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Sacred

Sacred

:For the game released in 2004, go to Sacred (game). In various religions, sacred (from Latin, sacrum, "sacrifice") or "holy", objects, places or concepts are believed by followers to be intimately connected with the supernatural, or divinity, and are thus greatly revered. For example, pagans consider the Earth sacred, while Roman Catholics consider the transubstantiated host sacred. Reverence is the "deep respect and veneration for some thing, place, or person regarded as having a sacred or exalted character." OED Analogously, the word "sacred" is also sometimes used in regard to items highly esteemed by secular institutions or individuals. For instance, a United States citizen might say that they consider the Stars and Stripes to be sacred.

Sacred (game)

Sacred is a PC Action_RPG, released in 2004, with characters of various races (dark elf, wood elf, vampiress, etc.) each with their own missions. =The Game= Sacred features various gameplay and graphical aspects.

Characters

Upon beginning the game, you are given a choice to start with one of six different character types-the Gladiator, the Dark Elf, the Wood Elf, the Vampiress, the Battle-Mage, and the Seraphim. Each character begins in a different part of Ancaria (the continent that Sacred takes place in), and with a different starting quest. For example, the Gladiator starts in a colosseum, enslaved by his master, while the Seraphim starts in a church. Throughout the game, the characters all receive different sub-quests. Each character class is also restricted to a certain set of items, and has a different set of skills. To increase these skill levels, characters must find runes which correspond to those skills. Some character classes have identical skills, but the runes from one class cannot be used to advance skills in another class. For example, if you were a Gladiator that wanted to increase his attack skill, and found a rune that had the Seraphim symbol, but was labeled to increase the attack skill of the seraphim, he wouldn't be able to use it.

Story Line

A great Sakkara demon has been conjured by the necromancer Shaddar. But the conjuring went wrong, and the Sakkara demon is now loose in the world of Ancaria. Your job is to find the four elements of Ancaria (wind, fire, earth, water), and use them to defeat the monster. The hero has different objectives before this, but eventually, they all lead up to this one final quest.

Graphics

The graphics of Sacred do not resemble the graphics of a traditional RPG. The entire background of Ancaria is rendered in 2D, while the objects in it are 3D. This eliminates the need for most loading times within the game.

Ancaria

The whole of Sacred takes place in the continent of Ancaria, where there are several towns and villages. Even when you begin the game, more than 70% of Ancaria is already available to be traveled on. To the south of Ancaria, there is a vast desert, and lava-ridden plains. In the north, there is a wall of mountains and an icy backdrop. To both the east and the west, there are large forests, blocking the way for further travel. In the game, there is an option to buy horses, that can be used for faster travel, and to battle opponents.

Items

Sacred features a vast array of items that can be found from shops, dead monsters, or "magical hiding places" in many of the rocks and bushes throughout Ancaria. Many of the items can be only equipped by one type of character, like wings can only be equipped by a Seraphim. There are also several potion types, such as the typical mana-heal or health heal, but there are other types, like Potion of Undead death, which stops Undead from reviving once you kill them. Also, monsters occasionally drop a rune that increases a certain skill, for a certain character, if used. Also, if the player owns a horse, several different types of saddles can be bought to be used on the it. These saddles increase the speed, defense, and damage done by the horse. Sometimes, a monster drops a set item. Much like in Diablo 2, these set items will become much more powerful as gathered together, and are useful. Some items also can be imbued with better stats. If you take an item with a number of small boxes inside of it, you will be able to imbue it by taking it to a blacksmith, and then using either jewelry or one of his techniques to imbue it as many times as there are boxes in it. Onece imbued, it cannot be reversed.

Skills

Every character in Sacred has a different set of skills that are available to him/her. The only way to obtain them is to find a rune of that particular skill, and use it to make it available to use for you. Each character has about 10 different skills that can be unlocked and used. To increase your level in a skill, you must find another rune for that skill and use it. You can take a skill, and drag it to one of the empty circles to be able to enable it and use it. There are also several "combo masters" spread throughout Ancaria, which can combine up to four separate skills into a combo, which you can use in the game. The combo masters can also trade runes you cannot use or don't need for a rune of your choice. If you for example give him four runes and pay him 2000 gold pieces he will give you a rune of your choice to use. One of the skills in the game, Bee Eff Gee, is a reference to the Doom, Doom 2, and Doom 3 weapon, the BFG9000. This skill can only be used by the Seraphim and is described as a mystical weapon that shoots strange blobs of energy.

Enemies

The enemies in Sacred range from demons to thieves and respawn whenever you load your game. They are also all generated in random positions throughout a certain area. Occasionaly, you encounter an enhanced version of a monster. One of the most powerful creatures is a dragon, which you encounter each time you obtain another element of Ancaria, and various other times. =External Links= [http://www.sacred-game.com Sacred Official Website]

Holy

: holiness

Transubstantiation

Transubstantiation is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Jesus during Consecration.

Theology of transubstantiation

Transubstantiation is generally understood to refer to the belief that at the moment of Consecration, the elements (or "gifts" as they are termed for liturgical purposes) of bread and wine are transformed (literally trans-substance-iated) into the actual Body and Blood of Christ. The terms "elements" or "gifts" are preferred, as it is theologically incorrect to refer to the "bread" or "wine" after they have been consecrated, as Catholics believe they are no longer bread and wine. This doctrine holds that the elements are not only spiritually transformed, but are actually (substantially) transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ. The elements retain the appearance or "accidents" of bread and wine, but are indeed the actual Body and Blood of Christ, the true, real, and substantial presence of Jesus in the Eucharist. For this reason, what remains of the sacrament after the Communion procession is reserved in the Tabernacle, where it can be used for later Masses, for private devotion and prayer, as well as for public Eucharistic adoration. "Substance" as a philosophical term describes what a given object is, the properties of the object that are essential to "it" being "it." Without its substance, an object ceases to be what it "is." Accidents are non-essential properties; even without its accidents (such as color, taste, or shape), an object remains what it "is." For example, hair is an accident of humans, while being a mammal is substantial. If a human loses its hair, it is still human. If a human stops being a mammal, it is no longer a human, because being a mammal is essential to being human. At Consecration, the substance of the Eucharistic elements change; while the non-essential properties (shape, taste, color) remain the same, the essence of what it "is" changes into Christ's Body and Blood.

Catholicism

The Catholic Church holds that Christ directly instructed the Apostles in belief in the real presence, that the elements of the Eucharist become the body and blood of Christ. The Synoptic Gospels present the words of Christ concerning the bread and wine at the Last Supper: "This is my body... This is my blood" (Matthew 26:26-28). The Gospel of John records that Jesus said: "Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood you have no life in you" (John 6:53). Many of those who heard Jesus's words appear to have taken them literally, as the majority were shocked and left him. Adherents to Jewish Law consider eating blood one of the worst transgressions of kashruth, the law of eating and drinking, and a violation of the noachide laws which apply to all people and not just Jews. St. Paul implies an identity between the apparent bread and wine and the body and blood of Christ when he writes: "Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord" (1 Corinthians 11:27). Catholic doctrine is that because Christ is Risen, His Body and Blood are reunited; therefore, not only is each Host both the Body & Blood, but each sip of Consecrated wine is also both the Body & Blood. The Council of Trent decreed that all of Christ, His Body, Blood, Soul, & Divinity are fully present in each species:

For we do not receive in the Sacred Host one part of Christ and in the Chalice the other, as though our reception of the totality depended upon our partaking of both forms; on the contrary, under the appearance of bread alone, as well as under the appearance of wine alone, we receive Christ whole and entire (cf. Council of Trent, Sess. XIII, can. iii)..

Catholics use the term Real Presence to refer to Christ's actual presence in the Eucharist. Because Catholics believe the Eucharist is really and truly Christ Himself under the appearances of bread and wine, Catholics worship and adore the Eucharist. Catholics do not believe that this worship and adoration is idolatry, as they are worshipping what they truly believe to be Christ, not a mere commemoration or representation of Him. The Catholic Church does not view the Eucharist of the Protestant communities to be valid, as under Catholic doctrine the Protestant ministers lack the sacramental power to confect transubstantiation, even if they claim to possess it.

Eastern Orthodoxy

The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, like the Catholic Church, teach that the bread and wine truly become the physical Body and Blood of Christ. Orthodox theologians, however, have tended to refrain from philosophical speculations such as those of the scholastic theologians. Rather, they generally prefer to simply rely on the status of the doctrine as a "mystery," a doctrine known by Divine Revelation that could not have been arrived at by reason without revelation. They would prefer to say too little about the details and remain firmly within Holy Tradition, than say too much and possibly deviate from the truth. (Although the four-syllable word "metabole"/"metavole" may be loosely said to be "Greek Orthodox for 'transubstantiation'," it actually means "change" or "alteration." Greek for "transubstantiation" — as in "an alteration specifically of the fundamental substance or essence" in the Catholic sense — would be "metousiosis.") Nonetheless, the Roman Catholic Church recognises Orthodox communion as valid.

Anglicanism

Anglican Churches generally use the term "real presence" without necessarily being more precise. Some Anglicans hold views nearly indistinguishable from transubstantiation, while others hold views closer to consubstantiation or other Protestant views. The Anglican wideness of view has its roots in the sometimes violent controversies on religion during and after the reign of Henry VIII. During the reign of Elizabeth I, a more inclusive (some would say fuzzy) approach was adopted. Elizabeth's own response when questioned on this during the reign of Mary I is often quoted:

Christ was the word that spake it.
He took the bread and brake it;
And what his words did make it
That I believe and take it.

Some Anglicans disavow the idea that the real presence is bodily. In 1684, Archbishop John Tillotson went as far as to speak of the "real barbarousness of this Sacrament and Rite of our Religion." For him, it was a great impiety to believe that people who attend Holy Communion "verily eat and drink the natural flesh and blood of Christ. And what can any man do more unworthily towards a Friend? How can he possibly use him more barbarously, than to feast upon his living flesh and blood?" (Discourse against Transubstantiation, London 1684, 35.)

Lutheranism

Lutherans subscribe to a form of the doctrine of the Eucharistic Real Presence, believing the body and blood of Jesus Christ are offered with the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. They do not endorse any particular view of how this takes place, and regard attempts to explain in terms of philosophical metaphysics how the Eucharist "works" as disrespectful of the Sacrament's miraculous and mysterious character. This refusal to endorse such explanatory doctrines, particularly transubstantiation, is sometimes interpreted by non-Lutherans as denial of the Real Presence. Non-Lutherans also sometimes describe the Lutheran doctrine as consubstantiation, an incorrect understanding of Lutheran teaching, since, like transubstantiation, consubstantiation is rejected by Lutherans as a misguided attempt to philosophically categorize a divine mystery. Lutherans often say that the body and blood of Christ are "in, with and under" the bread and wine, in an attempt to adequately express their understanding of Christ's presence in the Eucharist, as opposed to Transubstantiationist and Sacramentarian positions. Though Christ's body and blood are believed to be physically present with the elements (given his words, "this is my body", and "this is my blood") during the eucharistic ceremony, through the faith of the congregation, they cease to be present afterwards and revert to their former state of bread and wine. Lutherans therefore do not offer Eucharistic adoration, as they see Christ's injunction to Christians as to "take and eat" and "take and drink"; thus that is their proper, divinely ordained use.

Other Christian denominations

In contrast to the Catholic view, many Protestant churches hold that Holy Communion merely symbolically commemorates or memorializes Jesus' Last Supper with the disciples; this belief is known as "symbolism", "commemoration", or "transignification". Some fundamentalist Protestants see any doctrine of the real presence as idolatry, worshipping mere bread and wine as if it were God. Similarly, Andrew Lortie, a leading Huguenot theologian and author, wrote a great deal against transubstantiation. Other Protestant sects, such as most Presbyterian denominations, profess belief in the real presence, but offer other explanations than transubstantiation. In the case of the Presbyterian Church (USA), when the Formula of Agreement was signed with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, both churches reaffirmed their mutual general belief that Christ is truly present in the sacrament.

Historical perspectives

Transubstantiation of the Eucharist was already well established in the Early Church. St. Ignatius of Antioch appears to have accepted the concept; in AD 106, he criticized those who "abstain from the Eucharist and the public prayer, because they will not admit that the Eucharist is the self-same Body of our Savior Jesus Christ, which [flesh] suffered for our sins, and which the Father in His goodness raised up again" (Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 6, 7). Similarly, St. Ambrose of Milan countered objections to the doctrine, writing "You may perhaps say: 'My bread is ordinary.' But that bread is bread before the words of the Sacraments; where the consecration has entered in, the bread becomes the Flesh of Christ" (The Sacraments, 333/339-397 A.D. v.2,1339,1340). Scholastic theologians in the early Middle Ages, influenced by Aristotelianism inquired philosophically into how and in what way the bread and wine become the Body and Blood of Christ. It was during this period that 'transubstantiation' was used to explain the belief. Eventually, the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, and again the Council of Trent (1545-1563) officially defined transubstantiation as the dogmatic belief of the Church. In the twentieth-century, some modernist Catholic theologians sought to interpret transubstantiation as only a change of meaning and not a change of substance. This was again rejected by Pope Paul VI in 1965. His 1968 "Credo of the People of God", reiterated that any theological explanation of the doctrine must hold to the two-fold claim that after consecration (1) Christ's Body and Blood are really present and (2) bread and wine are really absent, and this presence and absence is real and not merely something in the mind of the believer, a reiteration of conciliar dogma of the 13th Century. In literature, the controversy between Consubstantiation and Transubstantiation was satirically described in Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's Travels" as war between Lilliput and Blefuscu.

External links

- [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_03091965_mysterium_en.html Mysterium Fidei], Pope Paul VI
- [http://www.ewtn.com/library/papaldoc/p6credo.htm Credo of the People of God], Pope Paul VI [http://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/LCMS/wa_fellowship-lordssupper.pdf] Category:Catholic Eucharistic Theology Category:Christian theology

Oxford English Dictionary

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a comprehensive dictionary published by the Oxford University Press (OUP). Often regarded as the definitive dictionary of the English language, it includes about 301,100 main entries, as of November 30, 2005, comprising over 350 million printed characters. In addition to the headwords of main entries, the OED contains 157,000 combinations and derivatives in bold type, and 169,000 phrases and combinations in bold italic type, making a total of 616,500 word-forms. There are 137,000 pronunciations, 249,300 etymologies, 577,000 cross-references, and 2,412,400 illustrative quotations. The policy of OED is to attempt to record all known uses and variants of a word in all varieties of English, worldwide, past and present. To quote the 1933 Preface: :The aim of this Dictionary is to present in alphabetical series the words that have formed the English vocabulary from the time of the earliest records down to the present day, with all the relevant facts concerning their form, sense-history, pronunciation, and etymology. It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang. The OED is the starting point for much scholarly work regarding words in English. Its choice of the order in which to list variant spellings of headwords is influential on written English in many countries.

Origins

The dictionary had no university connection originally; it was conceived in London as a project of the Philological Society, when Richard Chenevix Trench, Herbert Coleridge, and Frederick Furnivall had become dissatisfied with the available dictionaries of English. In June 1857 they formed an "Unregistered Words Committee" with the goal of finding words not listed and defined in existing dictionaries. But the report that Trench presented that November was not a simple list of unregistered words; it was a study On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries. These, he said, were sevenfold:
- Incomplete coverage of obsolete words
- Inconsistent coverage of families of related words
- Incorrect dates for earliest use of words
- History of obsolete senses of words often omitted
- Inadequate distinction between synonyms
- Insufficient use of good illustrative quotations
- Space wasted on inappropriate or redundant content Trench suggested that nothing short of a new and truly comprehensive dictionary would do: one that would be based on contributions from a large number of volunteer readers, who would read books, copy out passages illustrating various actual uses of words onto quotation slips, and mail them to the editor. In 1858 the Society agreed in principle to the project: A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (NED).

The first editors

Trench played a key role in the first months of the project, but his ecclesiastical career meant that he could not give the dictionary the continued attention that it needed over a period that, it was realized, might easily be as long as ten years. So Trench withdrew, and it was Herbert Coleridge who became the dictionary's first editor. On May 12, 1860, Coleridge's plan for the work was published, and the research was set in motion. His home became the first editorial office; he ordered a grid of 54 pigeon-holes in which could eventually be arrayed 100,000 quotation slips. In April 1861, the first sample pages of the dictionary were published... and then Coleridge, aged just 31, died of tuberculosis. The editorship then fell to Furnivall, who had great enthusiasm and knowledge, but definitely lacked the temperament for such a long-term project. His energetic start saw many assistants recruited and two tons of readers' slips and other materials delivered to his house, and in many cases passed on to these assistants. But as months and years passed, the project languished. Furnivall began to lose track of his assistants, some of whom assumed that the project was abandoned; others died and their slips were not returned. The entire set of quotation slips for words starting with H was later found in Tuscany; others were assumed to be waste paper and burned as tinder. In the 1870s Furnivall approached Henry Sweet and Henry Nicol to succeed him, but neither one accepted the post. But then, at a Society meeting in 1876, James Murray declared his willingness to try.

The Oxford editors

At the same time the Society had become concerned about the publication of what it was now clear would have to be an immensely large book. Various publishers had been approached over the years, either to produce sample pages or for the possible publication of the whole, but no agreements had been reached. These had included both the Cambridge and the Oxford University Press (OUP). Finally in 1879, after two years of negotiations involving Sweet and Furnivall as well as Murray, the Oxford University Press agreed not only to publish the dictionary, but also to pay Murray (who by this time was also president of the Philological Society) a salary as editor. They hoped that the work would now be completed in another ten years. It was Murray who really got the project off the ground and was able to tackle its true scale. Because he had many children, he chose not to use his house (in the London suburb of Mill Hill) itself as a workplace; a kit-form iron outbuilding, lined with deal, which he called the "Scriptorium", was erected for him and his assistants. It was provided with 1,029 pigeon-holes and many bookshelves. Murray now tracked down and regathered the slips already collected by Furnivall, but he found them inadequate because readers had focused on rare and interesting words: he had ten times more quotations for abusion than for abuse. He therefore issued a new appeal for readers, which was widely published in newspapers and distributed in bookstores and libraries. This time readers were specifically asked to report "as many quotations as you can for ordinary words" as well as all of those that seemed "rare, obsolete, old-fashioned, new, peculiar or used in a peculiar way." Murray arranged for the Pennsylvanian philologist, Francis March, to manage the process in North America. Soon 1,000 slips per day were arriving at the Scriptorium, and by 1882 there were 3,500,000 of them. It was February 1, 1884, 23 years after Coleridge's sample pages, when the first portion, or fascicle, of the actual dictionary was finally published. The full title had now become A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society, and the 352 pages, covering words from A to Ant, were priced at 12s.6d. in Britain (today this fraction of a pound would be written 62.5p) or $3.25 US. The total sales were a disappointing 4,000 copies. It was now clear to OUP that it would take much too long to complete the work if the editorial arrangements were not revised. Accordingly they supplied additional funding for assistants, but made two new demands on Murray in return. The first was that he move from Mill Hill to Oxford, which he did in 1885. Again he had a Scriptorium built on his property (to appease a neighbour, this one had to be half-buried in the ground), and the Oxford post office paid his work the compliment of installing a new pillar box (mailbox) directly in front of his house. Murray was more resistant to the second requirement: that if he could not meet the desired schedule, then he must hire a second senior editor who would work in parallel, outside of his supervision, on words from different parts of the alphabet. He did not want to share the work, and felt that it would eventually go faster as he gained experience. But it didn't, and eventually Philip Gell of the OUP forced his hand. Henry Bradley, who Murray had hired as his assistant in 1884, was promoted and began working independently in 1888, in a room at the British Museum in London. In 1896 Bradley similarly moved to Oxford, working at the university itself. Gell continued to harass both editors with the commercial goal of containing costs and speeding production, to the point where the project seemed likely to collapse; but once this was reported in the press, public opinion backed the editors. Gell was then fired, and the university reversed his policies on containing costs. If the editors felt that the dictionary would have to grow larger than had been anticipated, then it would; it was an important enough work that the time and money necessary to finish it properly should be spent. But neither Murray nor Bradley lived to see it done. Murray died in 1915, having been responsible for words starting with A-D, H-K, O-P, and T, or nearly half of the finished dictionary; Bradley died in 1923, having done E-G, L-M, S-Sh, St, and W-We. By this time two additional editors had also been promoted from assistant positions to work independently, so the work continued without too much trouble. William Craigie, starting in 1901, was responsible for N, Q-R, Si-Sq, U-V, and Wo-Wy; whereas the OUP had previously felt that London was too far from Oxford for the editors to work there, after 1925 Craigie's work on the dictionary was done in Chicago, Illinois, where he had accepted a professorship. The fourth editor was C. T. Onions, who, starting in 1914, covered the remaining ranges, Su-Sz, Wh-Wo, and X-Z.

The fascicles

By early 1894 a total of 11 fascicles had been published, or about one per year: four for A-B, five for C, and two for E. Of these, eight were 352 pages long, while the last one in each group was shorter to end at the letter break (which would eventually become a volume break). At this point it was decided to publish the work in smaller and more frequent instalments: once every three months, beginning in 1895, there would now be a fascicle of 64 pages, priced at 2s.6d. (12.5p) or $1 US. If enough material was ready, 128 or even 192 pages would be published together. This pace was maintained thereafter until World War I forced reductions in staff. (The same material was also published in the original larger fascicles for those who might prefer them, each time enough consecutive pages were available.) A second change in 1895 was the adoption of the title Oxford English Dictionary (OED), but only on the outer covers of the fascicles. The original title was still the official one and appeared everywhere else. The 125th and last fascicle, covering words from Wise to the end of W, was published on April 19, 1928, and the full dictionary in bound volumes followed immediately.

The First Edition and the first Supplement

It had been planned to publish the New English Dictionary in 10 volumes, respectively starting with A, C, D, F, H, L, O, Q, Si, and Ti; but as the project proceeded, the later volumes became larger and larger, and while the full 1928 edition officially retained the intended numbering, Volumes IX and X were actually published as two "half-volumes" each, split at Su and V respectively. The entire edition was also available as a set of 20 half-volumes, with two choices of binding. The price was 50 or 55 guineas (£52.50 or £57.75) depending on the format and binding. It had been 44 years since the publication of A-Ant and, of course, the English language had continued to develop and change. So by this time the early volumes were noticeably out of date. The solution was for the same teams to now produce a Supplement, listing all words and senses that had developed since the relevant pages were first printed; this also gave the opportunity to correct any errors or omissions already noted. Purchasers of the 1928 edition were promised a free copy of the supplement when it appeared. The supplement was again produced by two editors working in parallel. Craigie, now being in the United States, did most of the research on American English usages; he also edited L-R and U-Z, while Onions did A-K and S-T. The work took another five years. In 1933 the entire dictionary was reissued, now officially under the title of Oxford English Dictionary for the first time. The volumes after the first six were adjusted to equalize them somewhat and eliminate the "half-volume" numbering: the main dictionary now consisted of twelve volumes, numbered as such, and respectively starting at A, C, D, F, H, L, N, Poyesye, S, Sole, T, and V. The supplement was included as the 13th volume. The price of the dictionary was now reduced to 20 guineas (£21), which must have dismayed the buyers from 1928 as they received their free supplements.

The second Supplement and the Second Edition

In 1933 Oxford University had finally put the great dictionary to rest; all work ended, and the quotation slips went into storage. But of course the English language continued to change, and by the time 20 years had passed, the outdatedness of the dictionary began to be bothersome. There were three possible ways to update it. The cheapest would be to leave the existing work alone and simply compile a new supplement, of perhaps one or two volumes; but then anyone looking for a word or sense and unsure of its age would have to look in three different places. Or the existing supplement could be combined with the new material to form a larger supplement. The most convenient choice for the dictionary user would be for the entire dictionary to be re-edited and retypeset, with each change included in its proper alphabetical place; but of course this would be most expensive, with perhaps 15 volumes to be produced. The OUP chose the middle approach, replacing the supplement with a new one. Robert Burchfield was hired in 1957 to edit it; Onions, who turned 84 that year, was still able to make some contributions as well. The work was expected to take seven to ten years. It actually took 29 years, by which time the new supplement had grown to four volumes, starting with A, H, O, and Sea. They were published in 1972, 1976, 1982, and 1986 respectively, bringing the complete dictionary to 16 volumes, or 17 counting the first supplement. But by this time it was clear that the full text of the dictionary now belonged online. Achieving this would still require rekeyboarding it once, but thereafter it would always be accessible for computer searching—as well as for whatever new editions of the dictionary might be desired, starting with an integration of the supplementary volumes and the main text. searching And so the New Oxford English Dictionary (NOED) project was begun. Retyping the text alone was not sufficient; all the information represented by the complex typography of the original dictionary had to be retained, which was done by marking up the content in SGML; and a specialized search engine and display software were also needed to access it. Under a 1985 agreement, some of this software work was done at the University of Waterloo, Canada, at a Centre for the New Oxford English Dictionary led by F.W. Tompa and Gaston Gonnet; this search technology would go on to be the basis for Open Text Corporation. Computer hardware, database and other software, development managers, and programmers for the project were donated by the British subsidiary of IBM; the colour syntax-directed editor for the project, [http://domino.research.ibm.com/tchjr/journalindex.nsf/0/bc33186c36e05a9e85256bfa0067f698?OpenDocument LEXX], was written by Mike Cowlishaw of IBM. By 1989 the NOED project had achieved its primary goals, and editors Edmund Weiner and John Simpson, working online, had successfully combined the original text, Burchfield's supplement, and a small amount of newer material into a single unified dictionary. The word "new" was again dropped from the name, and the Second Edition of the OED, or the OED2, was published. (And, naturally, the first edition retronymically became the OED1.) OED2 was printed in 20 volumes. For the first time there was no attempt to start them on letter boundaries, and they were made roughly equal in size. The 20 volumes respectively started with A, B.B.C., Cham, Creel, Dvandra, Follow, Hat, Interval, Look, Moul, Ow, Poise, Quemadero, Rob, Ser, Soot, Su, Thru, Unemancipated, and Wave. Although the content of OED2 is mostly just a reorganization of the earlier corpus, the retypesetting provided an opportunity for two long-needed format changes. The headword of each entry was no longer capitalized, allowing the dictionary user to readily see those words that actually require a capital letter. And whereas Murray had devised his own notation for pronunciation, there being no standard one at the time, the OED2 adopted today's International Phonetic Alphabet. New material was published in the Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series, two small volumes in 1993, and a third in 1997, bringing the dictionary to a total of 23 volumes. However, no more Additions volumes are planned, and it is not expected that any part of the Third Edition, or OED3, will be printed in fascicles.

The Compact Editions

Meanwhile, in 1971, the full content of the 13-volume OED1 from 1933 was reprinted as a Compact Edition of just two volumes. This was achieved by photographically reducing each page to 1/2 its original linear dimensions, so that four original pages were shown on each page ("4-up" format). The two volumes started at A and P, with the Supplement included at the end of the second volume. The Compact Edition was sold in a case that also included, in a small drawer, a magnifying glass to help users read the reduced type. Many copies were sold through book clubs, which distributed them cheaply as premiums to their members. In 1987 the second Supplement was published as a third volume in the same Compact Edition format. For the OED2, in 1991, the Compact Edition format was changed to 1/3 of the original linear dimensions (9-up), requiring stronger magnification but also allowing the entire dictionary to be published in a single volume for the first time. Even after these volumes had been published, though, book club offers commonly continued to feature the two-volume 1971 Compact Edition.

The electronic versions

1991 Now that the text of the dictionary was digitized and online, it could also be published on CD-ROM. There have been three versions so far. Version 1 (1992) was identical in content to the printed Second Edition, and the CD itself was not copy-protected. Version 2 (1999) had some additions to the corpus, and updated software with improved searching features, but had clumsy copy-protection that made it difficult to use and would even cause the program to deny use to OUP staff in the middle of demonstrations of the product. Version 3 (2002) has additional words and software improvements, though its copy-protection is still as unforgiving as that of the earlier version. Despite the attempts at copy-protection, one can still download the newest CD-ROM dictionary from Usenet for free. 2002 In March 2000, the Oxford English Dictionary Online (OED Online) became available to subscribers. The online database contains the entire OED2 and is also updated quarterly with revisions which will be included in the OED3 (see below). The online edition is the most up-to-date one available. As the price for an individual to use this edition, even after a reduction in 2004, is £195 or $295 every year, most subscribers are large organizations such as universities. Some of them do not use the Oxford English Dictionary Online portal and have legally downloaded the entire database into their organization's computers. Some public libraries and companies have subscribed as well. A slightly more appealing method of payment was also introduced in 2004, offering residents of North or South America the opportunity to pay $29.95 US a month in order to access the online site. This allows people who have a less frequent pattern of usage to save versus the yearly plan.

The Third Edition

The planned Third Edition, or OED3, is intended as a nearly complete overhaul of the work. Currently (as of 2005) John Simpson is the Chief Editor. Since the first work by each editor tends to require somewhat more revision than his later, more polished work, it was decided to balance out this effect by performing the early, and perhaps itself less polished, work of this revision pass at a letter other than A. Accordingly, the main work of the OED3 has been proceeding in sequence from the letter M. When the OED Online was launched in March 2000, it included the first batch of revised entries (officially described as draft entries), stretching from M to mahurat, and successive sections of text have since been released on a quarterly basis; by September 2005, the revised section reached as far as perfay. As new work is done on words in other parts of the alphabet, this is also included in each quarterly release. New content can be viewed through the OED Online (by subscription or at libraries offering this service) or on the periodically updated CD-ROM edition. It is even possible that OED3 will never be printed conventionally, but will only ever be available through the medium of a computer. That will be a decision for the future, when it is nearer completion. The actual production of the new edition, of course, takes full advantage of computers, and not just for text editing. The Internet can now be searched for evidence of current usage, and submissions from readers, and the general public, now often arrive by e-mail.

Spelling

The OED lists British spellings for headwords first (for example, labour and centre), followed by other variants (labor, center, etc.). OUP policy also dictates that -ize suffixes be used (instead of -ise) for many words more commonly ending in -ise, even if the root is Latin rather than Greek. The sentence "The group analysed labour statistics published by the organization" is an example of OUP practice. This spelling (which can be indicated by the registered IANA language tag en-GB-oed) is used by the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the International Organization for Standardization and other organizations, as well as many academic publications, such as Nature, Advances in Physics and the Times Literary Supplement.

Miscellanea

- J. R. R. Tolkien was once an employee of the OED (researching etymologies in the range from Waggle to Warlock), and gently parodied the four principal editors as "The Four Wise Clerks of Oxenford" in his story Farmer Giles of Ham.
- Julian Barnes was also an employee, but he did not like the work.
- The early modern English prose of Sir Thomas Browne is the most frequently quoted source of neologisms.
- William Shakespeare is the most-quoted writer.
- George Eliot (real name Mary Ann Evans) is the most-quoted female.
- Cursor Mundi, a religious epic written around 1300, is the most-quoted work.
- One of the most prolific early contributors as a reader, Dr. W. C. Minor, was at the time imprisoned in a criminal lunatic asylum. He invented his own system of tracking quotations so he could send in his slips only when the editors requested, or were ready to use them.
- Tim Bray, co-creator of the eXtensible Markup Language (XML), credits the OED as the inspiration behind the development of the next-generation web language.

External links

- The [http://www.oed.com/ Oxford English Dictionary's official website]
- Their [http://oed.com/archive/ Archive of documents] (as page images), which includes Trench's original "Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries" [http://dictionary.oed.com/archive/paper-deficiencies/] paper and Murray's original appeal for readers [http://dictionary.oed.com/archive/appeal-1879-04/]
- Their [http://oed.com/about/facts.html page of OED statistics], and [http://www.askoxford.com/worldofwords/oed/facts/ another such page].
- Their page on [http://dictionary.oed.com/about/contributors/tolkien.html Tolkien]
- [http://www.askoxford.com/dictionaries/?view=uk AskOxford Compact Oxford English Dictionary Search]
- [http://oed.hertford.ox.ac.uk/main/ Examining the OED]: Charlotte Brewer's analysis of the principles and practices used by OED editors Category:Dictionaries Category:Non-fictional British literature Category:British culture ko:옥스포드 영어 사전 ja:オックスフォード英語辞典

Flag of the United States

:"Stars and stripes" redirects here. For other uses of the term, see Stars and Stripes. Stars and Stripes The flag of the United States consists of 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states and the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies. The United States flag is commonly called the Stars and Stripes or Old Glory. The name Old Glory was coined by Captain William Driver, a shipmaster of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1831, and was of particularly common use during the era of the 48-star version (1912 to 1959). The flag would be blazoned "A banner Gules, 6 bars Argent; the canton Azure charged with 50 mullets Argent".

Traditions

Many institutions, and some homeowners, display the flag year-round, while some reserve flag display for civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veteran's Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day and the Fourth of July. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war dead.

Symbolism

To many U.S. citizens, their flag symbolizes many things. They have seen it as representing all of the freedoms and rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution and its Bill of Rights. Perhaps most of all they see it as a symbol of individual and personal liberty like those put forth in the U.S. Declaration of Independence. The approved method of destroying old and tattered flags consists of burning them in a simple ceremony. The flag is cut into three pieces: first a horizontal cut is made between the seventh and eighth stripes, then a vertical cut separating the star field from the seven shorter stripes. Then the three pieces are typically placed on a pyre as 'Taps' is played. Burning the flag has also been used as a deliberate act of disrespect, at times to protest actions by the United States government, or sometimes in displays of Anti-Americanism. Some groups concerned by these actions have proposed a Flag Burning Amendment that would give Congress the authority to outlaw burning the flag in disrespect or protest.

Symbolism of the design

When the Second Continental Congress proposed the Flag Resolution on June 14, 1777, there was no particular symbolism attached to the colors or their arrangement on the flag. However, on June 20, 1782, Charles Thomson, the secretary of the Continental Congress, gave a report to the Congress defining the new Great Seal of the United States. A seal must conform to the rules of heraldry, and so meanings were attached to the colors: : The colours of the pales are those used in the flag of the United States of America. White signifies purity and innocence. Red hardiness and valour and Blue the colour of the Chief signifies vigilance perseverance and justice. ^{[ContCong 22:339]} Originally, both the number of stripes and the number of stars were supposed to represent the number of states. However, this became unwieldy as states were added to the union. During the debate that eventually resulted in the Flag Act of 1818, U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid suggested that the number of stripes be set at thirteen to represent the original 13 colonies and that only the number of stars be set to the number of states. ^{[USGov 4]} A book about the flag published by the Congress in 1977 gives further symbolism for the flag: : The star is a symbol of the heavens and the divine goal to which man has aspired from time immemorial; the stripe is symbolic of the rays of light emanating from the sun. ^[USFlag.org]

Design

1977 The design of the flag is specified by United States Code title 4, chapter 1, section 1 [http://assembler.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode04/usc_sec_04_00000001----000-notes.html]. The specification gives the following values:
- Hoist (width) of flag: A = 1.0
- Fly (length) of flag: B = 1.9
- Hoist (width) of Union: C = 0.5385 (7/13)
- Fly (length) of Union: D = 0.76
- E = F = 0.054
- G = H = 0.063
- Diameter of star: K = 0.0616
- Width of stripe: L = 0.0769 (1/13) Presumably E and F are approximations of 7/130 = 0.0[538461], and G and H are approximations of 0.76/12 = 0.06[3]. According to Flags of the World, the colors are specified by the General Services Administration "Federal Specification, Flag, National, United States of America and Flag, Union Jack," DDD-F-416E, dated November 27, 1981. It gives the colors by reference to "Standard Color Cards of America" maintained by the Color Association of the United States, Inc., as
- Cable No. 70180 Old Glory Red
- Cable No. 70001 White
- Cable No. 70075 Old Glory Blue The red is generally considered the same as Pantone 193, and the blue, Pantone 281. The current 50-star flag was designed by Robert Heft in 1958 while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He was 17 years old at the time and did the flag design as a class project. His mother was a seamstress, but forced Heft to do all of the work on his own. He originally received a "B-" for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an "A" for the project.

Flag etiquette

There are certain guidelines for the use and display of the United States flag as outlined in the United States Flag Code of the federal government. These are guidelines, not laws; there is no penalty for failure to comply with them. This etiquette is as applied within U.S. jurisdiction. In other countries and places, local etiquette applies.

Standards of respect

United States Flag Code
- The flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a vessel of a foreign ship.
- The flag should only be flown upside down as a distress signal.
- The flag should not be used as a drapery, or for covering a speaker's desk, draping a platform, or for any decoration in general. Bunting of blue, white and red stripes is available for these purposes. The blue stripe of the bunting should be on the top.
- The flag should never be drawn back or bunched up in any way.
- The flag should never be used as a covering for a ceiling.
- The flag should never be used for any advertising purpose. It should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use. Advertising signs should not be attached to the staff or halyard.
- The flag should not be used as part of a costume or athletic uniform, except that a flag patch may be used on the uniform of military personnel, firefighters, police officers, and members of patriotic organizations.
- The flag should never have placed on it, or attached to it, any mark, insignia, letter, word, number, figure, or drawing of any kind.
- The flag should never be used as a receptacle for receiving, holding, carrying, or delivering anything.
- The flag should not be draped over the hood, top, sides, or back of a vehicle, railroad train, or boat.
- When the flag is lowered, no part of it should touch the ground or any other object; it should be received by waiting hands and arms. To store the flag it should be folded neatly and ceremoniously.
- The flag should be cleaned and mended when necessary.
- When a flag is so worn it is no longer fit to serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. (Note: Most American Legion Posts regularly conduct a dignified flag burning ceremony, often on Flag Day, June 14.) Contrary to a commonly believed urban legend, the flag code does not state that a flag which touches the ground should be burned. Instead, the flag should be moved so it is not touching the ground.

Displaying the flag outdoors

urban legend, New York).]]
- When the flag is displayed from a staff projecting from a window, balcony, or a building, the union should be at the peak of the staff unless the flag is at half staff. When it is displayed from the same flagpole with another flag, the flag of the United States must always be at the top except that the church pennant may be flown above the flag during church services for Navy personnel when conducted by a Naval chaplain on a ship at sea.
- When the flag is displayed over a street, it should be hung vertically, with the union to the north or east. If the flag is suspended over a sidewalk, the flag's union should be farthest from the building.
- When flown with flags of states, communities or societies on separate flag poles which are of the same height and in a straight line, the flag of the United States is always placed in the position of honor—to its own right. The other flags may be smaller but none may be larger.
- No other flag ever should be placed above it. The flag of the United States is always the first flag raised and the last to be lowered.
- When flown with the national banner of other countries, each flag must be displayed from a separate pole of the same height. Each flag should be the same size. They should be raised and lowered simultaneously. The flag of one nation may not be displayed above that of another nation.
- The flag should be raised briskly and lowered slowly and ceremoniously.
- Ordinarily it should be displayed only between sunrise and sunset, although the Flag Code permits nighttime display "when a patriotic effect is desired." Similarly, the flag should be displayed only when the weather is fair. (By Presidential proclamation and law, the flag is displayed continuously at certain honored locations like the United States Marine Corps Memorial in Arlington and Lexington Green.)
- It should be illuminated if displayed at night.
- The flag of the United States of America is saluted as it is hoisted and lowered. The salute is held until the flag is unsnapped from the halyard or through the last note of music, whichever is the longest.

Displaying the flag indoors

- When on display, the flag is accorded the place of honor, always positioned to its own right. Place it to the right of the speaker or staging area or sanctuary. Other flags should be to the left.
- The flag of the United States of America should be at the center and at the highest point of the group when a number of flags of states, localities, or societies are grouped for display.
- When one flag is used with the flag of the United States of America and the staffs are crossed, the flag of the United States is placed on its own right with its staff in front of the other flag.
- When displaying the flag against a wall, vertically or horizontally, the flag's union (stars) should be at the top, to the flag's own right, and to the observer's left.

Parading and saluting the flag

- When carried in a procession, the flag should be to the right of the marchers.
- When other flags are carried, the flag of the United States may be centered in front of the others or carried to their right. When the flag passes in a procession, or when it is hoisted or lowered, all should face the flag and salute.
- To salute, all persons come to attention.
- Those in uniform give the appropriate formal salute.
- Citizens not in uniform salute by placing their right hand over the heart and men with head cover should remove it and hold it to left shoulder, hand over the heart.
- Members of organizations in formation salute upon command of the person in charge.

Pledge of Allegiance and national anthem

- The Pledge of Allegiance should be rendered by standing at attention, facing the flag, and saluting.
- When the national anthem is played or sung, citizens should stand at attention and salute at the first note and hold the salute through the last note. The salute is directed to the flag, if displayed, otherwise to the music.

The flag, in mourning

Pledge of Allegiance
- To place the flag at half-staff (or half-mast, on ships), hoist it to the peak for an instant and lower it to a position half way between the top and bottom of the staff.
- The flag is to be raised again to the peak for a moment before it is lowered.
- On Memorial Day, the flag is displayed at half-staff until noon and at full staff from noon to sunset.
- The flag is to be flown at half-staff in mourning for designated, principal government leaders.
- The U.S. flag is otherwise flown at half-staff (or half-mast, on ships) when directed by the President of the United States or a state governor.
- When used to cover a casket or coffin, the flag should be placed with the union at the head and over the left shoulder. It should not be lowered into the grave.

Folding the flag

Flags, when not in use, should be folded into a triangle shape. The final triangle shape result is said to invoke the image of the three-point hats popular during the American Revolutionary War. Former American territories, e.g. the Philippines, also use this method to fold their flags. # To properly fold the flag, begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground. # Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely. # Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside. # Make a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag. # Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle. flags # The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner. # When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible.

Miscellaneous

According to the New York Public Library Desk Reference:
- The flag at the U.S. Capitol flies over the body in session (House or Senate) and remains there, lit, day and night.
- In a display of multiple flags, the American flag should be at the center of and above the other flags. Only the United Nations flag and a Navy chaplain's church pennant may be flown higher than the U.S. flag.

Places where the American flag is displayed continuously

According to Presidential proclamation, Congressional order, and custom, the American flag is displayed continuously at the following locations:
- Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine, Baltimore, Maryland, 15-star/15-stripe flag (Presidential Proclamation No. 2795, July 2, 1948).
- Flag House Square, Albemarle and Pratt Streets, Baltimore, Maryland, 15-star/15-stripe flag (Public Law 83-319, approved March 26, 1954).
- United States Marine Corps War Memorial (Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima), Arlington, Virginia (Presidential Proclamation No. 3418, June 12, 1961).
- Lexington, Massachusetts Town Green (Public Law 89-335, approved November 8, 1965).
- The White House, Washington, DC (Presidential Proclamation No.4000, September 4, 1970).
- Fifty U.S. Flags are displayed continuously at the Washington Monument, Washington, DC. (Presidential Proclamation No. 4064, July 6, 1971, effective July 4, 1971).
- By order of Richard Nixon at United States Customs Service Ports of Entry that are continuously open (Presidential Proclamation No.4131, May 5, 1972).
- Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in Valley Forge State Park, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania (Public Law 94-53, approved July 4, 1975).
- Mount Slover limestone quarry (Colton Liberty Flag), in Colton, California (Act of Congress). First raised July 4, 1917.[http://www.calportland.com/colton/Colton.htm]
- Washington Camp Ground, part of the former Middlebrook encampment, Bridgewater, New Jersey, Thirteen Star Flag, by Act of Congress.
- In addition, the American flag is presumed to be in continual display on the surface of the Earth's Moon, having been placed there by the astronauts of Apollo 11, Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17. It is assumed however that Apollo 11's flag was knocked down by the force of return to lunar orbit.
- By custom, at the home, birthplace and grave of Francis Scott Key, all in Maryland
- By custom, at the Worcester, Massachusetts war memorial
- By custom, at the plaza in Taos, New Mexico, since 1861
- By custom, at the United States Capitol since 1918
- By custom, at Mount Moriah Cemetery in Deadwood, South Dakota

History

Deadwood, South Dakota The flag has gone through 26 changes since the new union of 13 states first adopted it. The 48-star version holds the record, 47 years, for the longest time the flag has gone unchanged. The current 50-star version will tie the record if it is still in use on July 4, 2007. At the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, the most commonly flown flag was the Grand Union Flag. This flag was initially flown by George Washington and is recorded as being first raised by Washington's troops at Prospect Hill on New Year's Day in 1776. This flag formed the basis of the Stars and Stripes, consisting of 13 red and white stripes with the British Union Jack in the canton. The Grand Union Flag is the same as the East India Company flag of the same era, although the East India Company flag could have from 9 to 13 stripes. East India Company The red-and-white stripe (and later, stars-and-stripes) motif of the flag may have been based on the Washington family coat-of-arms, which consisted of a shield "argent, two bars gules, above, three mullets gules" (a white shield with two red bars below three red stars). Since 1937, this design has been used as the flag of the District of Columbia. District of Columbia On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the United States be made of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation." Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. Tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June of 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement for the stars. Initially, a variety of designs were used, including a circular arrangement (below), but gradually a design featuring horizontal rows of stars emerged as the standard. Middlebrook encampment As further states entered the union, extra stars and stripes were added until this proved to cause too much clutter. It was ultimately decided that there would be a star for each state, but the number of stripes would remain at thirteen to honor the original colonies. It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner," now the national anthem. national anthem When the flag design changes, the change always takes place on July 4 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as a consequence of the Flag Act of April 4, 1818. July 4, Independence Day in the United States, commemorates the founding of the nation. The most recent change, from forty-nine stars to fifty, occurred in 1960 when Robert G. Heft's design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag. Alaska]] The flag flew in battle for the first time at Cooch's Bridge in Delaware on September 3, 1777 during the American Revolutionary War. The origin of the U.S. flag design is uncertain. A popular story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch by George Washington who personally commissioned her for the job. However, no evidence for this theory exists beyond Ross's own records. The British historian Sir Charles Fawcett has suggested that the design of the flag may have been derived from the flag and jack of the British East India Company. [http://www.kimber.org/flag/index.htm Comparisons] between the 2 flags support Fawcett's suggestion. Another popular theory is that the flag was designed by Francis Hopkinson. He reportedly originally wanted the stars arranged in four bands, one vertical, one horizontal, and two diagonal. By the same reports, this arrangement was rejected due to similarity to the British flag.

State stars and design duration

In the following table, the star patterns for each flag are merely the usual patterns, with the exception of the 48-, 49-, and 50-star flags, as there was no official arrangement of the stars until the proclamation of the 48-star flag by President William Howard Taft in 1912. (For alternate versions, see [http://www.fotw.net/flags/us-ststr.html this page] at Flags of the World.)

Symmetry

Flags of the World
- Symmetry with respect to horizontal axis: 50, 49, 48, 46, 44, 38, 37, 36, 34, 33, 32, 30, 28, 26, 24, 20, 15, 13 (standard)
- Symmetry with respect to vertical axis: 51, 50, 48, 46, 45, 44, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 21, 20, 15, 13 (standard and Betsy Ross)
- Both, hence also point symmetry: 50, 48, 46, 44, 37, 36, 34, 33, 32, 45, 28, 26, 24, 20, 15, 13 (standard)
- No symmetry: 43
- Chessboard pattern: 51, 50, 49, 45, 15, 13 (standard)
- Rectangle of stars: 48, 35, 30, 28, 24, 20

Future of the flag

The United States Army's Institute of Heraldry has plans for flags with up to 56 stars using a similar staggered star arrangement in case additional states accede. There are ongoing statehood movements in Puerto Rico, the District of Columbia, and New York City. Other insular areas such as the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and American Samoa may eventually become states as well.

References

; [ContCong] : [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjc.html Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789], ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, D.C., 1904-37). ; [USFlag.org] : ; [USGov] : :
- Available as a 1.78 MB PDF at [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_documents&docid=f:sd013.105.pdf GPO Access]

External links

-
- [http://www.ushistory.org/betsy/flagetiq.html U.S. Flag Etiquette]
- [http://www.usflag.org/ The United States Flag Page]
- [http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/flag.htm Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Facts About the United States Flag]
- [http://www.access.gpo.gov/uscode/title4/chapter1_.html The Flag Code--U.S. Code Home: Title 4, Flag and Seal, Seat of Government, and the States--Chapter 1, The Flag]
- Provides details about the design of the flag, treatment of the flag, the pledge of allegiance, etc.
- [http://assembler.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode04/usc_sec_04_00000001----000-notes.html Executive Order No. 10798], with specifications and regulations for the current flag
- [http://mysite.verizon.net/vzeo1z2a/CivilFlag.html The Civil Flag: forgotten flag, or flag of fiction?]
- [http://mysite.verizon.net/vzeo1z2a/YellowFlag.html The Significance of the "Yellow Fringed Flag"]
- [http://bensguide.gpo.gov/3-5/symbols/flag.html Ben's Guide (3-5): Symbols of U.S. Government - Flag of the United States]
- [http://www.westol.com/~beaurega/51flags.htm Designs for flags containing between 51 and 70 stars] Category:American culture Category:Flags of the United States United States Category:Historical flags ko:미국의 국기 ja:アメリカ合衆国の国旗 simple:Flag of the United States

Religious music

Religious music (also sacred music) is music performed or composed for religious use or through religious influence. A lot of music has been composed to complement religion, and many composers have derived some inspiration from their religions. Many forms of traditional music have been adapted to fit religions' purposes or descended from religious music. Johann Sebastian Bach, considered one of the most important and influential European classical music composers, wrote most of his music for the Lutheran church. Religious music often changes to fit the times; Contemporary Christian music, for example, uses idioms from various secular popular music styles but with religious lyrics. Gospel music has always done this, for example incorporating funk, and continues to do so. Monotheism and tonality, all tones relating and resolving to a tonic, are often associated, and the textures of European homophony, equated with monotheism, may be contrasted with Asian heterophony, equated with poly or pantheism. Navajo music's cyclic song and song-group forms mirrors the cyclic nature of their deities such as Changing Woman.

Religions

Christian music

There is virtually no record of the earliest music of the Christian church except a few New Testament fragments of what are probably hymns. Some of these fragments are still sung as hymns today in the Orthodox Church, including "Awake, awake O sleeper" on the occasion of someone's baptism. Being Jewish, Jesus and his disciples would most likely have sung the psalms from memory. However, the repertoire of ordinary people was larger than it is today, so they probably knew other songs too. Early Christians continued to sing the psalms much as they were sung in the synagogues in the first century.

Hindu music

Kirtan originated in the Hindu bhakti tradition as loving songs sung to God. It is also one of the pillars of Sikhism and in that context refers to the singing of the sacred hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib to music. Sikhs place huge value on this type of singing and a Sikh is duty bound to listen and/or sing Guru-kirtan as frequently as possible.

Jewish music

The earliest synagogal music was based on the same system as that in the Temple in Jerusalem. According to the Talmud, Joshua ben Hananiah, who had served in the sanctuary

Muslim music

Islamic music is Muslim religious music sung or played in public services or private devotions. Muslim homeland consists of Arabia, the Middle East, North Africa, Egypt, Iran, Central Asia, and northern India and Pakistan. The indigenous musical styles of these areas – Arab classical music, Persian classical music, and North Indian classical music – have shaped the devotional music enjoyed by contemporary Muslims.

Rastafarian music

Nyabinghi music is the most integral form of Rastafarian music. It is played at worship ceremonies called grounations, which including drumming, chanting and dancing along with prayer and smoking of ritual ganja. Nyabinghi probably comes from an East African movement from the 1850s to the 1950s that was led by women who militarily opposed European imperialism. This form of nyabinghi was centered around Muhumusa, a healing woman from Uganda who organized resistance against German colonialists. The British later led efforts against nyabinghi, classifying it as witchcraft through the Witchcraft Ordinance of 1912. In Jamaica, nyabinghi was appropriated for similar anti-colonial efforts, and is often danced to invoke the power of Jah against an oppressor. The connection between the religion and various kinds of music has become well-known due to the international fame of musicians like Bob Marley and Peter Tosh.

Shinto music

Shinto music (神楽) is ceremonial music for Shinto (神道) which is the native religion of Japan. It is related to Gagaku (雅楽) or old festival music. Taiko has also been used.

Taboo

:For other uses of taboo, see Taboo (disambiguation). A taboo is a strong social prohibition (or ban) relating to any area of human activity or social custom declared as sacred and forbidden; breaking of the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. The term was borrowed from the Tongan language and appears in many Polynesian cultures. In those cultures, a tabu (or tapu or kapu) often has specific religious associations. Its first use in English was recorded by James Cook in 1777. When an activity or custom is classified as taboo it is forbidden and interdictions are implemented concerning the topic, such as the ground set apart as a sanctuary for criminals. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame, and rudeness. Taboos can include dietary restrictions (halal and kosher diets, religious vegetarianism, and the prohibition of cannibalism), restrictions on sexual activities and relationships (intermarriage, miscegenation, homosexuality, incest, zoophilia, pedophilia, necrophilia), restrictions of bodily functions (burping, flatulence), restrictions on the use of psychoactive drugs, restrictions on state of genitalia (circumcision, sex reassignment), exposure of body parts (ankles in the Victorian British Empire, women's faces in Saudi Arabia and Afghanistan, nudity in the US), and restrictions on the use of offensive language. No taboo is known to be universal, but some (such as the incest taboo) occur in the majority of societies. Taboos may serve many functions, and often remain in effect after the original reason behind them has expired. Some have argued that taboos therefore reveal the history of societies when other records are lacking. Taboos often extend to cover discussion of taboo topics. This can result in taboo deformation (euphemism) or replacement of taboo words. Marvin Harris, a leading figure in cultural materialism, endeavoured to explain taboos as a consequence of the ecologic and economic conditions of their societies. Also, Sigmund Freud provided an analysis of taboo behaviours, highlighting strong unconscious motivations driving such prohibitions. In this system, described in his collections of essays Totem and Taboo, Freud postulates a link between forbidden behaviours and the sanctification of objects to certain kinship groups.

Taboo and art

Many contemporary artists deal with taboo images and ideas including:
- Matthew Barney
- Maurizio Cattalan
- Damien Hirst
- Joel-Peter Witkin
- Bill Viola and
- Pedro Almodóvar
- Luis Buñuel
- Derek Jarman
- Tom Green

External links

- [http://www.avert.org/aidsstigma.htm Stigma, discrimination and attitudes to HIV]
- [http://samvak.tripod.com/taboo.html Review of taboos around the world and their history] Category:Sociology Category:Freudian psychology ja:タブー

List of state leaders in 1677

1676 state leaders - Events of 1677 - 1678 state leaders - State leaders by year -----

Asia

- China (Qing Dynasty) - Kangxi, Emperor of China (1662-1722)
- Japan -
- Monarch - Reigen, Emperor of Japan (1663-1687)
- Shogun (Tokugawa) - Tokugawa Ietsuna, Shogun of Japan (1651-1680)
- Korea (Joseon Dynasty) - Sukjong, King of Joseon (1674-1720)
- Mughal Empire - Aurangzeb, Mughal Emperor (1658-1707)
- Taiwan (Dongning) - Zheng Jing, Ruler of Dongning (1662-1681)

Europe

- Denmark - Christian V, King of Denmark (1670-1699)
- England - Charles II, King of England (1660-1685)
- France - Louis XIV, King of France (1643-1715)
- Holy Roman Empire - Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658-1705)
- Poland - John III Sobieski, King of Poland (1674-1696)
- Portugal - Pedro II, King of Portugal (1667-1706)
- Russia - Feodor III, Tsar of Russia (1676-1682)
- Scotland - Charles II, King of Scotland (1660-1685)
- Spain - Charles II, King of Spain (1665-1700)
- Sweden - Charles X, King of Sweden (1660-1697)
- United Provinces
- Estates of Groningen (province), Guelders, Friesland, Holland, Overijssel, Utrecht, Zeeland (1581-1795)
- Stadtholder - William III, Stadtholder of Guelders, Holland, Overijssel, Utrecht and Zeeland (1672-1702)

Middle East and North Africa

- Morocco - Al-Harrani, Abu'l Abbas Ahmad I, and Ismail, Joint Sultan of Morocco (1672-1684)
- Ottoman Empire
- Monarch - Mehmed IV, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1648-1687)
- Grand Vizier - Kara Mustafa, Ottoman Grand Vizier (1676-1683)
- Safavid Empire - Ismail II Shah of Iran (1676-1678) Category:1677 Category:Lists of state leaders by year

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1883-1942) was a Norwegian general and the first allied general to win a major victory agai

Sacred

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Sacred (game)

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Ancaria

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Holy

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Catholicism

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