May 25, 1261), pope from 1254, was, like Innocent III and Gregory IX, a member of the family of the counts of Segni. His uncle Gregory IX made him Cardinal Deacon in 1227 and Cardinal Bishop of Ostia in 1231. On the death of Innocent IV he was elected pope at Naples on December 12, 1254. 1254Alexander is described as a stout man, kindly, cheerful, but of no great brilliancy. He succeeded Innocent IV as guardian of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, promising him his benevolent protection; but in less than a fortnight he conspired against him and bitterly opposed Conradin's uncle Manfred. Alexander fulminated with excommunication and interdict against the party of Manfred, but in vain; nor could he enlist the kings of England and Norway in a crusade against the Hohenstaufen. Rome itself became too Ghibelline for the pope, who withdrew to Viterbo, where he died in 1261. His pontificate was signalized by efforts to unite the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, by the establishment of the Inquisition in France, by favours shown to the mendicant orders, and by an attempt to organize a crusade against the Tatars.

Reference

References


-

See also


- Battle of Ain Jalut Alexander 4 Alexander 4 Alexander 4 Alexander 4 ko:교황 알렉산데르 4세

Anagni

Anagni, (Latin Anagnia) is an ancient town in Latium, Italy, in the hills east-southeast of Rome, famous for its connections with the papacy and for the picturesque monuments of its unspoiled historical center. Legend, history, and tradition have accompanied the fame of Anagni (pronounced Ah-Nah-Nyee), the historical center of Ciociaria, where there are traces of human activity through the millenniums.

The City

Anagni appears today as a small medieval town, placed on the ridge of a hill (460 meters above sea level), with small twisting streets and steep lanes everywhere. It is built inside powerful Roman boundary walls which seem to preserve, like a treasure-chest, its innumerable treasuries of art and history and its troubling modern contradictions. Initially, the built-up area included only the acropolis— that is the north-east zone comprising the Cathedral, Tufoli gate and Piazza Dante— and partially defended by walls in opus quasi-quadratum (almost squared work). Under Roman domination, the map of the city changed, starting from the modification of the boundary walls. The archaic inhabited places spread out protected by the so-called Servian walls, made with stone blocks placed in alternate lines and dating back to the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Most of the boundary walls have been subjected to rebuilding and restorations in the course of the first millennium A.D.; but the most remarkable re-arrangement took place in the XVI century. The city is divided into eight districts, or contrade: Castello, Torre, Trivio, Tufoli, Piscina, Colle Sant'Angelo, Valle Sant'Andrea, and Cerere.

History

The first human settlements date back to more than 700,000 years, according to the dating of some paleolithic hand-made fragments recently recovered; while the historical sources (Livy, Virgil, Servius, Silius Italicus) mention Anagni only once the city had already been introduced into the Roman orbit. Several objects made of bone and flinstone and also two human molars and incisors belonging to fossil Homo erectus have been found in Fontana Ranuccio. The people who lived in those places were of Ernican ancestry, migrated - as it seems - from the Aniene valley and probably descendant from the Marsi (Marsians) (or from the Sabines), at least according to the ethnical term deriving from the Marsian herna, "stone", that is: "Those who live on the stony hills". Only two words remain of their language: Samentum, a strip of sacrifical skin, and Bututti, a sort of funeral lament. The importance of Anagni as a holy city and spiritual centre of the Hernici ( Er-Nee-Chee: Ernici in Italian) is outstanding. The city was the seat of temples and sanctuaries, where in the second century A.D., many linen codices containing sacred Etruscan writings were still well conserved, according to the testimony of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Of these writings there is a sole survivor which is the Liber Linteus. Recent archaeological discoveries have revealed cultural and economic relationships between the Ernici and the Etruscans around the seventh century BC., perhaps it was commercial center which conducted trade with Magna Graecia. Probably, at the foot of the hill on which the city stands, there was the so-called Maritime Circle, where the Erniche ethnies of Alatri, Piglio, Veroli, and Ferentino, confederated under the aegis of Anagni. There they held their sacred and political meetings until the Romans, on the pretext of a presumed treason of the Ernica-Roman alliance, attacked Anagni, and defeated the Confederatio Hernicae and dissolved the Confederation in 306 BC. The Anagnini allied with Rome in the struggle against the Volscians, was then reduced to a city sine suffragio, that is, without the right to vote, although conserving a proper religious autonomy and strategic importance. In Imperial times, many emperors used to spend their summers in Anagni to escape the heat of Rome, most notably Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Commodus, and Caracalla. By the end of the Roman Empire a deep political and economic crisis caused the demographic collapse of Anagni's population. The suburban zones, which during the Roman Age had grown along the most important roads of the area were depopulated; the lower parts of the city were abandoned, vegetation gradually took possession of several spaces. As a proof of that, in the 10th century, an inner zone of Anagni was marked by the place-name Civitas Vetus (Old Town).

Christian Anagni

In spite of this, the town was achieving a more and more outstanding importance over the territory, being the seat, since the fifth century, of an important diocese. In the ninth century the first Cathedral was built on the ruins of the temple dedicated to the Goddess Ceres. The agricultural reconquest, begun in the tenth century, was supported by the ecclesiastic power, which allowed the laic lords to exploit the earth resources and to build some fortified settlements for their own peasants, and favoured a new economic and demographic growth. During the tenth and the eleventh centuries the city strengthened its link with the papal court: in fact the popes began to consider the old capital city of the Ernici a safer and healthier spot compared to Rome which was the place of frequent epidemic diseases. For this reason, even if the presence of factions inside the town cannot be excluded, Anagni remained faithful to the Roman Church, becoming more and more frequently one of the most favourite residences of the popes, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thanks to this situation the city became the cradle of several events connected with the struggle between Papacy and Empire and it was the witness of some of the most important acts in the political life of these two centuries. In 1122, in fact, Callistus II promulgated the basic Bull of the Concordat of Worms; in 1159 Pope Adrian IV received in Anagni, during the siege of Crema, the legates of Milan, Brescia, and Piacenza (the building of the Civic Palace was committed to the Ambassador of Brescia, Architect Jacopo da Iseo). In 1160 Alexander III excommunicated the Emperor Federico Barbarossa in the Cathedral; in 1176 after the Battle of Legnano, the same pope received the imperial legates, with whom he elaborated the Pactum Anagninum (Anagni's Agreement), premise to the peace which was achieved in Venice in 1177. The thirteenth century represented the real golden period of the city: in one hundred years, Anagni gave four popes to the Christianity, all members of the Conti family. The first one to ascend to the papal throne was Lotarius Conti who, as Innocent III (1198-1216), was one of the outstanding personalities of his century, together with Frederik II of whom he favoured the coronation as Emperor of Germany and Saint Francis of whom he approved the first Rule. To Innocent III credit is given for the elaboration and the most complete and concrete issue of the theocratic doctrine, principle according to which the absolute rule on every earthly power is ascribed to the Pope. He died in 1216, leaving the Church at the historical peak of its power. Innocent III's efforts were taken up by Gregory IX (Ugolino Conti 1227-1241), who belonged to the powerful Family of Conti di Anagni. On the 29th of September 1227 in Anagni's Cathedral he excommunicated Emperor Frederik II who had abandoned the Crusade that the Emperor himself had proclaimed. The suggestive ceremony took place by the lights of the torches, firstly shaken, then thrown on the ground and finally blown out by the prelates. In September 1230 after the reconciliation, Gregory IX received in Anagni Frederik of Svevia who had been able to conquer, without bloodshed but by means of his great diplomatic ability, both Jerusalem and Nazareth. During his pontificate Alexander IV (1254-1261), Gregory's relative and Anagni's third pope, had to face the raged theological dispute raised by the University of Paris against the Mendicant Orders. The leader of this dispute, by means of a pamphlet against the Dominicans, was Guillaume de Saint-Amour, whose text was burned in front of the Cathedral, the sentence having been passed in Anagni in September 1256. In 1255 the Pope canonized Chiara of Assisi in Anagni. The name of Anagni is particularly connected to the events of Boniface VIII, the fourth Pope of the city, a member of the powerful Caetani Family. His election, which occurred after the historical and dark abdication of Celestine V, was opposed by French Cardinals and by the powerful Colonna Family. In 1300 Boniface VIII, at the summit of his pontificate, set up the first Jubilee and founded the first Romnan university. Having got into a violent conflict with the King of France, Philip the Fair, who assigned himself the right to tax the French clergy, Boniface VIII emanated the famous Bull Unam Sanctam of 1302, which arrogated to the Pope's absolute supremacy over earthly power, against the king. The contrast became so harsh that Philip the Fair organized an expedition to arrest the Pope, with the purpose of removing Boniface from his office by the help of a general council. The Pope was captured in his palace at Anagni in September 1303, by the French and Italian soldiers led by Guglielmo di Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna. A Legend tells us that in such circumstances the Pope was slapped by Sciarra Colonna. The outrageous imprisonment of the Pope inspired Dante Alighieri in a famous passage of his Divine Comedy (Purgatory, XX, vv. 85-93), the new Pilate has imprisoned the Vicar of Christ. The people of Anagni rose against the invaders and released Boniface, but the old pontiff, already suffering, died in Rome about a month later. After the death of Boniface VIII, both the splendour of Anagni and the dreams of power of the Caetani Family collapsed and the doctrine of papal theocracy lost its consistence forever. The transfer of the papal court to Avignon marks for Anagni the beginning of a long period of decline which lasted through the entire XV century. Sacked by the troops of Duke Guarnieri (Werner) von Verslingen in 1348, ruined and depopulated, the city became a battlefield in the conflict between pope Paul IV and Philip II king of Spain. The Spanish army, led by the Duke of Alba sieged Anagni in 1556 bombarding it and horribly sacking it as soon as the papal troops abandoned their defenses and escaped. The damages suffered by the town, particularly by the town walls, were accentuated by the fortifying works carried out in 1564 under pope Pius IV. Around 1579 a short period of refluorishing begins, thanks to Cardinal Benedetto Lomellino, bishop and governor of the city. The planned works are made under the sign of a recovery of the architectonic structures and the medieval constructive and decorative style. The great architectonic and urbanistic reconstructions began around 1633. The works concerning the ecclesiastic buildings which determined the present look of the churches in Anagni are very interesting. The new architectonic canons which, howerver, left the existing Gothic Roman elements untouched are reflected in the transformation of the buildings. Also the ancient noble mansions embellished by magnificent portals were restructured and, toward the end of the XIX century, also the cultural level of the city rose again, thanks to the growing welfare. In fact, in this period, other institutions and congregations were born, which, together with the constitution of various schools, made Anagni an important centre of study thanks to its long cultural tradition. In 1890, in the presence of the Queen, the Queen Margaret's National Boarding-house for the education of the orphan-girls of grammar schools teachers was opened. In 1897 the Collegio Leoniano, entitled to the pontiff Leone XIII, was opened, too. In it the theological teaching is entrusted to the Jesuit fathers. The edifice is the seat of an interesting archaeological collection. Finally, in 1930, the Prince of Piedmont's Boarding-house was built for the sons of local body personnel. Since World War II the territory of Anagni has become an important industrial settlement, enriching the local economy at the expense of damage to local environment and Anagni's culture and tradition.

Anagni and the Roman Catholic Church

A measure of Anagni's importance as a religious site is that its church claims to be of apostolic foundation, a diocese not overseen by a bishop but under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See, even though a bishop of Anagni first appears in the 5th century, when Felix its bishop attended the Lateran Synod of 487 and bishop Fortunatus was among the signatories of the Acts of the Synod of 499, according to Theodor Mommsen's history of Rome. Zachary of Anagni was the legate of pope Nicholas I at the synod held in Constantinople in 851 to decide the validity of the election of Photius to the patriarchate. In 896 Stephen, bishop of Anagni became pope. Anagni was also the summer residence of the popes up until recently. It was similar to what Castel Gandolfo in the Alban Hills is to today's popes.

The Cathedral

Stephen, bishop of Anagni The Cathedral of Anagni, dedicated to the Santa Maria, is a great Romanesque monument of the wealth and importance of the city and its people. It was constructed during the years 1071-1105 a.D. The most spectacular part of the Cathedral is its cript, which contains the tomb of Saint Magno, the patron saint of Anagni, and Saint Secondina of Anagni. The frescos on the walls and ceiling are some of the most spectacular works Byzantine art in all of Italy.

Language and Dialect

The Language, or Dialect, of Anagni (called Anagnino) can be categorized as Northern Ciociaro (Choh-Chah-Roh). The Definite Articles (the) are Ju-Masculine Singular (pronounced like the English word you), La-Femine Singular, Ji-Masculine Plural (pronounced Yee), and Le-Femine Plural (pronounced like the English word Lay). The Indefinite Articles (a,an) are nu-for masculine words and na for femine words. The final vowel is always pronouced in the plural form and usually in the singular form (this is in comparison with Southern Ciociaro and Neopolitan where the final vowel of a word is usually slerred, unaccented). For those who know Italian, the Anagnino dialect preserves the u's found in Latin; for example instead of the Italian con (with), the people of Anagni use cu from the Latin cum. There are many other differences between the Italian and Anagnino. Some examples include the deletion of some n's, l's, and r's commonly found in Italian. For Linguistic Historians, the dialect is especially important for studying Pre-Roman Italic Languages and also the formation of Italian. Like Latin, the v's are pronounced like u's; for example vino (wine in Italian) is uino in Anagnino. Today's Standard Italian is heavilly influenced by German (from the Goths who invaded and assimilated into Northern Italian Culture), French (from France's political and historical influence on Northern Italy), Arabic (from the Arab rule and influence from the golden period of Sicily and Far-Southern Italy occupation), Greek (from the influence of the Holy Byzantine Empire), and Spanish (from the Royal and Dynastic Unions of Spain and Italy before 1860). While the dialect of Anagni and the others of Central Italy (south of Rome, west of the Apennines, and north of Campania) are relatively considered solely Latin and Pre-Italic, due to the limited settlement of foreign people in the area.

Coat of arms

Stephen, bishop of Anagni Its coat of arms include an eagle over the lion and the letters S.P.Q.A. The cost of arms symbolizes the forced union of Anagni and the Roman Empire in 306 b.C. The lion symbolizes the native Ernici people, and the eagle on top of the lion symbolizes the Romans conquering the Ernici. The letters S.P.Q.A. stands for Senatus Populusque Anagnia (the Senate and the People of Anagni). It is a model after the ancient acronym S.P.Q.R. for Rome, Senatus Populusque Romanus (the Senate and the People of Rome). The two keys above the eagle signify the city's papal history, in which there were four popes from Anagni, Pope Innocent III (1198-1261), Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241), Pope Alexanader IV (1254-1261), and Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303). The imperial crown above the crest and the imperial robe signifies Anagni was a famous and important residence of the Roman Emperors. The label is in Latin, HERNICA SAXA COLVNT QVOS DIVES ANAGNIA PASCIT.

Bordering communes


- Acuto
- Ferentino
- Fumone
- Gavignano
- Montelanico
- Paliano
- Piglio
- Sgurgola
- Gorga

Reference

Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages 1993. Alessandro De Magistris, La Istoria della Citta' di Anagni.

External links


- [http://www.comune.anagni.fr.it/ Official Website Comune (Italian)]
- [http://www.cittadianagni.it/ Official Website Città (Italian and English)]
- [http://www.digilander.libero.it/AnagniOnLine/ AnagniOnLine - History, Recipes, Dialect (Italian)]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1303anagni.html William of Hundlehy's contemporary pamphlet, 'The Outrage'] Category:Roman sites of the Lazio Category:Towns in the Lazio

Viterbo

Viterbo is an ancient town and comune in the Lazio region of central Italy, the capital of Viterbo province. It is approximately 100 kilometers (60 mi) north of Rome on the Via Cassia, and it is surrounded by the Monti Cimini and Monti Volsini. Apart agriculture, main resource of Viterbo's area are pottery, marble and wood. The town also hosts the Italian gold reserves, an important Academy of Fine Arts, the University of Tuscia and is located in a wide thermal area attracting many tourist from the whole central Italy.

History

Although Viterbo is very ancient, its precise origins are unknown. We owe to the notorious forger, Annio of Viterbo, the notion that it originated as an Etruscan town called Surrena. Under the baneful effects of local boosterism, this fabrication continues to be credited in certain quarters; but it has been demonstrated to be sheer invention, designed to endow his native town with an antiquity it did not possess. At any rate, on the present site of Viterbo or nearby there was a little Roman colony (Vicus Elbii); whether this is the same centre referred to as Vetus Urbs ("Old City") in the Middle Ages is uncertain. The first firm report of the new city dates to the 8th century as Castrum Viterbii, fortified in 773 by the Lombard king Desiderius in his vain attempt to conquer Rome. When the Popes switched to the Frankish support, Viterbo became part of the Papal States, but this status was to be highly contested by the Emperors in the following centuries, until in 1095 it is known it was a free Commune. In a period in which the Popes had difficulties to assert their authority over Rome, Viterbo became his favourite residence, beginning with Pope Eugene III (1145-1146) who was sieged in vain in the city walls. In 1164 Frederick Barbarossa made Viterbo the seat of his Antipope Paschal III. Three years later he gave it the tiel of "city" and used its militias against Rome. In 1172 Viterbo started its expansion, destroying the old city of Ferentum and conquering other lands: in this age it was a rich and prosperous Commune, one of the most important of Central Italy, with a population of almost 60,000. In 1207 Pope Innocent III held a council in the cathedral, but the city was later excommunicated as favourite seat of the heretical Patari and even defeated by the Romans. In 1210, however, Viterbo managed to defeat the Emperor Otto IV and was again in war against Rome. In the 13th century was ruled alternatively by the tyrants of the Gatti and Di Vico families. Frederik II drew Viterbo to the Ghibelline side in 1240: but when the citizens expelled his turbulent German troops, in 1243 he returned and sieged the city, but in vain. From that point Viterbo was always a loyal Guelph. Between 1257 and 1261 it was seat of Pope Alexander IV, who also died here. His successor Urban IV was elected in Viterbo. Urban IV In 1266-1268 Clement IV chose Viterbo as the base of his ruthless fight against the Hohenstaufen: here, from the loggia of the Papal Palace, he excommunicated the army of Conradin of Swabia which was passing on the Via Cassia, with the prophetical motto of the "lamb who is going to the sacrifice". Other popes elected in Viterbo are Gregory IX (1271) and John XXI (1276), who died in the Papal Palace when the floor of his room crumbled down, Nicholas III and the French Martin IV. The Viterbese, who did not a gree with the election of a foreigner directed by the King of Naples Charles I of Anjou, invaded the cathedral where the conclave was held, arresting two of the cardinals. They were subsequently excommunicated, and the Popes avoided Viterbo for 86 years. Without the Popes, the city fell in the hand of the Di Vico. In the 14th century Giovanni Di Vico had created a seignory extending to Civitavecchia, Tarquinia, Bolsena, Orvieto, Todi, Narni, Amelia. His dominion was crushed by the Cardinal Gil de Albornoz in 1354, sent by the Avignonese popes to recover the Papal States, who built the Castle. In 1375 the city gave its keys to Francesco Di Vico, son of the precedent tyrant: but thirteen years later the people killed him and assigned the city to Pope Urban VI, and then to Giovanni di Sciarra di Vico, Francesco's cousin. But the Boniface IX troops drove him away in 1396 and established a firm Papal suzerainty over the city. Last Di Vico to hold the power in Viterbo was Giacomo, who was defeated in 1431. Thenceforth Viterbo becama a city of secondary importance, following the vicissitudes of the Papal States and becoming part of Italy in 1871.

Landmarks

Viterbo's beautiful historic center was conceived in the Middle Ages and preserves the essential style of the medieval architecture of central Italy. Many of the older buildings (particularly churches) are built on top of ancient ruins. These can be recognized by the use of large 0.5 metres square stones, instead of the smaller Roman bricks. Much of the Roman architecture also remains - the columns in the Palazzo dei Papi, for example, come from what was once a Roman temple. The main attraction of Viterbo is the Palazzo dei Papi ("Papal Palaces"), the Popes' Palace that served as a country residence and a repair in time of trouble in Rome. Popes' The second most important monument of the city is the Cathedral of St. Lawrence. It was erected in Romanesque style by Lombard architects over a temple of Hercules. It was variously rebuilt from the 16th century on, and was heavily damaged in 1944 by Allied bombs. The notable Gothic belfry is from the first half of the 14th century, and shows influence of Senese artists. The interior of the church houses the sarcophagus of Pope John XXI and Christ Blessing by Gerolamo da Cremona (1472). Other notable monuments are:
- The Palazzo Comunale (begun 1460), Palazzo del Podestà (1264) and Palazzo della Prefettura (rebuilt 1771) on the central square Piazza del Plebiscito. The Palazzo Comunale houses a series of 16th century and Baroque frescoes by Tarquinio Ligustri, Bartolomeo Cavarozzi and others.
- The small Gothic church of Santa Maria della Salute, with a rich portal.
- The Romanesque Chiesa del Gesù (11th century). Here the sons of Simon de Montfort stabbed to death the prince Henry of Cornwall, son of the king Richard I of England.
- The Palazzo Farnese (14th-15th century), where Alessandro Farnese, the future Pope Paulus III, lived in his youth together with his beautiful sister, Giulia Farnese.
- The Rocca (castle).
- The Romanesque churchs of Santa Maria Nuova (12th century), San Sisto (second half of the 9th century) and San Giovanni in Zoccoli (11th century.
- The Palazzo degli Alessandri in the old district, a typical patrician house of the Middle Ages's Viterbo.
- The Fontana Grande, began in 1206.
- The Gothic church of San Francesco, with the sepulchre of Pope Adrian V, who died in Viterbo on August 17, 1276, considered the first monument by Arnolfo di Cambio. The Museo Civico (City Museum) houses many archeological specimens from the pre-historical to Roman times, plus a Pinacoteca (gallery) with paintings of Sebastiano del Piombo, Antoniazzo Romano, Salvator Rosa, Antiveduto Grammatica and others.

Patron Saints

Santa Maria Rosa is the patron saint of Viterbo. The legend of Santa Rosa is that she helped to eradicate those few who supported the emperors instead of the Popes, around the 4th century. San Lorenzo is the male patron saint.

"La Macchina di Santa Rosa"

The transport of the Macchina di S. Rosa takes place every year, on September 3, at 9 o'clock in the evening. The Macchina is an artistic illuminated bell-tower with an imposing height of 30 m. It weighs between 3.5 and 5 tonnes and is made of iron, wood and papier-mâché. At the top of the tower, the statue of the Patron Saint is enthusiastically acclaimed by the people in the streets of the town centre, where lights are turned off for the occasion. One hundred and thirty Viterbesi men (known as the Facchini) carry the Macchina from Porta Romana through the each of the major streets of Viterbo, concluding with a strenuous ascension up to the Piazza di Santa Rosa, its final resting place. Each Macchina has a life span of five years, after which a new one is built.

Stampate

Viterbo has two Stampate (badges): The Lion and the Palm Tree. Local mythology says that Hercules was one of the founders of Viterbo, and the lion is said to represent him. The palm tree was added sometime in the dark ages (4th-9th century AD) when Viterbo conquered and absorbed a neighboring town (whose emblem was the palm tree).

External links


- [http://www.comune.viterbo.it/ Official Site], including a [http://www.comune.viterbo.it/tour/eng/index.html virtual tour] of the city
- [http://www.viterboonline.com/ ViterboOnline.Com]
- [http://www.festadelleciliegie.it/english/ Festa delle Ciliegie] (Cherry Festival and other information)
- [http://www.sya.org/pages/sitepage.cfm?id=111&pagename=Viterbo SYA.Org] Category:Towns in the Lazio ja:ヴィテルボ

May 25

May 25 is the 145th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (146th in leap years). There are 220 days remaining.

Events


- 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo back from the Moors.
- 1420 - Henry the Navigator is appointed governor of the Order of Christ.
- 1521 - The Diet of Worms ends when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, issues the Edict of Worms, declaring Martin Luther an outlaw.
- 1659 - Richard Cromwell resigns as Lord Protector of England following the restoration of the Long Parliament, beginning a second brief period of the republican government called the Commonwealth.
- 1787 - In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, delegates convene a Constitutional Convention to write a new Constitution for the United States. George Washington presides.
- 1810 - In the May Revolution, armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy during the Semana de Mayo.
- 1865 - In Mobile, Alabama, 300 are killed when an ordnance depot explodes.
- 1895 - Playwright, poet and novelist Oscar Wilde is convicted of "commiting acts of gross indecency with other male persons" and sentenced to serve two years in prison.
- 1895 - The Republic of Taiwan is formed, with Tang Ching-sung as the president.
- 1914 - The United Kingdom's House of Commons passes Home Rule Act for devolution in Ireland.
- 1925 - Scopes Trial: John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching Darwin's theory of evolution.
- 1925 - The National Forensics League of the U.S. is founded.
- 1926 - Sholom Schwartzbard assassinates Symon Petliura, the head of the Paris-based government-in-exile of Ukrainian People's Republic.
- 1935 - In a span of 45 minutes at the Big Ten meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Jesse Owens sets or ties four track and field world records.
- 1935 - Babe Ruth hits his 714th and last home run at Forbes Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, setting a baseball record that will stand for 39 years.
- 1938 - Spanish Civil War: Bombing of Alicante, 313 deads.
- 1940 - World War II: The Battle of Dunkirk begins.
- 1946 - The parliament of Transjordan makes Abdullah I of Jordan their king.
- 1953 - Nuclear testing: At the Nevada Test Site, the United States conducts its first and only nuclear artillery test.
- 1955 - Kanchenjunga, third highest peak in the world is scaled successfully for the first time.
- 1961 - Apollo program: U.S. president John F. Kennedy announces before a special joint session of Congress his goal to initiate a project to put a "man on the moon" before the end of the decade.
- 1963 - In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the Organisation of African Unity is established.
- 1966 - Explorer program: Explorer 32 launches.
- 1965 - Muhammad Ali knocks out Sonny Liston in the first minute of the first round of a boxing match.
- 1967 - Celtic_F.C. become the first British team to reach a European_Cup final and also to win it, beating Inter_Milan 2-1 in normal time.
- 1968 - In St. Louis, Missouri, US Vice-President Hubert Humphrey and US Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall dedicate the Gateway Arch as part of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial.
- 1973 - Mike Oldfield releases Tubular Bells.
- 1977 - Star Wars (later retitled Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope) opens a limited run in theaters before expanding to become the highest grossing movie to date.
- 1979 - American Airlines Flight 191: In Chicago, Illinois, a DC-10 crashes during takeoff at O'Hare International Airport killing 271 on board and two people on the ground.
- 1979 - The movie Alien opens in theaters.
- 1981 - In Riyadh, the Gulf Cooperation Council is created between Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
- 1982 - HMS Coventry is sunk during the Falklands War.
- 1985 - Bangladesh is hit by a tropical cyclone and storm surge, which kills approximately 10,000 people.
- 1988 - The Berulsemann was born.
- 1988 - Professional Wrestler Josh Wallen is born.
- 1995 - The Bosnian Serb Army kills 72 youngsters in the Bosnian city of Tuzla.
- 1997 - A military coup in Sierra Leone replaces President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah with Major Johnny Paul Koromah.
- 1997 - Strom Thurmond becomes the longest-serving member in the history of the United States Senate, at 41 years and 10 months.
- 1999 - The two officers scapegoated after the 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor, Rear Admiral Kimmel and Lieutenant General Short were exonerated (posthumously) by the US Senate of all charges of dereliction of duty.
- 2001 - 32-year-old Erik Weihenmayer, of Boulder, Colorado, becomes the first blind person to reach the summit of Mount Everest.
- 2001 - 64-year-old Sherman Bull, of New Canaan, Connecticut, becomes the oldest person to reach the summit of Mount Everest.
- 2002 - China Airlines Flight 611: A Boeing 747-200 breaks apart in mid-air and plunges into the Taiwan Strait killing 225 people.
- 2002 - A train crash in Tenga, Mozambique kills 197 people.
- 2003 - Néstor Kirchner becomes President of Argentina after defeating Carlos Menem. He is the first elected President since the December 2001 economic crisis.
- 2004 - The theatrical version of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is released on DVD.
- 2004 - Tampa Bay Lightning win the Stanley Cup.
- 2005 - Liverpool win the UEFA Champions League after beating AC Milan in the final.

Births


- 1048 - Emperor Shenzong of China (d. 1085)
- 1334 - Emperor Suko of Japan (d. 1398)
- 1458 - Mahmud Begada, Sultan of Gujarat (d. 1511)
- 1606 - Charles Garnier, French Jesuit missionary (d. 1649)
- 1661 - Claude Buffier, French philosopher and historian (d. 1737)
- 1713 - John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1792)
- 1725 - Samuel Ward, American politician (d. 1776)
- 1803 - Edward George Bulwer-Lytton, English novelist and playwright (d. 1873)
- 1803 - Ralph Waldo Emerson, American essayist and philosopher (d. 1882)
- 1820 - Anne Brontë, English writer (d. 1849)
- 1845 - Lip Pike, baseball player (d.1883)
- 1860 - James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist (d. 1944)
- 1865 - John Mott, American YMCA leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1955)
- 1865 - Pieter Zeeman, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943)
- 1877 - Billy Murray, American singer (d. 1954)
- 1879 - Lord Beaverbrook, English publisher (d. 1964)
- 1880 - Jean Alexandre Barré, French neurologist (d. 1967)
- 1882 - Marie Doro, American actress (d. 1956)
- 1887 - Francesco Forgione, Italian priest (d. 1968)
- 1888 - Miles Malleson, English actor (d. 1969)
- 1889 - Igor Sikorsky, Russian inventor (d. 1972)
- 1912 - Princess Dukhye of Korea (d. 1989)
- 1913 - Richard Dimbleby, British journalist and broadcaster (d. 1965)
- 1918 - Claude Akins, American actor (d. 1994)
- 1921 - Jack Steinberger, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1922 - Enrico Berlinguer, Italian politician (d. 1984)
- 1924 - István Nyers, Hungarian footballer (d. 2005)
- 1925 - Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet (d. 1974)
- 1925 - Jeanne Crain, American actress (d. 2003)
- 1926 - Miles Davis, American jazz trumpeter (d. 1991)
- 1927 - Robert Ludlum, writer (d. 2001)
- 1929 - Beverly Sills, American soprano
- 1931 - Georgi Grechko, cosmonaut
- 1932 - John Gregory Dunne, American writer (d. 2003)
- 1935 - Cookie Gilchrist, American football player
- 1936 - Tom T. Hall, American singer and songwriter
- 1936 - Vladimir ("Wally""Walter") Fekula, American banker, raconteur
- [[1938]] - [[Raymond Carver, American writer (d. 1988)
- 1939 - Dixie Carter, American actress
- 1939 - Ian McKellen, English actor
- 1943 - Jessi Colter, American singer
- 1944 - Frank Oz, English-born puppeteer and director
- 1949 - Jamaica Kincaid, Antiguan-born novelist
- 1953 - Daniel Passarella, Argentine football player
- 1956 - Sugar Minott, Jamaican singer
- 1958 - Paul Weller, British musician
- 1963 - Mike Myers, Canadian actor and comedian
- 1965 - Simon Fowler, English singer (Ocean Colour Scene)
- 1966 - McLoud, Swiss composer, musician, and multimedia artist
- 1967 - Poppy Z. Brite, American author
- 1968 - Kendall Gill, American basketball player
- 1969 - Anne Heche, American actress
- 1970 - Jamie Kennedy, American actor
- 1971 - Sonya Smith, American actress
- 1974 - Monica Keena, American actress
- 1975 - Lauryn Hill, American singer
- 1976 - Miguel Tejada, Dominican Major League Baseball player
- 1976 - Jonny Wilkinson, English rugby player
- 1977 - Pat Burrell, baseball player
- 1978 - Brian Urlacher, American football player
- 1979 - Carlos Bocanegra, American soccer player
- 1984 - Unnur Birna Vilhjálmsdóttir, Miss Iceland, crowned Miss World in 2005.

Deaths


- 709 - Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne
- 735 - Bede, English historian and monk
- 967 - Murakami, Emperor of Japan (b. 926)
- 992 - Mieszko I of Poland
- 1085 - Pope Gregory VII
- 1261 - Pope Alexander IV
- 1452 - John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury
- 1555 - Gemma Frisius, Dutch mathematician and cartographer (b. 1508)
- 1555 - Henry II of Navarre (b. 1503)
- 1595 - Valens Acidalius, German critic and poet (b. 1567)
- 1632 - Adam Tanner, Austrian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1572)
- 1667 - Gustaf Bonde, Swedish statesman (b. 1620)
- 1681 - Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish playwright (b. 1600)
- 1693 - Marie-Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne, comtesse de la Fayette, French writer (b. 1634)
- 1741 - Daniel Ernst Jablonski, German theologian (b. 1660)
- 1786 - Peter III of Portugal, consort of Queen Maria I of Portugal (b. 1717)
- 1789 - Anders Dahl, Swedish botanist (b. 1751)
- 1797 - John Griffin Whitwell, 4th Baron Howard de Walden, British field marshal (b. 1719)
- 1805 - William Paley, English philosopher (b. 1743)
- 1848 - Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German writer (b. 1797)
- 1849 - Benjamin d'Urban, British general and colonial administrator (b. 1777)
- 1912 - Austin Lane Crothers, American politician (b. 1860)
- 1930 - Randall Thomas Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1848)
- 1934 - Gustav Holst, English composer (b. 1874)
- 1935 - Sir Frank Watson Dyson, English Astronomer Royal (b. 1868)
- 1940 - Joe De Grasse, American film director (b. 1873)
- 1951 - Paula von Preradovic, Croatian-born writer (b. 1887)
- 1965 - Sonny Boy Williamson, American singer, songwriter, and musician (b. 1899)
- 1977 - Yevgenia Ginzburg, Russian writer (b. 1904)
- 1986 - Chester Bowles, American politician (b. 1901)
- 1988 - Ernst Ruska, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
- 1994 - Sonny Sharrock, American jazz guitarist (b. 1940)
- 1996 - Brad Nowell, American singer and guitarist (Sublime) (b. 1968)
- 2003 - Jeremy Michael Ward, American musician (The Mars Volta) (drug overdose)
- 2004 - Roger W. Straus, Jr., American publisher (b. 1917)
- 2005 - Sunil Dutt, Indian actor and politician (b. 1929)
- 2005 - Graham Kennedy, Australian television personality (b. 1934)
- 2005 - Ruth Laredo, American pianist (b. 1937)

Holidays and observances


- Commemoration of the Venerable Bede (Anglican)
- Argentina - Day of May Revolution/National Day (1810)
- Chad, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe - African Freedom/Unity Day
- Jordan - National Day/Arab Renaissance Day (1946)
- Libya, Sudan - Sudan National Day/May Revolution Day (1969)
- United States - Memorial Day/Decoration Day, a legal holiday (1868)
- Virginia - Confederate Memorial Day (1868)
- Lebanon, Liberation Day (1999)
- Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - Day of Youth
- Ancient Latvia - Urbanas Diena observed
- Towel Day, in memory of Douglas Adams, is observed

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/25 BBC: On This Day] ---- May 24 - May 26 - April 25 - June 25 – listing of all days ko:5월 25일 ms:25 Mei ja:5月25日 simple:May 25 th:25 พฤษภาคม

1261

For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century.

Events

13th century
- January - Pope bans the movement of Flagellants.
- July 25 - Critical event - The city of Constantinople is recaptured by Nicaean forces under the command of Michael VIII Palaeologus, thus re-establishing the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines also succeed in capturing Thessalonica and the rest of the Latin Empire.
- August 29 - Urban IV becomes Pope, the last man to do so without being a Cardinal first.
- King Henry III of England obtains a papal bull releasing him from the Provisions of Oxford, preceding the Second Barons' War, a civil war started in 1263.
- The population of Greenland accepts the overlordship of the King of Norway.
- The Japanese Bun'o era ends, and the Kocho era begins.
- The Convent of Wurmsbach is established in Switzerland.
- Baibars establishes a puppet Caliphate in Cairo.
- Bela IV of Hungary repels a Tatar invasion.

Births


- February 1 - Walter de Stapledon, English bishop (died 1326)
- October 9 - Denis of Portugal (died 1325)
- Daniel of Moscow, son of Alexander Nevsky

Deaths


- February 28 - Henry III, Duke of Brabant
- May 25 - Pope Alexander IV
- September 18 - Konrad von Hochstaden, Archbishop of Cologne
- Plaisance of Antioch, regent
- Ch'in Chiu-Shao, Chinese mathematician (born 1201)

See also


- List of state leaders in 1261 Category:1261 ko:1261년

1254

For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century.

Events

13th century

Europe

War and politics


- October 10 - Edward Plantagenet marries Eleanor of Castile. His father Henry III had demanded the marriage in exchange of ending the war with her brother Alfonso X of Castile
- December 2 - Manfred of Sicily defeats army of Pope Innocent IV at Foggia.
- King Louis IX of France, having exhausted his funds and being needed at home, abandons the Seventh Crusade (which he had conducted first in Egypt and then Syria) and returns to France.
- King Louis IX of France expels all Jews from France.
- King Afonso III of Portugal holds the first session of the Cortes (Portugal's general assembly composed of nobles, members of the middle class, and representatives from all municipalities) in Leiria.
- In England, an important step in the evolution of the Parliament and Peerage occurs, as lesser barons are replaced on the King's Council by elected representatives from shires and cities.
- Pope Innocent IV excommunicates Conrad IV of Germany and Rudolph I of Germany (later elected Holy Roman Emperor).
- The Ghibelline town of Pistoia is taken over by Guelph Florence.

Culture


- The Danish city of Copenhagen receives its city charter.
- The Catholic dogma of purgatory is clarified and so named by the Catholic church.
- The Horses of Saint Mark, once supposed to have adorned the Arch of Trajan in ancient Rome, are installed at Saint Mark's Basilica in Venice.
- The Swedish city of Malmö is founded.
- Construction is begun on the Cathedral of Saint Martin in Utrecht.

Asia


- Byzantines defeat Bulgarians in the Battle of Adrianople.
- The classic Japanese text Kokin Chomonjo is completed.

Births


- September 15 - Marco Polo, Italian explorer (died 1324)
- Floris V, Count of Holland (died 1296)
- Zhao Mengfu, Chinese scholar, painter, and calligrapher
- Ren Renfa, Chinese painter

Deaths


- May 21 - Conrad IV of Germany (born 1228)
- November 3 - John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine Emperor (born 1193)
- December 7 - Pope Innocent IV
- William de Ferrers, 5th Earl of Derby (born 1193)
- Silvester de Everdon, English bishop

See also


- List of state leaders in 1254 Category:1254 ko:1254년 simple:1254

Pope Gregory IX

Gregory IX, né Ugolino di Conti (Anagni, ca. 1143 – Rome, August 22, 1241), pope from 1227 to 1241, the successor of Honorius III, fully inherited the traditions of Gregory VII and of his uncle Innocent III, and zealously continued their policy of Papal supremacy. He resembled his uncle in his legal training, diplomatic experience and intransigent policy. As Cardinal Bishop of Ostia he had been in the inner circle of Honorius, and associated with the pope's policy of accommodation with the formidable Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II, whose lawyers in Naples and Capua asserted his position as universal temporal ruler, in the mold of Constantine. Gregory began his pontificate by suspending the emperor, then lying sick at Otranto, for dilatoriness in carrying out the promised Sixth Crusade. The suspension was followed by excommunication and threats of deposition, as deeper rifts appeared— Frederick's control of the Sicilian Church, his feudal obligations to the pope, even his continued presence in Sicily. Frederick publicly appealed to the sovereigns of Europe complaining of his treatment. Frederick went to the Holy Land and skirmished with the Saracens to fulfill his vow, but was soon back in Italy, where Gregory had taken advantage of his absence by invading his territories. A consequent invasion of the Papal states in 1228 having proved unsuccessful, the emperor was constrained to give in his submission and beg for absolution. Although peace was thus secured (August 1230) for a season, the Roman people were far from satisfied; driven by a revolt from his own capital in June 1232, the pope was compelled to take refuge at Anagni and invoke the aid of Frederick. Pope and Hohenstaufen came to a truce, but when Frederick defeated the Lombard League in 1239, the possibility that he might dominate all of Italy, surrounding the Papal States, became a very real threat. A new outbreak of hostility led to a fresh excommunication of the emperor in 1239, and to a prolonged war. Gregory denounced Frederick as a heretic and summoned a council at Rome to give point to his anathema, at which Frederick attempted to capture or sink as many ships carrying prelates to the synod as he could. The struggle was only terminated by the death of Gregory on August 22, 1241. Gregory died before events could reach their climax; it was his successor, aptly named Innocent IV who declared a crusade in 1245 that would finish the Hohenstaufen threat. This pope being a remarkably skilful and learned lawyer, caused to be prepared Nova Compilatio decretalium, which was promulgated in numerous copies in 1234. (It was first printed at Mainz in 1473). This New Compilation of Decretals was the culmination of a long process of systematising the mass of pronouncements that had accumulated since the Early Middle Ages, a process that had been under way since the first half of the 12th century and had come to fruition in the Decretum compiled and edited by the papally-commissioned legist Gratian and published in 1140. The supplement completed the work, which provided the foundation for papal legal theory. 1140 He canonized Saints Elizabeth, Dominic and Anthony of Padua, and also Francis of Assisi, of whom he had been a personal friend and early patron. His encroachments upon the rights of the English Church during the reign of Henry III are well known; similar attempts against the liberties of the national church of France were supposedly the occasion of the Pragmatic Sanction of St. Louis, now generally thought to be a 14th-century forgery. Gregory transformed a chapel to Our Lady in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome.

External links


- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06796a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia:] Pope Gregory IX

Reference


- David Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor 1988 Gregory IX Gregory IX Gregory 09 Gregory 09 ko:교황 그레고리오 9세 ja:グレゴリウス9世 (ローマ教皇)

Cardinal Deacon

The Cardinal Deacons are the lowest-ranked of the three orders of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church. They derive originally from supervisors of the Church's works in various districts of Rome. Until 1918 it was possible to become a Cardinal without entering Holy Orders, but only the order of Cardinal Deacons was open to those who were not priests. To become a Cardinal Priest one had to be a priest and to become a Cardinal Bishop one had to be a bishop. After 1918 it was established that all cardinals, even the Cardinal Deacons, had to be priests, and since 1962 all cardinals have been bishops with rare exceptions where permission was granted to decline episcopal consecration because of advanced age (for example, Avery Cardinal Dulles). Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V that fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals until 1958, there were fourteen diaconates, but the number has increased. As of 2005 there were over fifty recognized titular diaconates, though only thirty cardinals were of the order of Deacons. Cardinal Deacons have long enjoyed the right to "opt for the order of Cardinal Priests" (optazione) after they have been Cardinal Deacons for ten years, and after this they rank in precedence as if they had been Cardinal Priests from when they first became Cardinals. They may on such elevation take a vacant title (church allotted as the titular dignity of a Cardinal Priest) or their existing diaconate may be elevated to title for that occasion. Today, appointment as a Cardinal Deacon is usually granted to officials of the Roman Curia and to the aforementioned cardinals who have not been consecrated bishops. Bishops with pastoral responsibilities on the other hand are created Cardinal Priests.
-

Cardinal Bishop

Cardinal Bishops, or Cardinals of the Episcopal Order, are among the most important persons in the Roman Catholic Church. Originally this term referred specifically and exclusively to the men named to head the six suburbicarian dioceses, who include the Dean of the College of Cardinals. In 1965 Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad purpuratorum patrum that Eastern Rite patriarchs who were named Cardinals would also be part of the episcopal order, ranked after the six Cardinal Bishops of the suburbicarian sees (who had been rendered strictly titular bishops of those sees by Pope John XXIII three years earlier). The Dean continues to always be one of the six suburbicarian bishops, though now elected by the six from their number rather than necessarily the longest-serving. The Latin Rite Patriarchs of Lisbon and Venice, while always made Cardinals at the consistory after they take possession of their sees, are made Cardinal Priests, not Cardinal Bishops. The Cardinal Bishops are the only order of Cardinals who have always been required to be bishops, and in former times when a Cardinal of one of the lower orders became a Cardinal Bishop he was consecrated a bishop on that occasion. Since 1962 all Cardinals have been bishops with rare exceptions, but those excepted cardinals allowed to decline episcopal consecration remain therefore ineligible to be Cardinal Bishops. For a period ending in the mid 20th century, long-serving Cardinal Priests were entitled to fill vacancies that arose among the Cardinal Bishops, just as Cardinal Deacons of ten years' standing are still entitled to become Cardinal Priests. Since then Cardinals have been advanced to Cardinal Bishop (except for the Eastern Rite Patriarchs, no one ever joins the College of Cardinals as a Cardinal Bishop) exclusively by Papal appointment. Only leading figures close to the Pope can expect to be appointed. Currently the Cardinal-Bishops of the suburbicarian diocese are:
- Angelo Cardinal Sodano, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Albano, Dean of the College of Cardinals, Cardinal Secretary of State
- Bernardin Cardinal Gantin, Cardinal Bishop of Palestrina, Dean emeritus, the senior prelate from Africa, long headed the Congregation for Bishops;
- Roger Cardinal Etchegaray, Cardinal Bishop of Porto-Santa Rufina, Vice-Dean, President emeritus of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace;
- Alfonso Cardinal Lopez Trujillo, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, President of the Pontifical Council for the Family, a leading figure in the Latin American church;
- Giovanni Battista Cardinal Re, Cardinal Bishop of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto, Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops;
- Francis Cardinal Arinze, Cardinal Bishop of Vallentri-Segni, Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, widely regarded as the most Papabile African. The three Eastern Rite patriarchs who are now Cardinal Bishops are the following:
- Ignace Cardinal Daoud, Prefect of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, former Patriarch of Antioch for the Syrians
- Stéphanos II Cardinal Ghattas, Coptic Catholic Patriarch of Alexandria;
- Nasrallah Cardinal Sfeir, Patriarch of Antioch for the Maronites .
-

Ostia

of Ostia.]] Ostia, an ancient town on the coast facing the Tyrrhenian Sea, in Latium, Italy, was the harbour of ancient Rome and perhaps its first colonia. Located at the mouth of the River Tiber, Ostia was said to have been founded by Ancus Marcius, one of the kings of Rome, in the 7th century BC. However the most ancient archaeological remains so far discovered, are no earlier than the 4th century BC, and the most ancient buildings currently visible are from the 3rd century BC, notably the Castrum (military camp) and, of a slightly later date, the Capitolium (temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva). The opus quadratum walls of the original castrum at Ostia provide important evidence for the building techniques that were employed in Roman urbanism during the period of the Middle Republic.

History

Although Ostia was probably founded for the sole purpose of military defence — since through the Tiber's mouths armies could eventually reach Rome by water — in time the port became a commercial harbour, and a very important one too. Many of the goods that Rome received from its colonies and provinces passed through Ostia. In this role, Ostia soon replaced Pozzuoli (Puteoli, near Naples).

The beginning

In 87 BC, the town was razed by Marius, and again in 67 BC it was sacked by pirates. After this second attack, the town was re-built and provided with protective walls by Cicero. The town was then further developed during the 1st century AD, mainly under the influence of Tiberius, who ordered the building of the first Forum. The town was also soon enriched by the construction of a new harbour on the northern mouths of the Tiber (which reaches the sea with a larger mouth in Ostia, Fiumara Grande, and a narrower one near to the current Fiumicino international airport). The new harbour, not surprisingly called Portus, was excavated from the ground at the orders of the emperor Claudius; it has an hexagonal form, in order to reduce the waves strength. Claudius The town was provided with all the services a town of the time could require; in particular, a famous lighthouse. Archaeologists also discovered the public latrinas, organised for collective use as a series of seats that lets us imagine today that the function was also a social moment. In addition, Ostia had a large theatre, public baths and a fire fighting service. You can still see the mosaic floors of the baths near today's entrance to the town. Trajan too, required a widening of the naval areas, and ordered the building of another harbour, again pointing towards the north. It must be remembered that at a relatively short distance, there was also the harbour of Civitavecchia (Centum Cellae), and Rome was starting to have a significant number of harbours, the most important remaining Portus. Rome

Rise and fall of Ostia

Ostia grew to 50,000 inhabitants in the 2nd century AD and in time focused its naval activities on Portus. With the end of the Roman Empire, Ostia fell slowly into decay, and was finally abandoned in the 9th century due to the fall of the Roman empire in combination with repeated invasions and sackings by Arab pirates; the inhabitants moved to Gregoriopolis. In the Middle Ages, bricks from buildings in Ostia were used for several other occasions. The Leaning Tower of Pisa was entirely built of material originally belonging to Ostia. A "local sacking" was carried out by baroque architects, who used the remains as a sort of marble store for the palazzi they were building in Rome. Soon after, foreign explorers came in search of ancient statues and objects. The Papacy started organising its own investigations with Pope Pius VII and the research still continues today. It has been estimated that two thirds of the ancient town have currently been found. For the naval battle of 849 between Christian and Saracens, see Battle of Ostia

Ostia during the fascism

Ostia lived a new life during fascism, when it was renamed Lido di Ostia, or Ostia Lido, or Lido di Roma (Lido meaning beach): following the general urbanistic re-planning of Rome, a new quartiere was created ex novo in the southern side of the capital city (EUR), and a comfortable road was built to connect it with the seaside (dedicated to Christopher Columbus). Ostia became the beach resort of Rome, and was connected by a railway, while the first projects for the Fiumicino airport were drafted out. The town was re-organised in a pure so-called "fascist architecture" (which recalls some colonial, Mediterranean and rationalist styles) and divided into a coastal side, distributed in small villas used as second houses by Romans, and a rear side for workers (peripheral quartieri and borgate were created all around Rome for the lower classes, and Ostia was one of them). However the fascist renewal was not long enjoyed by Romans, due to the imminence of World War II which arrived when part of the works were still in progress; it was only in the 1960s that Ostia began to be used as a beach and as a holiday site, effectively becoming a part of the town, and it still is part of the territory of the council of Rome.

External links


- [http://www.ostia-antica.org/ Ostia — Harbour City of Ancient Rome] including an [http://www.ostia-antica.org/intro.htm introduction]
- [http://www.ostiaantica.net/ Ostia Antica] (in Italian) Category:Roman sites of the Lazio Category:Towns in the Lazio Category:Ancient Roman architecture Category:Destroyed cities

Pope Innocent IV

Innocent IV, né Sinibaldo de Fieschi (Genoa, ca. 1180/90 – Naples, December 7, 1254), pope from 1243 to 1254, belonged to one of the first families of Genoa, and, educated at Parma and Bologna, passed for one of the best canonists of his time. He had for his immediate predecessor Celestine IV, who however, was pope for eighteen days only, and therefore the events of Innocent's pontificate practically link themselves on to those of the reign of Gregory IX. It was on occasion of Innocent's election (June 28, 1243) that Frederick II is said to have remarked that he had lost the friendship of a cardinal and gained the enmity of a pope; the letter which he wrote, however, expressed in respectful terms the hope that an amicable settlement of the differences between the empire and the papacy might be reached. The negotiation which shortly afterwards began with this objective proved abortive; Frederick being unable to make the absolute submission to the pope's demands which was required of him. Finding his position in Rome insecure, Innocent secretly withdrew in the summer of 1244 to Genoa, and thence to Lyons, where he summoned a general council which met in 1245 and deposed Frederick. The agitation caused by this act throughout Europe terminated only with Frederick's death in 1250, which permitted the pope to return, first to Perugia, and afterwards in 1253 to Rome. The remainder of his life was largely directed to schemes for compassing the overthrow of Manfred, the natural son of Frederick II, whom the towns and the nobility had for the most part received as his father's successor. It was on a sick bed at Naples that Innocent heard of Manfred's victory at Foggia, and the tidings are said to have precipitated his death on December 7, 1254. His learning gave to the world an Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium, which is highly spoken of; but apart from that Innocent IV is considered a small-minded man, whose avarice, cowardice, cunning, and vindictiveness suggets a striking contrast with Innocent III, whose character and career, if his selection of a name may be taken as an indication, he seems to have admired and sought to follow. He was succeeded by Alexander IV, and was the uncle of Adrian V.

See also


- list of popes named Innocent
- Ad extirpanda, a papal bull issued by Pope Innocent IV
- Medieval Inquisition Original text from the 19th edition (1880) of an unnamed encyclopedia. Innocent 04 Innocent 04 Innocent 04 ko:교황 인노첸시오 4세

December 12

December 12 is the 346th day (347th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 19 days remaining.

Events


- 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeat Emperor Khosrau II's Persian forces, commanded by General Rhahzadh.
- 1098 - First Crusade: Massacre of Ma'arrat al-Numan - Crusaders breach the town's walls and massacre about 20,000 inhabitants. After finding themselves with insufficient food, they resort to cannibalism.
- 1719 - The Boston Gazette is published for the first time.
- 1781 - American Revolutionary War: Second Battle of Ushant - A Royal Navy squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral Richard Kempenfelt in HMS Victory, defeats a French fleet.
- 1787 - Pennsylvania becomes the second state to ratify the United States Constitution.
- 1870 - Joseph H. Rainey of South Carolina becomes the first black U.S. congressman.
- 1897 - Belo Horizonte, the first planned city of Brazil, is inaugurated.
- 1899 - George F. Bryant, of Boston patents the wooden golf tee.
- 1901 - Guglielmo Marconi receives the first trans-Atlantic radio signal at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland.
- 1903 - The city of Fairfield, California is incorporated.
- 1911 - Delhi replaces Calcutta as the capital of India.
- 1915 - President of the Republic of China, Yuan Shikai, reinstates the monarchy and proclaims himself Emperor of China.
- 1917 - In Nebraska, Father Edward J. Flanagan founds Boys Town as a farm village for wayward boys.
- 1925 - The Majlis of Iran votes to crown Reza Khan as the new Shah of Persia.
- 1937 - Panay incident: Japanese aircraft shell and sink US gunboat Panay on the Yangtze River in China.
- 1939 - Winter War: Battle of Tolvajärvi - Finnish forces defeat those of the Soviet Union in their first major victory of the conflict.
- 1941 - World War II: Great Britain declares war on Bulgaria.
- 1942 - A fire in a hostel in St. John's, Newfoundland kills 100 people.
- 1946 - A fire at a New York City ice plant spreads to a nearby tenement killing 37 people.
- 1948 - Malayan Emergency: Batang Kali Massacre - 14 members of the Scots Guards stationed in Malaysia allegedly massacre 24 unarmed civilians and set fire to the village.
- 1950 - Paula Ackerman, the first woman appointed to perform rabbinical functions in the United States, leads the congregation in her first services.
- 1963 - Kenya gains its independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1964 - Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta became the first President of the Republic of Kenya.
- 1969 - Strategia della tensione: Piazza Fontana bombing<