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Recreational Drug Use

Recreational drug use

Recreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational rather than for working or for medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear. Regardless of medical supervision, this label does not apply to the use of drugs for utilitarian purposes, such as the relief of fatigue or insomnia, or the control of appetite. A distinction must be made between (recreational) drug use and drug abuse, although there is much controversy on where the dividing line lies on the spectrum from a drug user to a drug abuser. Some say that abuse begins when the user begins shirking responsibility in order to afford drugs or to have enough time to use them. Some say it begins when a person uses "excessive" amounts, while others draw the line at the point of legality. Some think that any intoxicant consumption is an inappropriate activity.

History

The recreational use of drugs has existed throughout human history. The most widespread recreationally used drug used to be alcohol. Beer and wine were produced in Persia and in the Mediterranean before recorded history. Popular theory seems to agree that people first consumed and enjoyed the effect of overripe fruit, which would contain some alcohol. Modern research in the wild has shown this to be the case among many modern animals [http://www.utexas.edu/opa/news/00newsreleases/nr_200003/nr_fruit000301.html] [http://www.save-the-elephants.org/Elephant%20News%20Items/Of%20Drunken%20Elephants.htm]. Nicotine, the psychoactive constituent of tobacco, was first used by Europeans in the sixteenth century, but was used ritually in the Americas centuries prior. Caffeine has a long history of human consumption as well, and may have overtaken alcohol as the most popular recreational drug. Despite relatively recent proscription as an illegal drug in much of the world, cannabis retains its historical popularity. Cannabis, like alcohol, has been used in many cultures throughout history. Recreational use of opium (extracted from the immature seed pods of a species of poppy) was once common in Asia, and from there spread to the West. Its use peaked in the nineteenth century, when the British Empire and other Western powers used military power to force China to legalize its importation from India and other British colonies (see Opium Wars). Coca has been chewed by natives and peasants long prior to its refinement into cocaine. Similarly, khat and many other substances have long histories of recreational use. Many other substances were once commonly used as recreational drugs, but fell from favor for various reasons. Islam forbids the consumption of alcoholic beverages, and many religions discourage the recreational use of drugs. In the 20th century some Western countries, notably the United States, have criminalized the use of many recreational drugs, and used diplomatic, economic and military pressure on other countries to do the same. Thus, for example, the Japanese hemp plant — once widely grown as a source of textile fiber — was wiped out during the American occupation after World War II, and today only survives in a handful of strictly controlled bio-conservation plots.

Legal aspects

In many cases, the possession and use of common recreational drugs violates the law. This attitude is less prevalent in western Europe—see Drug policy of the Netherlands—and more recently in Canada, where enforcement of extant legal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana and other so-called "soft drugs" such as hallucinogenic mushrooms is increasingly ignored or given a low priority by law enforcement officials. This attitude stands in marked contrast to the official policy of the United States government, which declared a "War on Drugs" under President Richard Nixon in 1972 which later intensified under Ronald Reagan, but saw its greatest increases (in budget, and in the number of arrests and prosecutions) under President Bill Clinton. The United States is far more stringent about enforcing penalties for "soft drug" use. The Drug Enforcement Administration, or DEA, is primarily responsible for illegal drug interdiction at the federal level. Despite the application of billions of dollars to eliminate the use of illegal drugs, recreational drug use remains common in the United States, and according to some studies is actually more common than in Europe where the laws are more relaxed. Millions of illicit drug users exist in the United States who have never faced prosecution. Many American police officers don't bother enforcing possession laws on those holding small quanities of soft drugs. Some theorize that the taboos on recreational drugs adds an aura of mystique to their use, and encourages experimentation (i.e., the "forbidden fruit" phenomenon). This phenomenon was prevalent in the 1930s during the American alcohol prohibition. Many societies have abandoned what they feel are unsuccessful attempts to prohibit recreational drugs, and instead turned to a policy of harm reduction by informing users of ways to reduce common risks associated with popular drugs, and providing medical assistance for drug users who wish to stop using drugs. Harm reduction is the official policy of the Netherlands, Brazil, and some areas of Canada such as Vancouver, which have stopped actively prosecuting end users of recreational drugs. Instead, law enforcement efforts focus on capturing illegal dealers of "hard drugs" such as heroin and cocaine, passing out clean needles to intravenous (IV) drug users, and providing medical assistance for addicted users who wish to stop taking drugs. Many currently legal recreational drugs (examples: alcohol, tobacco and caffeine) have been subject to prohibition throughout history, and likewise most of the currently illegal recreational drugs have been legal as recently as the early twentieth century.

Drugs popularly used for recreation

The drugs most popular for recreational use worldwide are alcohol, cannabis, caffeine and nicotine. Other substances often used for recreational purposes follow:
- 2C-B
- 2C-I
- AMT
- Anti-impotence drugs such as Sildenafil
- Benzodiazepines
- Betel nut
- DMT
- DXM
- Ecstasy
- GHB
- Ketamine
- LSA
- LSD
- Mescaline (Peyote)
- Nitrous oxide
- Ololiuqui
- Opiates, including:
- Heroin
- Opium
- Oxycodone and other prescription painkillers
- PCP
- Psilocybin (Psychedelic Mushrooms)
- Research chemicals such as phenethylamines and tryptamines
- Salvia
- Stimulants, including:
- Amphetamine
- Cocaine (and crack cocaine)
- Ephedrine
- Khat
- Methamphetamine
- Methylphenidate (Ritalin)

References

- Dale Pendell, PharmakoDynamis: Stimulating Plants, Potions and Herbcraft: Excitantia and Empathogenica, San Francisco: Mercury House, 2002.
- Pharmako/Poeia: Plant Powers, Poisons, and Herbcraft, San Francisco: Mercury House, 1995.

External links

- [http://www.drugs-plaza.com/ Drugs-plaza website about recreational drug use]
- [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/ The Good Drugs Guide]
- [http://www.lycaeum.org/ Lycaeum]
- [http://www.erowid.org/ Erowid]
- [http://www.bluelight.ru/ Bluelight]
- [http://www.idthispill.com/ ID This Pill]
- [http://www.pubmed.org/ PubMed]
- [http://www.druginfonet.com/ DrugInfoNet]
- [http://www.geopium.org/ Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia]
- [http://www.weeddealer.com/dopelist/a.htm Full A to Z Drug Terminology]
- Category:Ethics Category:Moral panics Category:Psychoactive drugs tokipona:ilo nasa ms:Dadah rekreasi

Psychoactive drug

A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical that alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness, or behaviour. Such drugs are often used for recreational and spiritual purposes, as well as in medicine, especially for treating neurological and psychological illnesses. Many of these substances (especially the stimulants and depressants) can be habit forming, and lead to abuse. Conversely, others (namely the psychedelics) can help to treat and even cure such addictions. addiction

Psychoactive drug chart

The following Venn diagram attempts to organize the most common psychoactive drugs into intersecting groups and subgroups based upon pharmacological classification and method of action. Items within each subgroup are proximitied close to those of most similar action, and also follow a general placement in accordance with the legend below the diagram. Primary intersections are represented via color mixing. (Note: this is a work in progress. Please discuss errors, changes and suggestions on the talk page).

Image:BlankDrugChart.png

STIMULANTS

Sympathomimetic Amines

Psychomotor Stimulants

Aminoketones

Methylxanthines

Atypical antipsychotics

Quetiapine

Olanzapine

Typical antipsychotics

SSRIs

Cholinergics

Sedative Hypnotics

Benzodiazepines

Narcotic Analgesics

Psychedelics

MDMA MDA

Dissociatives

Ibotenic acid Muscimol

Deliriants

Legend

- Blue: Stimulants generally increase in potency to the upper left.
- Red: Depressants generally increase in potency to the lower right.
- Green: "Hallucinogens" are psychedelic to the left, dissociative to the right, generally less predictable down and to the right, and generally more potent towards the bottom.
- Pink hue: The so called "antipsychotics". A new and controversial addition to the chart.

Sub-sections

- White: Overlap of all three main sections (Stimulants, Depressants and Hallucinogens) — Example: cannabis exhibits effects of all three sections.
- Magenta (purple): Overlap of Stimulants (Blue) and Depressants (Red) — Example: nicotine exhibits effects of both.
- Cyan (light blue): Overlap of Stimulants (Blue) and Psychedelics (Green) — Primary psychedelics exhibit a stimulant effect
- Yellow : Overlap of Depressants (Red) and Dissociatives (Green) — Primary dissociatives exhibit a depressant effect

A brief history of drug use

Drug use is not a new phenomenon by any means. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. While medicinal use plays a very large role, it has been suggested that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Some may point a finger to marketing, availability or the pressures of modern life as to why we are such a pill-popping, coffee-swilling, beer-guzzling society, but one only has to look back at history, or even to children with their desire for spinning, swinging, sliding amongst other activities to see that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal. This relationship is not limited to humans. A surprising number of animals consume different psychoactive plants and animals, berries and even fermented fruit, clearly becoming intoxicated. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced man to their use. Biology suggests an evolutionary connection between psychoactive plants and animals, as to why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.

Other psychoactive drugs

- Aphrodisiacs
- PT-141
- In a broader sense also:
- Antiemetics
- Analgesics
- Antiepileptics

Ways psychoactive drugs affect the brain

There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. While some drugs affect neurons presynaptically, others act postsynaptically and some drugs don't even attack the synapse, working on neural axons instead. Here is a general breakdown of the ways psychoactive drugs can work. # Prevent The Action Potential From Starting #
- Lidocaine, TTX (they bind to voltage-gated sodium channels, so no action potential begins even when a generator potential passes threshold) # Neurotransmitter Synthesis #
- Increase - L-Dopa, tryptophan, choline (precursors) #
- Decrease - PCPA (inhibits synthesis of 5HT) #
- Causes increased sensitivity to the five senses, due to an increasing number of signals being sent to the brain. # Neurotransmitter Packaging #
- Increase - MAO Inhibitors #
- Decreasing - Resperine (pokes holes in the synaptic vesicles of catecholamines) # Neurotransmitter Release #
- Increase - Black Widow Spider (Ach) #
- Decrease - Botulinum Toxin (Ach), Tetanus (GABA) # Agonists - Mimic the original NTs and activate the receptors #
- Muscuraine, Nicotine (Ach) #
- AMDA, NMDA (Glu) #
- Alcohol, Benzodiazepines (GABA) # Antagonists - Bind to the receptor sites and block activation #
- Atropine, Curare (Ach) #
- PCP (Glu) # Prevent Ach Breakdown - #
- Insecticides, Nerve Gas # Prevent Reuptake #
- Cocaine (DA), Amphetamines (E) #
- Tricyclics, SSRIs - based on information taught in NSC 201, Vanderbilt University

Work

Work may mean:
- Work (project management), the effort applied to produce a deliverable or accomplish a task.
- Work (fine arts), a creation, such as a song or a painting.
- Work (professional wrestling), a staged event – that is, one that enforces kayfabe. The term originates from "working a crowd."
- Work (Charlie Chaplin film), a 1915 Charlie Chaplin silent film co-starring Edna Purviance.
- Mechanical work, defined in Physics as the integral of dot product of force times infinitesimal translation: ::

W = \int \mathbf \cdot \mathrm\mathbf

- Manual labour, effort expended by people on productive activities in the home, school, or employment, or, by extension, one's place of employment or employer.
- In the context of career, "work" refers to a wide range of paid and unpaid productive activities, including full-time, part-time, casual and fixed-term employment, family responsibilities, voluntary and community service, education including school, further education and training, and cultural activities.
- In the context of spiritual development, "The Work" (generally capitalized) refers, in general, to "any way, school, or method that recognizes the fact of suffering and the cause of unnecessary suffering and works to lead a person back to his true nature, which will eliminate the unnecessary suffering." (A. H. Almaas, Diamond Heart-Book One, p. 32) Specific spiritual schools, such as the The Fourth Way, often refer to their own method of development as "The Work."
- In the context of textile arts, "work" may refer to any type of hand sewing or embroidery, as in needlework, Berlin wool work, blackwork, work basket, worked buttons.
- Work, a painting by Ford Madox Brown. ms:Kerja simple:Work

Spirituality

Spirituality is, in a narrow sense, a concern with matters of the spirit, however that may be defined; but it is also a wide term with many available readings. It may include belief in supernatural powers, as in religion, but the emphasis is on personal experience. It may be an expression for life perceived as higher, more complex or more integrated with one's worldview, as contrasted with the merely sensual.

The spiritual and the religious

An important distinction needs to be made between spirituality in religion and spirituality as opposed to religion. In recent years, spirituality in religion often carries connotations of the believer's faith being more personal, less dogmatic, more open to new ideas and myriad influences, and more pluralistic than the faiths of established religions. It also can connote the nature of a believer's personal relationship with Deity, as opposed to the general relationship with Deity understood to be shared by all members of that faith. Those who speak of spirituality as opposed to religion generally believe that there are many "spiritual paths" and that there is no objective truth about which is the best path to follow. Rather, adherants of this definition of the term emphasize the importance of finding one's own path to Deity, rather than following what others say works. The best way to describe this view is: the path which makes the most sense is the correct one (for oneself). Many adherents of orthodox religions who consider spirituality to be an aspect of their religious experience are more likely to contrast spirituality with secular "worldliness" than with the ritual expression of their religion. Others of a more New Age disposition hold that spirituality is not religion, per se, but the active and vital connection to a force, spirit, or sense of the deep self. As cultural historian and yogi William Irwin Thompson put it, "Religion is not identical with spirituality; rather religion is the form spirituality takes in civilization." (1981, 31)

Directed spirituality

One aspect of 'Being spiritual' is goal-directed, with aims such as: simultaneously improve one's wisdom and willpower, achieve a closer connection to Deity/the universe, and remove illusions or false ideas at the sensory, feeling and thinking aspects of a person. The 'Plato's cave' analogy in book VII of The Republic is one of the most well known descriptions of the spiritual development process, and thus, an excellent aid in understanding what "spiritual development" exactly entails. Others say that spirituality is a two-stroke process: the "upward stroke" is inner growth, changing oneself as one changes his/her relationship with God, and the "downward stroke" is manifesting improvements in the physical reality around oneself as a result of the inward change.

Spirituality and personal well-being

Due to its broad scope and individual nature, spirituality is perhaps better understood by highlighting a number of key concepts that arise for people when asked to describe what spirituality means to them. Research by Martsolf & Mickley (1998) highlighted the following areas as worthy of consideration:
- Meaning – significance of life; making sense of situations; deriving purpose.
- Values – beliefs, standards and ethics that are cherished.
- Transcendence – experience and appreciation of a dimension beyond self.
- Connecting – increased awareness of a connection with self, others, God/Spirit/Divine, and nature.
- Becoming – an unfolding of life that demands reflection and experience; includes a sense of who one is and how one knows. Spirituality, according to most adherants, is an essential part of an individual's holistic health and well-being, by developing an awareness of a "transcendent dimension" to life.

The Spiritual and Science

Analysis of spiritual qualities in science is bedeviled by the imprecision of spiritual concepts, the subjectivity of spiritual experience, and the amount of work required to translate and map observable components of a spiritual system into empirical evidence. Hackwrench 03:07, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

Spiritual traditions and communities

- Bahá'í Faith
- Buddhism, Jainism
- Catholic Spirituality
- Feminist spirituality
- Gnosticism
- Hinduism
- Humanism
- Islam, Sufism
- Judaism
- Neo-confucianism, Taoism
- Paganism, Neopaganism, Modern_Gallae
- New Age, New Thought, Spiritualism, The Dances of Universal Peace
- Shamanism
- Sikhism
- Subud
- Surat Shabda Yoga
- Unitarian Universalism

References

- Azeemi,K.S.Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation. Houston: Plato, 2005.(ISBN 0975887548)
- Bolman, L. G., and Deal, T. E. Leading With Soul. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995.
- Borysenko, J. A Woman's Journey to God. New York: Riverhead Books, 1999.
- Cannon, K. G. Katie's Canon: Womanism and the Soul of the Black Community. New York: Continuum, 1996.
- Deloria, V., Jr. God is Red. 2d Ed. Golden, Co: North American Press, 1992.
- Dillard, C. B.; Abdur-Rashid, D.; and Tyson, C. A. "My Soul is a Witness." International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 13, no. 5 (September 2000): 447-462.
- Dirkx, J. M. "Nurturing Soul in Adult Learning." in Transformative Learning in Action. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education No. 74, edited by P. Cranton, pp. 79-88. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997.
- Eck, D. A New Religious America. San Francisco: Harper, 2001.
- Elkins D.N. et al (1998)Toward a humanistic-phenomenological spirituality: definition, description and measurement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 28(4), 5-18
- English, L., and Gillen, M., eds. Addressing the Spiritual Dimensions of Adult Learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 85. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.
- Holtje, D. (1995). [http://www.masterpath.org/masterpath_books/index.htm From Light to Sound: The Spiritual Progression]. Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949006
- Martsolf D.S. & Mickley J.R. (1998) "The concept of spirituality in nursing theories: differing world-views and extent of focus" Journal of Advanced Nursing 27, 294-303
- Perry, W. [http://www.fonsvitae.com/treasury.html A Treasury of Traditional Wisdom - An Encyclopedia of Humankind’s Spiritual Truth]. Louisville: Fons Vitae books, 2000
- Thompson, William Irwin, The Time Falling Bodies Take to Light: Mythology, Sexuality, and the Origins of Culture (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981).

External links

- [http://www.fonsvitae.com/MG1.html Resources/Books on World Spirituality]
- [http://www.sahajayoga.org/ sahajayoga.org: a place to experience self realisation for free]
- [http://www.lifetheory.com/ LifeTheory.com: An online forum on life and spirituality]
- [http://www.gnosticweb.com/ Gnosticweb] Providing Free Global Access to Spiritual Information.
- [http://www.edgelife.net/glossary/spirituality.htm A new definition of spirituality]
- [http://www.avatarsearch.com/ AvatarSearch.com: A search engine for spiritual-related topics]
- [http://www.kheper.net/ Kheper.net: An overview of everything spiritual]
- [http://www.ias.org/ International Association of Sufism]
- [http://www.gatheringlight.com/ Long Term (monthly) Private Spiritual Riverside Retreats]
- [http://www.sufiblog.com/ Multi-faith Spirituality]
- [http://www.new-age-spirituality.com/ New Age Spirituality]
- [http://www.sos.org/ Science of Spirituality]
- [http://www.acu-cell.com/sh.html Spiritual aspects of Health and Healing]
- [http://www.masterpath.org/sriGaryOlsen/index.htm Spiritual Awakening and Spiritual Growth]
- [http://www.onespirit.com Spiritual Book Club]
- [http://www.spiritualcinemacircle.com/ Spiritual Cinema Circle]
- [http://www.spiritualforums.com/ Spiritual Forums]
- [http://www.quranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=53 Spiritual Purification and Wellness]
- [http://www.level-of-consciousness.org/ Spirituality and consciousness forum]
- [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com Spirituality and Rudraksha]
- [http://www.srcm.org/articles/srcmintro.html Spirituality begins where religion ends - Shri Ram Chandra Mission]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/adult.htm Spirituality in Adult and Higher Education]
- [http://amanecerespiritual.tripod.com/index_en.htm Spiritual Dawn - Morality and Philosophy Essay]
- [http://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/Sufism.html Sufism -- Sufis -- Sufi Orders] by Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia
- [http://www.sufiblog.com/ SufiBlog ]Sufism online spiritual magazine of Sufi Meditation (Muraqaba) and Healing
- [http://www.thespiritual.org The Spiritual: Journal of Natural Spirituality] An on-line resource of rare texts and reflections on natural spirituality, thoughtless-ness, egoless-ness and mind-brain duality.
- [http://www.spiritualwisdom.org.uk/ Spiritual Wisdom] There is a universal spirituality which can be expressed in many ways, but this site uses the insights of Emanuel Swedenborg to help explain the meaning of our lives.
- [http://www.spirituality.com Spirituality.com] Christian Science perspective on spirituality and healing. simple:Spirituality

Insomnia

:For the novel by Stephen King, see Insomnia (novel); for the Norwegian movie and its American remake, see Insomnia (movie). Insomnia is characterized by an inability to sleep and/or to remain asleep for a reasonable period during the night. Most believe that insomnia is, itself, a sleep disorder, but it is not. It is a complaint, as sufferers typically complain of being unable to close their eyes or 'rest their mind' for more than a few minutes at a time. As opposed to being a sleep disorder, insomnia is most often caused by sleep disorders, but they are not the only causes. Other causes include fear, stress, anxiety, medications, herbs and caffeine. An overactive mind or physical pain may also be the cause of the problem. Whatever the case, it is important to find the underlying cause of the insomnia if it is to be cured.

Common causes of insomnia

The most common sleep disorders which cause insomnia are: Sleep Apnea - This is when a sleeping person's breathing is interrupted, thus interrupting the normal sleep cycle. With the obstructive form of the condition, some part of the sleeper's respiratory tract loses muscle tone and partially collapses. People with obstructive sleep apnea often do not remember any of this, but they complain of excessive sleepiness during the day. Central sleep apnea is where the normal central nervous system stimulus to breathe is interrupted, and the individual must actually wake up to resume breathing. This form of apnea is often related to a cerebral vascular condition, congestive heart failure, and premature aging. Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS) and Periodic Limb Movement (PLM) - The symptoms of RLS and PLM are often described as a tingling and creeping sensation in the legs which creates a powerful urge to move them. The individual continually moves in bed in an attempt to relieve these unpleasant sensations, resulting in restlessness and consequently lack of sleep. Fortunately for sufferers of the condition, current treatments for this disorder are effective in over 90% of those treated. Jet Lag - this is seen in people who travel through multiple time zones on a regular basis, as the time relative to the rising and falling of the sun no longer coincides with the body's internal concept of it, and is also seen in people who consistently work night shifts. See also: circadian rhythm. Parasomnia - this includes a number of disorders of arousal or disruptive sleep events including nightmares, sleepwalking, violent behavior while sleeping, and REM behaviour disorder, in which a person moves their physical body in response to events within their dreams. These conditions can often be treated successfully through medical intervention or through the use of a sleep specialist. Many people who feel they are suffering from insomnia may actually have a lower physical need for sleep than they believe they do. A normal part of the aging process is to sleep lighter and for shorter periods of time, and some elderly people toss and turn in bed late at night or early in the morning when their body has no physical need for more rest, because they believe that they 'need' a certain amount of sleep to be rested. Insomnia is a common side-effect of some medications, and it can also be caused by stress, emotional upheaval, physical or mental illness, dietary allergy and poor sleep hygiene. Insomnia is a major symptom of mania in people with bipolar disorder, and it can also be a sign of hyper-thyroidism, depression, or other ailments with stimulating effects. Additionally, a rare genetic condition can cause a prion-based, permanent and eventually fatal form of insomnia called Fatal Familial Insomnia.

Treatment for insomnia

Many insomniacs rely on sleeping tablets and other sedatives to try to get some rest. Others use herbs such as valerian, chamomile, lavender, hops, and/or passion-flower. Some traditional remedies for insomnia have included drinking warm milk before bedtime; taking a warm bath in the evening; exercising vigorously for half an hour in the afternoon; eating a large lunch and then having only a light evening meal at least three hours before bed; avoiding mentally stimulating activities in the evening hours; and paradoxically, making sure to get up early in the morning and to retire to bed at a reasonable hour. Traditional Chinese medicine practitioners have been treating insomnia sufferers for thousands of years. A typical approach may utilize acupuncture, dietary and lifestyle analysis, herbology and other techniques, with the goal to resolve the problem at a subtle level. Although they may seem unscientific, many of these remedies are sufficient to break the insomnia cycle without the need for sedatives and sleeping tablets. Warm milk contains high levels of tryptophan, a natural sedative. Using aromatherapy, including Lavender oil and other relaxing essential oils, may also help induce a state of restfulness. The most commonly used class of hypnotics prescribed for insomnia are the benzodiazepines. This includes drugs such as diazepam, lorazepam, nitrazepam and midazolam. The more relaxed you are the greater the likelihood of getting a good night's sleep. Relaxation techniques such as meditation have been proven to help sleep. They take stress from the mind and body which leads to a deeper more restful sleep.

Removing probable causes of insomnia

Please note that the advice given below is not a substitute for a professional medical specialist's advice.
- Sufferers of insomnia should avoid all caffeine. Caffeine is often a factor in insomnia, including insomnia in night-shift workers. Caffeine is found in coffee, tea, yerba mate (Ilex paraguaiensis), guarana, cocoa (although cocoa does not contain any caffeine, it contains another stimulant, theobromine), Kola nut (this includes all cola drinks); it is also found in "energy" sodas like Red Bull and similar, chocolate bars and other candy. Drink herbal teas or plain water instead of caffeine-containing liquids.
- The bedroom environment should be conducive to sleep. Some people are very sensitive to light while others are sensitive to noise. The bedroom should be dark and quiet at night.
- Try to avoid thinking of worries, fears and perhaps phobias. Such concerns are likely to prevent the mind from resting and may be exaggerated. It is a good idea to write down any particular worries that are bothering you, keeping a diary or noting down your emotions and thoughts can be very cathartic and any particular worries can be revisited and dealt with at a more appropriate time. :Write down plans for the next day, so you can go to sleep without fear of forgetting anything important. For phobias try to clear them from your mind and repeat positive thoughts or imagine calming scenes (relaxing by a beach, waterfall, a happy memory etc)
- Calm, relaxing music can help as it gives you something neutral to focus on and some are reported to relax you by tuning your brain in to certain rhythms, allowing you to fall into a deeper sleep.
- Practice good sleep hygiene. Do not use the bed for too many activities besides sleep. Using the bed for reading, writing, watching TV and other such non-sleep-related activities will lower your association of the bed with sleeping. Similarly, try to keep to a regular schedule of what time to go to bed and what time to wake up. Try not to sleep during the daytime.
- Sleep apnea can be a cause of insomnia. While a visit to the doctor will help in the diagnosis or ruling out of sleep apnea, a definitive answer will have to come from a study at a sleep lab.
- Sometimes lack of sleep is indicative of an emotional problem that's not being dealt with. If a person is not happy with their lifestyle, or they are putting off problems that should be dealt with, it can often result in sleeping trouble. Just as the human body has nutritional requirements, all people have social and environmental requirements. Sometimes more social activities can help.
- Patients with depression may suffer from insomnia. A doctor can treat this, sometimes by changing or adding prescriptions.
- Obscure allergies, such as dairy allergies, can sometimes cause sleeping disorders. Other symptoms may be very mild, such as slightly stuffed sinuses. A nutritionist can make helpful dietary and supplement recommendations.
- If an alarm has been set, avoid looking at the clock during the night and cover the display if necessary. This prevents mental calculations of how much sleep has been lost so far and how little sleep can be obtained before the alarm will sound. Accepting that the amount of sleep obtained can only be determined upon waking, not while waiting to get to sleep, may also be beneficial.

A multifaceted approach

Most people who have cured their insomnia have done so by reviewing and experimenting with many different cures. Often, a combination of dietary and lifestyle changes is the most helpful approach. As with many similar health problems, a determined, across-the-board holistic approach to sleeping problems is the most effective solution.

External links

- [http://www.healthdiaries.com/chronic-insomnia.htm Health Diaries: Insomnia]
- [http://familydoctor.org/110.xml Insomnia] at FamilyDoctor.org
- [http://www.helpguide.org/aging/sleep_tips.htm Sleep Tips for a Good Night's Sleep]
- [http://www.helpguide.org/aging/insomnia_treatment.htm Insomnia: Causes, Cures and Treatments]
- [http://www.shuteye.com Sleep tips and information about insomnia, sleep disorders, sleep aids, overcoming sleeplessness, and more.]
- [http://www.holistic-online.com/Remedies/Sleep/sleep_ins_relaxation.htm Treating insomnia with the "relaxation response".]
- [http://www.ucop.edu/humres/eap/relaxationrespone.html The relaxation response.]
- [http://www.getsomesleep.com An informational site about insomnia and insomnia treatments.] Sponsored by a drug company.
- [http://wlnaturalhealth.com/aromatherapy-articles/aromatherapy-stress-insomnia.htm Aromatherapy for insomnia] - Article includes research citations.

References

- [http://infobank.35sites.net/r.php?cat=07&sub=sleep Insomnia and Sleep Disorders], articles about insomnia and sleep disorders
- [http://www.well.com/user/mick/insomnia/ Insomnia?], sleep tricks and myths
- [http://www.sleephelpcenter.com Insomnia Help], natural sleep remedies Category:Sleep disorders ja:不眠症

Drug abuse

Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions, all of them relating to the use, misuse or overuse of a drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. Some of the most commonly abused drugs include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, caffeine, cannabis, cocaine, methaqualone, nicotine, opium alkaloids, and minor tranquilizers. Use of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in addition to physical, social, and pyschologic harm. Other definitions of drug abuse fall into four main categories:

Definitions

Public health definitions

In recent decades, public health practicitioners have attempted to look at drug abuse from a broader perspective than the individual, emphasising the role of society, culture and availability. Rather than alcohol or drug "abuse" many public health professionals have adopted the terms "alcohol and drug problems" or "harmful/problematic use" of drugs.

Mass communication and vernacular usage

The term may be used in newspapers, television, etc. in a ambiguous, catch-all sense rather than as a medical or legal term, sometimes disapprovingly to refer to any drug use at all, particularly of illicit drugs.

Medical definitions

In the modern medical profession, the two most used diagnostic tools in the world, the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), no longer recognise 'drug abuse' as a current medical diagnosis. Instead, they have adopted substance abuse as a blanket term to include drug abuse and other things. However, other definitions differ; they may entail psychological or physical dependence, and may focus on treatment and prevention in terms of the social consequences of substance use.

Historical positions of the American Psychiatric Association

In the early 1950s, the first edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders refered to both alcohol and drug abuse as part of Sociopathic Personality Disturbances, which were thought to be symptoms of deeper psychological disorders or moral weakness . By the third edition, in the 1980s, drug abuse was grouped into 'substance abuse'. In 1972, the American Psychiatric Association created a definition that used legality, social acceptability, and even cultural familiarity as qualifying factors:

…as a general rule, we reserve the term drug abuse to apply to the illegal, nonmedical use of a limited number of substances, most of them drugs, which have properties of altering the mental state in ways that are considered by social norms and defined by statute to be inappropriate, undesirable, harmful, threatening, or, at minimum, culture-alien.

Historical positions of the American Medical Association

In 1966, the American Medical Association's Committee on Alcoholism and Addiction defined abuse of stimulants (amphetamines, primarily) in terms of "medical supervision":

…"use" refers to the proper place of stimulants in medical practice; "misuse" applies to the physician's role in initating a potentially dangerous course of therapy; and "abuse" refers to self-administration of these drugs without medical supervision and particularly in large doses that may lead to psychological dependency, tolerance and abnormal behavior.

Handbook on Drug and Alcohol Abuse

The Handbook on Drug and Alcohol Abuse defines drug abuse as "nonmedical use of drugs, both drugs that have and those that do not have generally accepted medical value".

Political and criminal justice definitions

Most countries have legislation designed to criminalise some drug use. Usually however the legislative process is self-referential, defining abuse in terms of what is made illegal. The legislation concerns lists of drugs specified by the legislation. These drugs are often called illegal drugs but, generally, what is illegal is their unlicensed production, supply and possession. The drugs are also called controlled drugs or controlled substances.

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization (WHO), a public health agency comprised of delegates appointed by the governments of member nations, is considered by many to be a medical authority. Definitions found in WHO reports are often used as the basis for legislation at national, regional and local levels. The WHO also produces the ICD, a major diagnostic resource used by medical professionals worldwide. Although it consists largely of public health professionals, the WHO is an arm of the United Nations political body, and is therefore responsive to the needs of, demands from, and prevailing views among the UN member states that appoint WHO delegates. The manner in which the WHO has recognized and dealt with 'drug abuse' over the years reflects a continuing struggle to reconcile conflicting historical, political, social, cultural, and medical viewpoints. In its early reports, the WHO Expert Committee on Addiction-Producing Drugs used the terms 'abuse' and 'addiction' interchangeably. Beginning in 1950s, attempts were made to distinguish between scientific and emotionally-charged terminology. However, the term 'abuse' was still inserted into definitions of addiction and dependency. In 1957, while not explicitly saying that 'drug abuse' was synonymous with 'addiction', the committee first attempted to clarify existing definitions of addiction and habituation as had been in common parlance since at least 1931:

Drug addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Its characteristics include: (i) an overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means; (ii) a tendency to increase the dose; (iii) a psychic (psychological) and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drug; and (iv) detrimental effects on the individual and on society.

Drug habituation (habit) is a condition resulting from the repeated consumption of a drug. Its characteristics include (i) a desire (but not a compulsion) to continue taking the drug for the sense of improved well-being which it engenders; (ii) little or no tendency to increase the dose; (iii) some degree of psychic dependence on the effect of the drug, but absence of physical dependence and hence of an abstinence syndrome [withdrawal], and (iv) detrimental effects, if any, primarily on the individual.

In 1964, a new WHO committee found these definitions to be inadequate, and suggested using the blanket term 'drug dependence':

The definition of addiction gained some acceptance, but confusion in the use of the terms addiction and habituation and misuse of the former continued. Further, the list of drugs abused increased in number and diversity. These difficulties have become increasingly apparent and various attempts have been made to find a term that could be applied to drug abuse generally. The component in common appears to be dependence, whether psychic or physical or both. Hence, use of the term 'drug dependence', with a modifying phase linking it to a particular drug type in order to differentiate one class of drugs from another, had been given most careful consideration. The Expert Committee recommends substitution of the term 'drug dependence' for the terms 'drug addiction' and 'drug habituation'. (emphasis added)

The committee did not clearly define dependence, but did go on to clarify that there was a distinction between physical and psychological ('psychic') dependence. It said that drug abuse was "a state of psychic dependence or physical dependence, or both, on a drug, arising in a person following administration of that drug on a periodic or continued basis." Psychic dependence was defined as a state in which "there is a feeling of satisfaction and psychic drive that requires periodic or continuous administration of the drug to produce pleasure or to avoid discomfort" and all drugs were said to be capable of producing this state:

There is scarcely any agent which can be taken into the body to which some individuals will not get a reaction satisfactory or pleasurable to them, persuading them to continue its use even to the point of abuse — that is, to excessive or persistent use beyond medical need. (emphasis added)

This is believed to be the first reference to "medical need" as a factor in the distinction between use and abuse. In 1965, the same WHO committee commented further, now providing a specific definition of abuse:

Drug abuse is the consumption of a drug apart from medical need or in unnecessary quantities. Its nature and significance may be considered from two points of view: one relates to the interaction between the drug and the individual, the other to the interaction between drug abuse and society. The first viewpoint is concerned with drug dependence and the interplay between the pharmacodynamic actions of the drug and the physiological and psychological status of the individual. The second — the interaction between drug abuse and society — is concerned with the interplay of a wide range of conditions, environmental, sociological, and economic.

Individuals may become dependent upon a wide variety of chemical substances that produce central nervous system effects ranging from stimulation to depression. All of these drugs have one effect in common: they are capable of creating, in certain individuals, a particular state of mind that is termed "psychic dependence ".

Some drugs… induce physical dependence, which is an adaptive state that manifests itself by intense physical disturbances when the administration of the drug is suspended or when its action is affected by the administration of a specific antagonist.

The committee offered several disclaimers of its definitions:

It must be emphasized that drug dependence and drug abuse, as used by the Committee, are general terms and carry no connotation of the degree of risk to public health or of the need for drug control or for a particular type of drug control. The Committee would point out again that the recommendation for the use of the terms drug abuse and drug dependence of this or that type must not be regarded as a re-definition; rather, these terms are intended as descriptive expressions for clarification in scientific reference, interdisciplinary discussions, and national and international procedures.

The 1969 edition of the WHO's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) manual defined drug abuse as "persistent or sporadic excessive drug use inconsistent with or unrelated to acceptable medical practice", modern editions have not used the term because of it's ambiguity, prefering instead to refer to the cluster of symptoms previously called 'drug abuse' as 'substance abuse'. In 1973, these statements and recent legislation based upon the term "dependence" rather than "addiction" or "abuse" were praised by President Richard M. Nixon's National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse in its final report:

The Commission applauds the much-belated attempt by the scientific community to sever its conceptual apparatus from the vocabulary of politics and emotion. "Addiction," like "narcotics" and "drug abuse," has a general connotation of evil, suggesting illicit ecstasy, guilt and sin. Because the public image is conditioned more by cultural perceptions than by medical ones, medically-precise meanings simply cannot be harmonized with common parlance.

And in 1975, the WHO further distanced itself from the term 'drug abuse':

"Drug abuse" is a term in need of some clarification. …The term is really a convenient, but not very precise, way of indicating that (1) an unspecified drug is being used in an uspecified manner and amount … and (2) such use has been judged by some person or group to be wrong (illegal or immoral) and/or harmful to the user or society, or both. What might be called "drug abuse" by some would not necessarily be considered so by others. … For these reasons, the term "drug abuse" is avoided here

The World Health Organization presently prefers to use the terms harmful use and hazardous use (of drugs), in order to distinguish between the health effects of drug abuse rather than the social consequences. Another preferred term is drug misuse, defined as the "use of a substance for a purpose not consistent with legal or medical guidelines, as in the non-medical use of prescription medications." According to WHO, the term misuse is preferred by some in the belief that it is less judgmental. However, the 1957 and 1964–1965 WHO definitions of addiction, dependence and drug abuse persist to the present day in medical literature and have become entrenched in global legislation, despite the disclaimers and reliance on contentious assumptions. The WHO itself continues to use 'drug abuse' in its publications, and uses the term 'abuse' consistently and exclusively when discussing the control and consumption of illegal substances. This is in keeping with guidelines issued by the WHO's parent organization, the United Nations, which discourages any recognition of "recreational" or "responsible" use of drugs. Researchers may take note that somewhat less contentious definitions of addiction, dependence, and tolerance (with no speculation as to their roles in the definition of drug abuse) were jointly issued in 2001 by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine in the publication "Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain".

NIDA

The US National Institute on Drug Abuse defines drug abuse as "The use of illegal drugs or the inappropriate use of legal drugs. The repeated use of drugs to produce pleasure, to alleviate stress, or to alter or avoid reality (or all three)."

Nixon Administration

In 1975, psychiatrist Jerome H. Jaffe (in his role as Drug Policy Director in the Nixon Administration) defined drug abuse as "the use, usually by self-administration, of any drug in a manner that deviates from the approved medical or social patterns within a given culture". According to Jaffe, the term "conveys the notion of social disapproval, and it is not necessarily descriptive of any particular pattern of drug use or its potential adverse consequences".

Alcohol

In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-ghawl الغول) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). This sense underlies the term alcoholism (addiction to alcohol). Other forms of alcohol are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in isopropyl alcohol or by the suffix -ol, as in isopropanol. In chemistry, alcohol is a more general term, applied to any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-O H) is bound to a carbon atom, which in turn is bound to other hydrogen and/or carbon atoms. The general formula for a simple acyclic alcohol is C_nH_2n+1OH. As a drug, common alcohol (ethanol) is known to have a depressing effect that decreases the responses of the central nervous system.

Structure

central nervous system The functional group of an alcohol is a hydroxyl group bonded to an sp³ hybridized carbon. It can therefore be regarded as a derivative of water, with an alkyl group replacing one of the hydrogens. If an aryl group is present rather than an alkyl, the compound is generally called a phenol rather than an alcohol. The oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around 109° (c.f. 104.5° in water), and two nonbonded electron pairs. The O-H bond in methanol (CH₃OH) is around 96 picometres long.

Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols

There are three major subsets of alcohols- 'primary' (1°), 'secondary' (2°) and 'tertiary' (3°), based upon the number of carbons the C-OH carbon (shown in red) is bonded to. Methanol is the simplest 'primary' alcohol. The simplest secondary alcohol is isopropanol (propan-2-ol), and a simple tertiary alcohol is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol). butanol

Methanol & ethanol

The simplest and most commonly used alcohols are methanol and ethanol (common names methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol, respectively), which have the structures shown above. Methanol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood, and was called "wood alcohol". It is now a cheap commodity chemical produced by the high pressure reaction of carbon monoxide with hydrogen. In common usage, "alcohol" often refers simply to ethanol or "grain alcohol". Methylated spirits ("Meths"), also called "surgical spirits", is a form of ethanol rendered undrinkable by the addition of methanol. Aside from its major use in alcoholic beverages, ethanol is also used (though highly controlled) as an industrial solvent and raw material.

Uses

Alcohols are in wide use in industry and science as reagents, solvents, and fuels. Ethanol and methanol can be made to burn more cleanly than gasoline or diesel. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol is often used as a solvent in medical drugs, perfumes, and vegetable essences such as vanilla. In organic synthesis, alcohols frequently serve as versatile intermediates. Ethanol is also commonly used in beverages after fermentation to promote flavor or induce a euphoric intoxication commonly known as "drunkenness" or "being drunk". The use of ethanol for this purpose is illegal in some jurisdictions.

Sources

Many alcohols can be created by fermentation of fruits or grains with yeast, but only ethanol is commercially produced this way, chiefly for fuel and drink. Other alcohols are generally produced by synthetic routes from natural gas, petroleum, or coal feed stocks, for example via acid catalyzed hydration of alkenes. For more details see Chemistry of alcohols

Nomenclature

Systematic names

In the IUPAC system, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal "e" and adds "ol", e.g. "methanol" and "ethanol". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the "ol": propan-1-ol for CH₃CH₂CH₂OH, propan-2-ol for CH₃CH(OH)CH₃. Sometimes, the position number is written before the IUPAC name: 1-propanol and 2-propanol. If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone or carboxylic acid), then it is necessary to use the prefix "hydroxy", for example: 1-hydroxy-2-propanol (CH₃COCH₂OH). Some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them: carboxylic acid Common names for alcohols usually take the name of the corresponding alkyl group and add the word "alcohol", e.g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol or tert-butyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the 1st or 2nd carbon on the propane chain. Isopropyl alcohol is also occasionally called sec-propyl alcohol. As mentioned above alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°) or tertiary (3°), and common names often indicate this in the alkyl group prefix. For example (CH₃)₃COH is a tertiary alcohol is commonly known as tert-butyl alcohol. This would be named 2-methylpropan-2-ol under IUPAC rules, indicating a propane chain with methyl and hydroxyl groups both attached to the middle (#2) carbon. An alcohol with two hydroxyl groups is commonly called a "glycol", e.g. HO-CH₂-CH₂-OH is ethylene glycol. The IUPAC name is ethane-1,2-diol, "diol" indicating two hydroxyl groups, and 1,2 indicating their bonding positions. Geminal glycols (with the two hydroxyls on the same carbon atom), such as ethane-1,1-diol, are generally unstable. For three or four groups, "triol" and "tetraol" are used.

Etymology

The word "alcohol" almost certainly comes from the Arabic language (the "al-" prefix being the Arabic definite article); however, the precise origin is unclear. It was introduced into Europe, together with the art of distillation and the substance itself, around the 12th century by various European authors who translated and popularized the discoveries of Islamic alchemists. A popular theory, found in many dictionaries, is that it comes from الكحل = ALKHL = al-kuhul, originally the name of very finely powdered antimony sulfide Sb₂S₃ used as an antiseptic and eyeliner. The powder is prepared by sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite in a closed vessel. According to this theory, the meaning of alkuhul would have been first extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol. This conjectured etymology has been circulating in England since 1672 at least (OED). However, this derivation is suspicious since the current Arabic name for alcohol, الكحول = ALKHWL = al???, does not derive from al-kuhul. The Qur'an in verse 37:47 uses the word الغول = ALGhWL = al-ghawl — properly meaning "spirit" ("spiritual being") or "demon" — with the sense "the thing that gives the wine its headiness". The word al-ghawl also originated the English word "ghoul", and the name of the star Algol. This derivation would, of course, be consistent with the use of "spirit" or "spirit of wine" as synonymous of "alcohol" in most Western languages. (Incidentally, the etymology "alcohol" = "the devil" was used in the 1930s by the U.S. Temperance Movement for propaganda purposes.) According to the second theory, the popular etymology and the spelling "alcohol" would not be due to generalization of the meaning of ALKHL, but rather to Western alchemists and authors confusing the two words ALKHL and ALGhWL, which have indeed been transliterated in many different and overlapping ways.

Physical and chemical properties

The hydroxyl group generally makes the alcohol molecule polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to other compounds. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends. Alcohols of five or more carbons (Pentanol and higher) are effectively insoluble because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance. Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents. This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as protic solvents. The lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles. Alcohols, like water, can show either acidic or basic properties at the O-H group. With a pK_a of around 16-19 they are generally slightly weaker acids than water, but they are still able to react with strong bases such as sodium hydride or reactive metals such as sodium. The salts that result are called alkoxides, with the general formula RO^- M⁺. Meanwhile the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol: sulfuric acid Alcohols can also undergo oxidation to give aldehydes, ketones or carboxylic acids, or they can be dehydrated to alkenes. They can react to form ester compounds, and they can (if activated first) undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. For more details see the #Chemistry of alcohols section below.

Toxicity

Alcohols often have an odor described as 'biting' that 'hangs' in the nasal passages. Ethanol in the form of alcoholic beverages has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times, for a variety of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. While infrequent consumption of ethanol in small quantities may be harmless or even beneficial, larger doses result in a state known as drunkenness or intoxication and, depending on the dose and regularity of use, can cause acute respiratory failure or death and with chronic use has medical repercussions. Other alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized, and often their metabolism produces even more toxic substances. Methanol, or wood alcohol, for instance, is oxidized by alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes in the liver to the poisonous formaldehyde, which can cause blindness or death. Interestingly, an effective treatment to prevent formaldehyde toxicity after methanol ingestion is to administer ethanol. This will bind to alcohol dehydrogenase, preventing methanol from binding and thus acting as a substrate. Any formaldehyde will be converted to formic acid and excreted before it causes damage.

Chemistry of alcohols

Preparation

Laboratory

There are three common methods:
- From alkyl halides: react with aqueous NaOH or KOH (mainly 1° alcohols). :R-Br + KOH → R-OH + KBr
- From aldehydes or ketones: reduction with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride. :R-CHO - [O] → R-OH
- From alkenes: an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst (gives usually 2° or 3° alcohols). :C₂H₄ + H₂SO₄ (l) → C₂H₅-HSO₄ :C₂H₅-HSO₄ + H₂O → C₂H₅OH + H₂SO₄ The formation of a secondary alcohol via the last two methods is shown: sulfuric acid

Industrial

- Fermentation: using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of <37°C to produce ethanol. :C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ → C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆ :Invertase → glucose + fructose :C₆H₁₂O₆ + H₂O → C₂H₅OH + CO₂ :Glucose → zymase + ethanol
- Direct hydration: using ethene or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil. Uses a catalyst of phosphoric acid under high temperature and pressure.
- Methanol from water gas: It is manufactured from synthesis gas, where CO + 2 H₂ are combined to produce methanol using a Cu, ZnO and Al₂O₃ catalyst at 250°C and a pressure of 50-100 atm. :[CO + H₂] + H₂O (g) → CH₃OH

Reactions

See the physical and chemical properties section above for a general overview.

Deprotonation

Alcohols can behave as weak acids, undergoing deprotonation. The deprotonation reaction to produce an alkoxide salt is either performed with a strong base such as sodium hydride or n-butyllithium, or with sodium or potassium metal. : 2 R-OH + 2 NaH → 2 R-O^-Na⁺ + H₂↑ : 2 R-OH + 2Na → 2R-O⁻Na⁺ : e.g. 2 CH₃CH₂-OH + 2 Na → 2 CH₃-CH₂-O⁻Na⁺ Water is similar in pK_a to many alcohols, so with sodium hydroxide there is an equilibrium set up which usually lies to the left: : R-OH + NaOH <=> R-O^-Na⁺ + H₂O (equilibrium to the left)

Nucleophilic substitution

The OH group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However if the oxygen is first protonated to give R−OH₂⁺, the leaving group (water) is much more stable, and nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid, an activator such as zinc chloride is needed. Alternatively the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride.^[1] thionyl chloride Alcohols may likewise be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide, for example: : 3 R-OH + PBr₃ → 3 RBr + H₃PO₃ In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction.

Dehydration

Alcohols are themselves nucleophilic, so R−OH₂⁺ can react with ROH to produce ethers and water, although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of diethyl ether. More useful is the E1 elimination reaction of alcohols to produce alkenes. The reaction generally obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols requre a higher temperature. This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethene: 550px

Esterification

To form an ester from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid the reaction, known as "Fischer esterification", is usually performed at reflux with a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid: : R-OH + R'-COOH

\Leftrightarrow

R'-COOR + H₂O In order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good yield of ester, water is usually removed, either by an excess of H₂SO₄ or by using a Dean-Stark apparatus. Esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an acid chloride in the presence of a base such as pyridine. Other types of ester are prepared similarly- for example p-toluenesulfonate (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine.

Oxidation

Primary alcohols generally give aldehydes or carboxylic acids upon oxidation, while secondary alcohols give ketones. Traditionally strong oxidants such as the dichromate ion or potassium permanganate are used, under acidic conditions, for example: :3 CH₃-CH(-OH)-CH₃ + K₂Cr₂O₇ + 4 H₂SO₄ → 3 CH₃-C(=O)-CH₃ + Cr₂(SO₄)₃ + K₂SO₄ + 7 H₂O Frequently in aldehyde preparations these reagents cause a problem of over-oxidation to the carboxylic acid. To avoid this, other reagents such as PCC, Dess-Martin periodinane, IBX acid, TPAP or methods such as Swern oxidation are now preferred. Alcohols with a methyl group attached to the alcohol carbon can also undergo a haloform reaction (such as the iodoform reaction) in the presence of the halogen and a base such as sodium hydroxide. Tertiary alcohols resist oxidation, but can be oxidised by reagents such as 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone.

External links

- [http://www.french-paradox.net/fpbksb1.html What Is Alcohol, Anyway?] Interesting information about alcohols.
- Category:Drugs Category:Antiseptics Category:Arabic words Category:functional groups ja:アルコール simple:Alcohol

Wine

:This article is about the beverage. See WINE (software) for an article about the software of the same name. Wine is an alcoholic beverage that is made by fermenting grapes or grape juice. Wine-like beverages can also be made from other fruits or from flowers, grains, and even honey, in which case, a qualifier has to be used; for example, "elderberry wine". The word wine and its equivalents in other languages are protected by law in many jurisdictions and therefore should always mean grape wine. This article discusses grape wine. For non-grape wines, see country wine for fruit and flower wine, barley wine which is similar to beer, sake for rice wine, baijiu for the Chinese spirits sometimes translated "wine," and mead for honey wine. honey

History

honey The word wine comes from the the Old English win, which derives from the Proto-Germanic
- winam which was an early borrowing from the Latin vinum (related to Greek οἶνος), which can mean either the "wine" or the "vine". The earliest known evidence of a fermented wine-like drink is from the Chinese village of Jiahu dated from 6000 to 7000 BC [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/51/17593]. The wine, found in 16 buried jars, contained millet, rice, beeswax (from honey) and either hawthorn fruit or wild grape. A 3,000 year old bronze jar has also been unearthed, still containing a similar liquid wine. Ancient pottery jars discovered at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of present-day Iran, near the city of Urmia [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/NearEast/wine.shtml], indicate that grape wine was produced as far back as 5,500 BC. It is believed that the name of the Shiraz grape originates from the Persian town of the same name. This discovery is particularly significant, as Hajji Firuz Tepe was not a grape-growing area, the main crops being grains and the preferred drink of the time was beer. As ancient Babylon was located on the Silk Road from China to the Mediterranean, all indications suggest that wine was probably used as a commodity for trade. In ancient Egypt, wine played an important part in ceremonial life. Although wild grapes were never grown there, a thriving royal winemaking industry had been established in the Nile Delta. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the Early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the Third Dynasty (2650 – 2575 BC), the beginning of the Old Kingdom period (2650 – 2152 BC). Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced at the deltaic vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five wines, all probably produced in the Delta, constitute a canonical set of provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife. Christianity included wine in its rites where it takes the place of the blood of Jesus in the liturgies of Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican Christians. The advent of wine in Europe was the work of the Greeks who spread the art of grape-growing and winemaking in Ancient Greece and Roman times.

Wine-producing regions

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty north and between thirty and forty five degrees south of the Equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the South Island of New Zealand near the 45th parallel. The 13 largest export nations(2005 dates) – Italy, France, Spain, Australia, Chile, the United States of America, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Moldova, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. In the United States, California accounts for the largest share of wine producers, including Napa Valley, Sonoma Valley, Paso Robles, Santa Ynez and [http://www.mcganty.com/temecula04/overview.htm Temecula wineries]. The vineyards of Algeria used to produce many fine wines, especially during and immediately after the era of French colonization, but the resurgence of Islam among the populace since the 1970s has greatly reduced this industry. 1970s] The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:
- France, 22%
- Italy, 20%
- Spain, 16%
- Australia, 8%
- Chile, 6%
- United States, 5%
- Portugal 4%
- Germany 4%.. See also: List of wine-producing regions

Wine grape varieties

List of wine-producing regions Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Zinfandel, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions, are a blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage. Wine can also be made from Vitis labrusca, from other species or from the hybrid of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually used for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, but sometimes used for wine, eg. Concord wine. Although only rarely used and generally prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas. Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting a North American vine's root to the stock of a vinifera varietal. This is common practice because North American grape species are immune to phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the World except for Chile, which has yet to be exposed to the bug. The variety of the land, the local yeast cultures and the climate and conditions under which grapes are grown, (called "terroir") combined to offer a great variety among wine products, which are further increased by the fermentation process itself and by improvements attained with proper aging, sometimes for several decades or more. However, variety is not in itself a sought-after quality for large producers of table wine or more affordable wines, where consistency is more important for large and modern factory wines, and mass-market wine brands. Their producers will try to hide any hint of often-unremarkable "terroirs", or climatically under-performing harvest years, by:
- blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
- pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
- using flavor additives. See also: List of grape varieties

Classification of wine

By vinification methods

List of grape varieties Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush. The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice are known as teinturiers. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by the skin being left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or 'blush'. Rosé wines are a compromise between reds and whites: the skin of red grapes is left in for a short time during fermentation, or a small amount of red wine is blended with a white wine. Sparkling wines, such as champagne, are those with carbon dioxide, either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine. In France, wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called Méthode Traditionnelle. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France. Fortified wines are often sweeter, always more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as brandy. They include:
- Marsala
- Madeira
- Sherry
- Port Brandy is a distilled wine. Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled from fermented grape pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.

By taste

Wines may be also classified by their primary impression on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. Different grape varieties are associated with the aromas and tastes of different compounds. Wines may be described as 'dry' (meaning they are without sugar), off-dry, fruity, or sweet, for example. The sweetness of wines can be measured in brix, at harvest, but is in actuality determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation. Dry wine, for example, has only a tiny amount of residual sugar. Specific flavors may also be sensed, at least by an experienced taster, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules, such as esters, that a fully vinted wine contains.

White grapes

- Sauvignon Blanc: Gooseberry, asparagus.
- Sémillon: Honey, orange, lime.
- Chardonnay: Butter, melon, apple, pineapple, vanilla (if oaked, i.e. vinified in new oak aging barrels)
- Chenin Blanc: Wet wood, beeswax, honey, apple, almond.
- Riesling: