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Quaestor

Quaestor

Quaestors were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. The office may date back to the time of the kings of Rome. After about 420 BC there were four Quaestors, elected each year, and after 267 BC there were ten. Some quaestors were assigned to work in the City, while others were assigned to the staffs of generals or served the Roman Governors as Lieutenant Governors in the provinces. Still others were assigned to oversee military finances. During the reforms of Sulla in 81 BC, the minimum age for a quaestorship was set at 28 for patricians and at 30 for plebeians, and election to the quaestorship gave automatic membership in the Senate. Before that the Censors revised the rolls of the Senate less regularly than the annual induction of quaestors created. The number of quaestors was also raised to 20.

267 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 272 BC 271 BC 270 BC 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC 264 BC 263 BC 262 BC ---- This is a template. Remove this line if any real information is added about 267 BC. Events
- Births
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- Category:260s BC

Lieutenant governor

A Lieutenant Governor or Lieutenant-Governor is a government official who is the subordinate or deputy of a Governor or Governor-General. In India this position is slightly different.

Australia

In Australia, the Lieutenant Governor is the subordinate of the Governor of a state. The Lieutenant Governor serves as Administrator, or acting Governor, in case the Governor becomes ill or disabled. In many states, this role is played by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The state Lieutenant Governors have no powers but stand ready to take up the Governor's role. While Australia was a collection of colonies of Britain, lieutenant-governors ran Australian colonies that were initially subordinate to the colony of New South Wales, such as Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) or the Bay of Islands (New Zealand).

Canada

New Zealand and her spouse Jean-Daniel Lafond met with most of them on 28 September 2005.]] In Canada, the Lieutenant-Governor (typically with a hyphen) is the Queen's, or Crown, representative in a province, much as the Governor General is her representative at the national level. The lieutenant-governor is therefore the province's vice-regal representative, but has little or no executive role. Similar positions in Canada's three territories are termed Commissioners and are representatives of the federal government, however, not the Queen directly. Yukon and Nunavut have had Commissioners since they were founded, but in Northwest Territories the position dates to 1905, when the most populous part of the territory was split away to become the provinces Alberta and Saskatchewan. Before then, the Northwest Territories had a Lieutenant-Governor. Like similar officials, lieutenant-governors hold considerable reserve powers which are not normally used. One interesting constitutional question is the role of the Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec in the hypothetical case of the Quebec National Assembly voting to unilaterally secede. Some have argued that in this situation, the lieutenant-governor not only could refuse Royal Assent, but would be duty bound to do so. Nominally, lieutenant-governors are appointed by the governor general for a usual term of five years. In practice, they are chosen by the Prime Minister of Canada, usually in consultation with their respective provincial Premiers. Lieutenant-governors are often retired "elder statesmen" from the Prime Minister's party. The salary of lieutenant-governors is paid by the federal government rather than by the provincial government. In the past, the lieutenant-governors were a direct representative of the governor general, however they now directly represent the Queen in their respective provinces. The difference in authority between the Australian state governors and the Canadian provincial lieutenant-governors is significant constitutionally. In Australia, governors are appointed by the Queen on the advice of the the appropriate state premier. Canadian lieutenant-governors are appointed by the governor general, rather than the Queen directly, on the advice of the prime minister. Canadian lieutenant-governorships have been observed to often be used to promote women and minorities into a prominent position. Five of Canada's ten current lieutenant-governors and one of the three territorial commissioners are women. There have been one black (Lincoln Alexander) and several Aboriginal lieutenant-governors. The current Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec uses a wheelchair. The current Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia is Jewish. The current Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta is a Chinese-Canadian, as was the Hon. David Lam in British Columbia (Lieutenant-Governor from 1988 to 1995). See lieutenant-governors:
- Alberta
- British Columbia
- Manitoba
- New Brunswick
- Newfoundland and Labrador
- Nova Scotia
- Ontario
- Prince Edward Island
- Quebec
- Saskatchewan
- Northwest Territories (formerly)

India

In India, a Lieutenant governor is in charge of a Union Territory. He is given almost the same powers chief ministers have over their states. However the rank is given just to the union territories of Chandigarh, Delhi, Pondicherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Lt. Gov hold the same rank as a governor of a state in the list of precedence. The other territories have an administrator appointed, who is an IAS officer.

New Zealand

The only person to have held the rank of Lieutenant Governor of New Zealand was Captain William Hobson, RN from 1839 - 1841, during which time the New Zealand colony was a dependency of the colony of New South Wales, governed at that time by Sir George Gipps. When New Zealand was designated a crown colony in 1841, Hobson was raised to the rank of Governor, which he held until his death the following year.

Channel Islands and Isle of Man

In the British Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, the Lieutenant Governor is the Queen's representative, but the post is largely ceremonial, with executive power remaining with each Island's elected administration. In the Isle of Man, the Lieutenant Governor was until 1980 the presiding officer of the Legislative Council and of Tynwald Court (the Legislative Council and the House of Keys in joint session), but both roles have been transferred to the President of Tynwald. Now, the Lieutenant Governor only presides once a year on Tynwald Day. On the 19th October 2005 Tynwald approved proposals to change the title of the Lieutenant Governor to Crown Commissioner or Barrantagh y Chrooin as he/she will be known in Manx Gaelic. This Bill must now go before the Lord of Mann Elizabeth II for Royal Assent before it becomes law.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/isle_of_man/4324400.stm] See also List of Lieutenant Governors of the Isle of Man, List of Lieutenant Governors of Jersey, List of Lieutenant Governors of Guernsey

United States

In the United States, the office of Lieutenant Governor is the second-highest executive office in a state and is nominally subordinate to the Governor. The procedure for election of Lieutenant Governor varies from state to state with 24 states having the Governor and Lieutenant Governor elected as running mates on a joint ticket (for example in New York, Maryland and Kansas), while in 18 states, the Governor and the Lieutenant Governor run separately, sometimes in different election cycles. The latter can cause the Governor and Lieutenant Governor to be from different parties and bitter political rivals (such as is often the case in California and Virginia). In the U.S. the main duty of the Lieutenant Governor is to act as Governor should the Governor be temporarily absent from the office. In addition, the Lieutenant Governor generally succeeds a Governor who dies or resigns. In most states, the Lieutenant Governor then becomes Governor, with the title and its associated salary, office, and privileges. In a few states, like Massachusetts, the Lieutenant Governor instead becomes "Acting Governor" until the next election. Other than this primary constitutional duty, most state constitutions do not prescribe the duties of the Lieutenant Governor in detail.
- In a few states such as Hawaii and Utah, the position of Lieutenant Governor is equivalent to that of Secretary of State.
- In some states the Lieutenant Governor is the presiding officer of the upper house of the legislature. In the states of Mississippi and Texas, the Lieutenant Governor, elected separately from the Governor, presides over the State Senate, and by convention and legislative rule has a great deal more influence on legislation than the Governor. Thus, when a Lieutenant Governor of Texas becomes Governor, they assume a higher office, but lose some of their previous authority. In Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Tennessee and West Virginia the President of the state Senate assumes the office of Governor upon a vacancy. In November 2005, New Jersey voters approved a constitutional amendment to create the office of Lieutenant Governor. The office will be officially enacted following the 2009 general election. Even as the West Virginia Constitution establishes no such office, signage in the State Senate, the legislative guide, and the official website of the West Virginia Legislature style the Senate President as Lieutenant Governor. In Tennessee, the leader of the Senate's full title is the Lieutenant Governor- Speaker of the Senate. John S. Wilder was elected to that post in 1971, which he still holds. As of 2005, he is both the longest-serving and oldest Lieutenant Governor in the United States. Arizona, Oregon and Wyoming also do not have a Lieutenant Governor. In these three states and Puerto Rico the Secretary of State becomes Governor. American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the United States Virgin Islands have the office of Lieutenant Governor. The office of Lieutenant Governor existed in all of the 17th- and 18th-century British colonies that later became the initial thirteen United States of America. The defining difference between the Lieutenant Governor and the Royal Governor was that the Lieutenant Governor would be required to live in the colony to which he was appointed. Also, the Royal Governor would be paid directly by the crown, where as the Lieutenant Governor would be paid by the colonial treasury.

External link

- [http://www.nlga.us/default.htm National Lieutenant Governors Association]

Notes

# In a Canadian context there are numerous, and not mutually agreeable, notions regarding hyphenation and capitalisation of the position title. The Canadian Style (an official federal government style guide), indicates Lieutenant-Governor (upper case with hyphen; p. 46) though lieutenant-governors (lower case and hyphenated) when pluralised (p. 70). However, The Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage (p. 244) equivocates somewhat, indicating upper case only when used in and associated with a specific provincial L-G or name, not generally, and varied use. Moreover, a visitation of numerous provincial websites typically indicate Lieutenant Governor (of Province) (upper case and no hyphen), likely due to the primacy of those positions in their respective jurisdictions. ::For Wp consistency, the Oxford standard can be used when referring to Canadian lieutenant-governors. Governor Category:Titles

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

:This page is about the Roman dictator Sulla. For the Brythonic goddess sometimes called Sulla, see Sul. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·P·N·SVLLA·FELIX) ¹ (ca. 138 BC–78 BC) was usually known simply as Sulla. His agnomen Felix — the fortunate — was attained later in his life, due to his legendary luck as a general. Sulla's name is also seen as "Silla", presumably due to corruption of ancient writing "SVILLA" (Suilla), that went in the two directions of Sulla and Silla. It is also occasionally seen as "Sylla". agnomen

Early years

Sulla was born into an impoverished branch of the Cornelii gens, or family, of aristocratic patrician stock but without influence in the city. Without any money, Sulla's first years were spent in the backstage of Rome's political elite. The means by which Sulla attained the fortune that enabled him to ascend to senatorial rank are not clear, although some sources refer to family inheritances. In 107 BC, Sulla was nominated quaestor to Gaius Marius, who was taking control of the Roman army in the war against King Jugurtha of Numidia. The Jugurthine war had started in 112 BC with humiliating results for Rome. Marius' army ultimately defeated the enemy in 106 BC, thanks to Sulla's initiative to capture the Numidian king by persuading his family to betray him. The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career, but earned him bitter resentment from Marius. Nevertheless, Sulla continued to serve on Marius' staff until the campaign against the Germanic Teutones and Cimbri tribes in Gaul 104–103 BC. At this time, Sulla transferred to the army of Quintus Lutatius Catulus, Marius' rival consul. With Sulla's assistance, Marius and Catulus defeated the Cimbri in the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC.

The Social War

Returning to Rome, Sulla was elected 'Praetor urbanus', through massive bribery, according to rumour. Afterwards, he was appointed to the province of Cilicia (in modern Turkey). In 92 BC Sulla left the East and returned to Rome, where he aligned himself with the opposition to Gaius Marius. On the verge of the Social War (91–88 BC), the Roman aristocracy and Senate were starting to fear Marius' ambition, which had already given him five consulships in a row from 104 BC to 100 BC. In this last rebellion of the Italian allies, Sulla served with brilliance as a general, and outshone both Marius and the consul Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (the father of Pompey). For example, in 89 BC Sulla captured Aeclanum, the chief town of Hirpini, by setting the wooden breastwork which defended it on fire. As a result, he was elected consul for the first time in 88 BC, having Quintus Pompeius Rufus as a colleague.

In the East. The First Civil War

As the consul of Rome, Sulla prepared to depart once more for the East, in order to fight the first Mithridatic War, by the appointment of the Senate. But he would leave trouble behind him. Marius was now an old man, but he still had the ambition to lead the Roman armies against King Mithridates VI of Pontus. Marius convinced the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus to call an assembly and revert the Senate's decision on Sulla's command. When the news reached Sulla, still camped in the South of Italy and ready to cross over to Greece, he took an unusual decision. Sulla took six of his most loyal legions and prepared to march into Rome. This was an unprecedented event. No general before him had ever crossed the city limits, the 'pomerium', with his army. It was so unethical that most of his commanders refused to accompany him and Sulla hardly took measures against them. Frightened by this unusual action, Marius and his followers fled the city, whilst Sulla consolidated his position and addressed the Senate in harsh tones, portraying himself as a victim, presumably to justify his violent entrance into the city. The civil war was terrible, and some Italian cities were destroyed: for instance, Forlì was destroyed in 88 BC and rebuilt by the praetor Livius Clodius afterwards. After some major restructuring of the city's political trends and with the Senate's power strengthened, Sulla returned to his camp and proceeded with the original plan of fighting Mithridates in Pontus. With Sulla out of the way, Marius began to recover control of the situation by the end of 87 BC. With the support of Lucius Cornelius Cinna (Julius Caesar's father in law), Marius declared Sulla's reforms and laws invalid and Sulla himself officially exiled. Together, Marius and Cinna accomplished a major bloodbath of Sulla's supporters and were elected consuls for the year of 86 BC. Marius died a few days after the election and Lucius Valerius Flaccus was nominated suffect consul. Cinna was the effective ruler of Rome, being elected consul without opposition, for the following years. Meanwhile, Sulla defeated Mithridates in the East and in 86 BC captured Athens and then defeated Archelaus at the Chaeronea and again in 85 BC at the Orchomenus. While in the East, Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador, but unknowingly offended him by taking the seat between Mithridates and the ambassador. He left the East in 84 BC upon hearing the news of Cinna's death.

Dictator at Rome

Determined to regain control of Rome, he marched on the city. After a period of idleness, Sulla's army defeated the Samnite forces of Pontius Telesinus in November, 82 BC at the battle of Colline Gate. Crucial to this victory was the defection of Marcus Licinius Crassus, and the help of young Pompey. By 81 BC Sulla was appointed dictator (with no limit on time in office) by the senate and had total control of the city of Rome. This unusual honour (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, like in the Second Punic War, and only by six months periods), represents an exception to Rome's policy of avoiding personal power of a single individual and was the precedent to Julius Caesar's dictatorship less than fifty years later that ended the Republic. In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a reign of terror, proscribing or outlawing every one of his political opponents. The young Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, was one of his targets and fled the city. He was spared through the efforts of his supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life because of the young man's notorious ambition. Without any political obstacle, Sulla enacted a series of reforms to put control of the state firmly in the hands of a larger Senate, but also arranged that the number of senators was doubled from 300 to 600 and that membership was automatic on election to the office of quaestor instead of at the decision of the censors. He also reduced the tribune's political power, and limited the Assembly's ability to pass laws or veto them without the Senate's approval. His goal was to return the control of the city to aristocratic hands.

Retirement

With a lifetime dictatorship in his hands, Sulla was elected consul for the second time in 80 BC, but in the next year he took the decision of stepping out of every political activity and withdraw to a country villa. In this apparent quiet retreat, Sulla's purpose was to write his memoirs, but he ended up surrounded by a troupe of actors, dancers and prostitutes. Amongst them was Metrobius, a famous actor that he knew since his youth. In his last address to the senate, Sulla was keen to acknowledge him as his lifetime lover, to the dismay of the audience. Within this merry company, Sulla died after a brief illness in 78 BC. The symptoms described in contemporary accounts indicate that the cause of death was liver failure, brought on by a lifetime of hard drinking. His epitaph, written by Sulla himself, was "No greater friend, no worse enemy."

Sulla's marriages and children:

- First wife, Ilia (possibly Iulia)
- Cornelia Sulla, married to Gnaeus Pompeius Rufus (distant relation to Pompey), and mother of Pompeia Sulla, second wife of Julius Caesar
- Second wife, Aelia
- Third wife, Cloelia. Sulla divorced her due to her sterility.
- Fourth wife Caecilia Metella Dalmatica
- Lucius Cornelius Sulla, died young
- Faustus (I) Cornelius Sulla
- Fausta Cornelia Sulla, married Titus Annius Milo (praetor in 54 BC)
- Fifth wife, Valeria Messala
- Postuma Cornelius Sulla (delivered after Sulla's death)

Chronology

- around 138 BC – born in Rome
- 107 BC – nominated Quaestor to Marius
- 106 BC – end of Jugurthine War
- 104/103 BC – legatus to Marius in Further Gaul
- 103 BC – legatus to Quintus Lutatius Catulus in Further Gaul
- 101 BC – defeats the Cimbrii in the battle of Vercellae
- 94 BC – elected praetor urbanus
- 93 BC – governor of Cilicia
- 91/88 BC – general in the Social wars
- 88 BC –
- consulship with Pompeius Rufus
- invades Rome and outlaws Marius
- 87 BC – sent as general to the Middle East to fight king Mithridates of Pontus
- 86 BC – is outlawed by Marius
- 82 BC – returns to Rome and invades Rome for the second time
- 81 BC – appointed dictator for life
- 80 BC – consulship with Metellus Pius
- 79 BC – abdicates the consulship and retires
- 78 BC – dies of natural causes (see Plutarch's alternate cause)

External links

- [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/Background/MS1.html Marius and Sulla]
- [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/sulla.htm Sulla and the proscriptions]

Notes

1- Official name of Sulla. The meaning in english is "Lucius Cornelius Sulla, son of Lucius, grandson of Publius, the lucky." Sulla Cornelius Lucius Sulla Cornelius Lucius Sulla Cornelius Lucius Sulla Cornelius Lucius Sulla, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Cornelius Lucius ko:술라 ja:ルキウス・コルネリウス・スッラ

Patrician

:This is an article about the privileged class in ancient Rome. For other uses of the term, see patrician (disambiguation). Patricians were originally the elite caste in ancient Rome. In the time of the late Roman Empire, the term patrician was a specific title given to a high court official. The Latin word for "patrician" is patricius (plural patricii). This comes from patrēs (cōnscrīptī), the plural of pater ("father") and the added sense of "enrolled fathers" (members of the Roman Senate). The word comes down in English as "patrician" from the Middle English patricion, from the Old French patricien.

Patrician caste

In the early days of the Roman Republic, patricians formed a hereditary ruling group within the state. The patricians claimed to be able to trace their family to the original populus of Roman before the reign of Ancus Marcius and strong ties to the earliest members of Roman Senate. All magistracies were off-limits to non-patricians, who were known as plebeians. Patrician status was inherited, and intermarriage between patricians and plebeians was forbidden. Trade between patricians and plebeians was also forbidden. Over time, conflict raged between the two classes, and patricians were slowly forced to relinquish their power. In 494 BC, the office of tribune was created to safeguard the interests of plebeians; no patrician could hold this office. By the 320s BC, all magistracies were open to plebeian candidates, and the importance of the distinction between patricians and plebeians began to fade. In addition, because patrician status was strictly inherited and no new patrician families were created, the number of patrician families decreased. By the last days of the Roman Republic in the first century BC, wealthy plebeian families had long become an integral part of the Roman elite, and patrician status offered little more than prestige. This reality was made clear in 59 BC, when the patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher arranged to be adopted by a plebeian (who was a year younger than he!) so that he could stand for the office of tribune. One of the few positions that remained reserved to patricians at this time was the office of Rex Sacrorum, king of sacred rites, who was theoretically the highest ranking priest, responsible for carrying on the religious duties of the early kings of Rome. In practice, his authority was superceded by that of the Pontifex Maximus, who was not necessarily a Patrician.

Patrician position

Under the Roman Empire, patrician status as it had been understood in the Republic ceased to have meaning in everyday life. The emperor Constantine reintroduced the term; Patrician (Patricius) became an honorific title for those who demonstrated faithful service to the Empire. There were generally only a few patricians in the Empire at any given time, and sometimes only one. By the fifth century in the West, the title generally denoted a man who held the power behind the imperial throne, usually a general of the Roman army. Patricians of this era included Stilicho, Constantius III (before he became co-emperor), Aëtius, Boniface, and Ricimer. The term was occasionally used in this sense in Western Europe after the end of the Roman Empire; for instance, Pope Stephen III granted the title "Patrician of the Romans" to the Frankish ruler Pippin III. In the East, where the Emperors maintained their hold on power, the title maintained its meaning as an honorific until Latin titles fell out of use as Greek became the language of the court.

List of Patricii

- Flavius Julius Constantius: 335-337
- Flavius Stilicho: 394-408 (also magister militum)
- Flavius Constantius: 417-421 (later emperor February-September 421)
- Flavius Castinus: 420s
- Bonifacius: 432
- Flavius Aëtius: 433-454 (also magister militum)
- Petronius Maximus: 445-455 (later emperor March-April 455)
- Ricimer: 456-472 (also magister militum)
- Gundobad: 472-473 (also magister militum, and later King of the Burgundians 473-516)
- Odoacer: 476-493 (also King of Italy)
- al-Harith ibn Jabalah: 529-569 (also King of the Ghassanids)

Modern usage

In modern English, the word patrician is generally used to denote a member of the upper class, often with connotations of inherited wealth, elitism, and a sense of noblesse oblige. This definition derives from the first meaning of the word above.

Use in fiction

In the satirical fantasy series Discworld by British author Terry Pratchett, the city of Ankh-Morpork is run by a Presidential like figure akin to the old roman nobility. The ruler rules under the title of Patrician but is in all respects simply a tyrant. In the City Watch (see Guards! Guards!) series of novels the Patrician is named Havelock Vetinari and though he often puts up a democratic facade he is to all intents and purposes a dictator, albeit a (relatively) benign one. In the science-fiction 'Foundation' trilogy of Isaac Asimov, in the novel 'Foundation and Empire', Ducem Barr is referred to as a Patrician of the Empire. Within the story it is an inherited noble title, clearly derived of the Roman Imperial meaning, after which Asimov's Galactic Empire was modeled. Additionally, a fan series spin-off to Stargate SG-1, titled 'StarGate: Haven,' has the Patrician Empire as the main enemy.

Censor

:For omission and secrecy, see censorship. :HOMOPHONES: A sensor is a sensing device, a censer an incense utensil A censor was a high Magistrate (elected political officer) of the Roman Republic and Principate. Because their original task was to guard the morality of public life, mainly by the standards of the pagan state religion (until the imperial conversion to Christianity), and punish transgressions, they were also known as castigator(e)s. Two censors were usually elected by the Centuriate assembly every five years to serve an 18-month term. This office did not follow the usual Roman pattern of annual one-year terms, though it did follow the principle of collegiality by having two censors who served together. This office did not possess imperium and, due to this, censors were not escorted by lictors. However, to be elected a censor was considered a great honor. If one of the censors died, the other was compelled to resign his post. The office of censor was first created in 443 BC and, like most offices, was only open to patricians. The progressive influence of plebeians in the Roman society permitted the first non-patrician to be elected in 351 BC. During the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla the office was abolished, but was reinstated in 70 BC. The censors took a regular census of the Roman people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The 'tribes' in the Roman state were not ethnic but assigned by the censors—only the descendants of ancient citizen families considered themselves related to their tribe by blood. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well—slaves who had been freed since the last census automatically entered citizenship. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the senate. After the Sullan reforms of 81 BC, new senators were enrolled automatically, much reducing the influence of the censors over membership in the Senate. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings.

Cursus honorum

The cursus honorum (Latin: "succession of magistracies") was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The cursus honorum comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum age for election. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office. These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Marius held consulships for five years in a row between 104 and 100 BC. Officially presented as opportunities for public service, the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The reforms of Sulla required a 2-year period between holding offices or before another term in the same office. In Rome, there was nothing resembling the modern political party. Candidates were elected based on their familial and personal reputations. Candidates from older, established families were favoured because they could use their ancestor's feats as electoral propaganda. Though political parties weren't established, in the late Republic, factions such as the Populares and Optimates were developed. These factions lacked any real structure, just represented groups of individuals that were either favored the Popular Assemblies or the Senate as the chief governing body. To have held each office at the youngest possible age (in suo anno, "in his year") was considered a great political success, since to miss out on a praetorship at 39 meant that one could not become consul at 42. Cicero expressed extreme pride both in being a novus homo ("new man") who became consul though none of his ancestors had ever served as a consul, and in having become consul "in his year". novus homo

Military Tribune

The cursus honorum officially began with ten years of military duty in the Roman cavalry (the equites) or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family. Nepotism was not condemned; it was an integral part of the system. A more prestigious position was that of a military tribune. 24 men at the age of around 20 were elected by the Tribal Assembly to serve as a legionary commander in one of the four consular legions, with six to each. These ten years were supposed to be mandatory to qualify for political office, but, in practice, the rule was not rigidly applied. The following steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year.

Quaestor

The first official post was that of quaestor. Candidates had to be at least 30 years old. However, men of patrician rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements. Twenty quaestors served in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the pay master for a legion. A young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games. Also, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the Senate starting from the late republic. As a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but were not escorted by lictors, nor did they possess imperium.

Aediles

At 36 years of age, former quaestors could stand for election to one of the four aedile positions. Of these aediles, two were plebian and two were patrician, with the patrician aediles called Curule Aediles. The normal Aediles were elected by the Council of the People and the Curule Aediles were either elected by the Tribal Assembly or appointed by the reigning Consul. The aediles had administrative responsibilities in Rome. They had to take care of the temples, they organized games and were responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they took charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their quality of market superintendents, they served sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs. The Aedile was the supervisor of public works. He oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles would have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who had similar or related duties. Also they oversaw the organization of festivals and games, which made this a very sought after office for a career minded politician of the late republic, as it was a good means of gaining popularity by staging spectacles. Of the Aediles, the Curule Aediles own imperium, were escorted by two lictors and were allowed to wear the toga praetexta. While part of the Cursus Honorum, this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the Quaestorship and before the Praetorship, there are some cases with former Praetors serving as Aediles.

Praetor

After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years could run for Praetor. The number of Praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time. During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor could exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function was that of a judge. They would preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate was escorted by six lictors, own imperium, and would wear the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate would serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessed ultimate authority within their province(s). Of all the Praetors, two were more prestigious then the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, as well as the judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both.

Consul

The office of consul was the most prestigious of all and represented the summit of a successful career. The minimum age was 42 for plebians and 40 for patricians. The names of the two elected consuls identified the year. Consuls were responsible for the city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. The consuls served for only one year (to prevent corruption) and could only rule when they agreed, because each consul could veto the other one's decision. The consuls would alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also were the supreme commander in the Roman army, with both being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercised the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limited their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs could supersede their decisions. A consul was escorted by twelve lictors, owned imperium and wore the toga praetexta. Because the consul was the highest executive office within the Republic, they had the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul was assigned one of more provinces and acted as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor, only owing Proconsular imperium. A second consulship could only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man holding too much power.

Governor

Though no part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer was required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls held near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor held equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they were escorted by the same number of lictors and could only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern were only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs were unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remained at least a mile outside of Rome.

Censor

After consul, the next step in the Cursus Honorum was the office of censor. This was the only office in the Roman Republic whose term was a period of 18 months instead of the usual 12. Censors were elected every five years and although the office held no military imperium, it was considered a great honor. The censors took a regular census of the people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the senate. This ability was lost during the dictatorship of Sulla. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings and the moral status of the city. Censors also had financial duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office own no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the toga praetexta.

Tribune of the Plebs

Although officially not part of the Cursus Honorum, the office of Tribune of the Plebs was an important step in the political career of plebeians. The Tribune was an office created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as the head of the Council of the People. Those hold the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power of rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses had to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they were not allowed to be more than a days' journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune had no need for lictors for protection and own no imperium, nor could they wear the toga praetexta.

Princeps Senatus

Another office officially out of the Cursus Honorum was the Princeps Senatus, and was an extremely prestigious office for a patrician. The princeps senatus served as the leader of the Senate and was chosen to serve a five year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors could, however, confirm a princeps senatus for a period of another five years. The Princeps Senatus was chosen from all Patricians who had served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office tasks included declaring opening and closure of the senate sessions, deciding the agenda, deciding where the session should take place, imposing order and other rules of the session, meeting in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and writing in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, did not own imperium, was no escorted by lictors, and could not wear the toga praetexta.

Dictator and Master of the Horse

Of all the offices within the Roman Republic, none granted as much power and authority as the position of Dictator, known as the Master of the People. In times of emergencies, the Senate would declare that a dictator was required, and the current consuls would appoint a dictator, and this was the only decision that could not be vetoed by the Tribune of the Plebs. The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrate in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office. There could never be more than one dictator at any one time for any reason, and no dictator could ever be held legally responsible for any action during his time in office for any reason. The dictator was the highest magistrate in degree of imperium and was attended by 24 lictors. Though his term lasted only 6 months instead of 12, all other magistrates were suspended, granting the dictator absolute authority in both civil and military matters through out the Republic. When a Dictator entered office, he appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his second-in-command, whose office ceased to exist once the Dictator left office. The Master of the Horse held Praetorian imperium, was attended by six lictors, and was charged with assisting the Dictator in managing the State. When the Dictator was away from Rome, the Master of the Horse usually remained behind to administrate the city. The Master of the Horse, like the Dictator, had unchangeable authority in all civil and military affairs, with his decisions only being overturned by the Dictator himself.

External link

- [http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romangvt.html Diagram of the cursus honorum] Category:Ancient Rome Category:Roman law ja:古代ローマの公職一覧

Category:Ancient Roman titles

See: Cursus honorum Category:Titles Category:Ancient Rome ko:Category:고대 로마의 관직과 칭호

Benno Ohnesorg

Benno Ohnesorg (født 15. oktober 1940 i Hannover, død 2. juni 1967 i Berlin) var en tysk student som ble skutt av politiet i forbindelse med studentopptøyene i Berlin i 1967. Han deltok på en demonstrasjon mot den iranske sjahens besøk foran Deutsche Oper, og det var hans første politiske demonstrasjon. Han studerte romanistikk og germanistikk, var pasifist, medlem av en protestantisk studentmenighet og ønsket å bli lektor. Ohnesorg var gift, og hans kone var gravid da han døde. Ohnesorg, Benno Ohnesorg, Benno Ohnesorg, Benno

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