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Sanctuary

Sanctuary

:This article is about the sanctuaries, for the band, see Sanctuary (band). Sanctuary has multiple meanings. A sanctuary is the consecrated (or sacred) area of a church or temple around its tabernacle or altar. In medieval law, a sanctuary was a place of religious right of asylum for felons on the run from the law. An animal sanctuary is a place where animals live and are protected.

Sanctuary as a sacred place

In Europe, Christian churches were usually built on a holy spot, generally where a miracle or martyrdom had taken place or where a holy person was buried. Examples are St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and St. Albans Cathedral in England, which commemorate the martyrdom of Saint Peter (the first Pope) and Saint Alban (the first Christian martyr in Britain), respectively. The place, and therefore the church built there, was considered to have been sanctified (made holy) by what happened there. In modern times, the Roman Catholic Church has continued this practice by placing in the altar of each church, when it is consecrated for use, a box (the sepulcrum) containing relics of a saint. The relics box is removed when the church is taken out of use as a church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the antimension on the altar serves a similar function. It is a cloth icon of Christ's body taken down from the cross, and typically has the relics of a saint sewn into it. In addition, it is signed by the parish's bishop, and represents his authorization and blessing for the Eucharist to be celebrated on that altar.

The Altar

The area around the altar was also considered holy because of the physical presence of God in the Eucharist (communion bread, which Catholics considered to have been 'transubstantiated" into the actual body of Jesus), both during the Mass and in the tabernacle on the altar the rest of the time. So that people could tell when Jesus was there (in the tabernacle), the "sanctuary lamp" would be lit, indicating that anyone approaching the altar should genuflect (bow by bending the knee and inclining the head), to show respect for Him. In most Eastern Orthodox churches, the sanctuary is separated from the nave (where the people pray) by an iconostasis, literally a wall of icons, with three doors in it. In many Roman Catholic churches, altar rails mark the edge of the sanctuary. The area around the altar came to be called the "sanctuary," and that terminology does not apply to Christian churches alone: King Solomon's temple, built in about 950 B.C., had a sanctuary ("Holy of Holies") where the tabernacle ("Ark of the Covenant") was, and the term applies to the corresponding part of any house of worship. Sanctuary can be a personal term; an individual can find or create a personal sanctuary.

Sanctuary in medieval law

Sanctuary was also a right to be safe from arrest in the sanctuary of a church or temple, recognized by English law from the 4th to the 17th century.

Right of asylum

Ark of the Covenant]] Many ancient peoples, including the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Hebrews, recognized a religious "right of asylum", protecting criminals (or those accused of crime) from legal action to some extent. This principle was adopted by the early Christian church, and various rules developed for what the person had to do to qualify for protection and just how much protection it was. In England, King Ethelbert made the first laws regulating sanctuary in about 600 A.D. By Norman times, there had come to be two kinds of sanctuary: All churches had the lower-level kind, but only the churches the king licensed had the broader version. There were at least twenty-two churches with charters for that kind of sanctuary, including Battle Abbey, Beverley (see image, right), Colchester, Durham, Hexham, Norwich, Ripon, Wells, Winchester Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, and York Minster. Sometimes the criminal had to get to the church itself, to be protected, and might have to ring a certain bell there, or hold a certain ring or door-knocker, or sit on a certain chair ("frith-stool"), and some of these items survive at various churches. In other places, there was an area around the church or abbey, sometimes extending as much as a mile and a half, and there would be stone "sanctuary crosses" marking the boundary of the area; some of those still exist today, too. Thus it could became a race between the felon and mediaeval law officers to the nearest sanctuary boundary, and could make the serving of justice a difficult proposition indeed. Church sanctuaries were regulated by common law. An asylum seeker was to confess his sins, surrender his weapons, and be placed under the supervision of the head of the church or abbey where he had fled. He then had forty days to make one of two choices: surrender to secular authorities and stand trial for the crimes against him, or confess his guilt and be sent into exile ("abjure the realm"), by the shortest route and never return without the king's permission. Anyone who did come back could be executed by the law and/or excommunicated by the Church. If the suspect chose to confess his guilt and abjure, he would do so in a public ceremony, usually at the gate of the church grounds. He would surrender his worldly goods to the church, and landed property to the crown. The coroner, a medieval official, would then chose a port city from which the fugitive should leave England (though the fugitive himself sometimes had this privilege). The fugitive would set out barefooted and bareheaded, carrying a wooden cross-staff as a symbol of his protection under the church. Theoretically he would stay to the main highway, reach the port and take the first ship out of England. However in practice, the fugitive could get a safe distance away, ditch the cross-staff and take off and start a new life. But there was one problem: we can safely assume the friends and relatives of the victim knew of this ploy and would do everything in their power to make sure this did not happen; or indeed that the fugitive never reached his intended port of call, a victim of vigilante justice under the pretense of a fugitive who wandered too far off the main highway while trying to "escape". Knowing the grim options, some fugitives rejected both choices and opted for an escape from the asylum before the forty days were up. Others simply made no choice and did nothing; since it was illegal for the victims friends to break into an asylum, the church would deprive the fugitive of food and water until a choice was made. Henry VIII changed the rules of asylum, reducing to a short list the types of crimes which were allowed to claim asylum. The mediaeval system of asylum was finally abolished entirely by James I in 1623.

Relating to political asylum

Main article: political asylum During the Wars of the Roses, when the Yorkists or Lancastrians would suddenly get the upper hand by winning a battle, some adherents of the losing side might find themselves surrounded by adherents of the other side and not able to get back to their own side, so they would rush to sanctuary at the nearest church until it was safe to come out. A prime example is Queen Elizabeth Woodville, consort of Edward IV of England: In 1470, when the Lancastrians briefly restored Henry VI to the throne, Edward's queen was living in London with several young daughters. She moved with them into Westminster for sanctuary, living there in royal comfort until Edward was restored to the throne in 1471 and giving birth to their first son Edward during that time. When King Edward died in 1483, Elizabeth (who was highly unpopular with even the Yorkists and probably did need protection) took her five daughters and youngest son (Richard, Duke of York; Prince Edward had his own household by then) and again moved into sanctuary at Westminster. To be sure she had all the comforts of home, she brought so much furniture and so many chests that the workmen had to knock holes in some of the walls to get everything in fast enough to suit her.

Animal sanctuary

Main article: Animal Sanctuary An Animal sanctuary is a place where animals live and are protected.

References

- J. Charles Cox (1911). The Sanctuaries and Sanctuary Seekers of Medieval England.
- John Bellamy (1973). Crime and Public Order in England in the Later Middle Ages.
- Richard Kaeuper (1982). "Right of asylum". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. v.1 pp.632-633. ISBN 0684167603 Category:Disambiguation Category:Social institutions

Sanctuary (band)

Sanctuary was a heavy metal band founded in Seattle, Washington in 1985 consisting of Warrel Dane (vocals), Lenny Rutledge (guitar), Sean Blosl (guitar), Jim Sheppard (bass), and Dave Budbill (drums). Former Metallica and Megadeth guitarist Dave Mustaine was the influential force in getting the band signed to Epic records. He produced their first album. The band was dissolved in 1991, with pressures from Epic records to change their style from heavy metal to following the then popular, grunge scene. Warrel Dane and Jim Sheppard disagreed with this change, and left to form Nevermore.

Discography

- Refuge Denied (1987)
- Into the Mirror Black (1990) Category:Heavy metal musical groups tey realesed another album on December 30, 2001

St. Peter's Basilica

The Basilica of Saint Peter, officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and colloquially called Saint Peter's Basilica, ranks second among the five major basilicas of Rome and its Vatican City enclave. The second largest church in Christianity, it covers an area of 23,000 m² (5.7 acres); and has a capacity of over 60,000 people. One of the holiest sites of Christendom, it is the burial site of basilica namesake Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus, first Bishop of Antioch, and later first Bishop of Rome. Tradition holds that his tomb is below the baldachino and altar; for this reason, many Popes, starting with the first ones, have been buried there. The current basilica was started in 1506 and completed in 1626, and was built over the Constantinian basilica. Although the Vatican basilica is not the Pope's official ecclesiastical seat (i.e. Saint John Lateran), it is most certainly his principal church, as most Papal ceremonies take place at St. Peter's due to its size, proximity to the Papal residence, and location within the Vatican City walls. The basilica also holds a relic of the Cathedra Petri, the episcopal throne of the basilica's namesake when he led the Roman church, but which is no longer used as the Papal cathedra.

History

The current location is probably the site of the Circus of Nero, where Saint Peter was buried upon dying on an inverted cross (tradition states Saint Peter was crucified at the site of the Tempietto) in AD 64. After Constantine I officially recognised Christianity, he started construction in 324 of a great basilica in this exact spot, which had previously been a cemetery for pagans as well as Christians. Old St Peter's was in many ways a typical early basilica-plan church, with a nave and two aisles. The crossing was above the altar, producing a "T" plan. The importance of the shrine to St Peter soon led to its design being copied, for instance at the Basilica di Santa Prassede. Over the years it was richly decorated with the wealth brought by the flow of pilgrims, but by the mid-15th century the south wall was in danger of collapse and it was decided that the basilica should be rebuilt. Pope Nicholas V asked architect Bernardo Rossellino to start adding to the old church. This was abandoned after a short while. In the late 15th century Pope Sixtus IV had the Sistine Chapel started nearby. The basilica in itself is an artwork composed of many valuable artistic elements. Construction started under Pope Julius II in 1505 and was completed in 1615 under Pope Paul V. Donato Bramante was to be the first chief architect. Many famous artists worked on the "Fabbrica di San Pietro" (as the complex of building operations were officially called). Michelangelo, who served as main architect for a while, designed the dome. After the death of Julius II building was halted until Pope Paul III asked Michelangelo to design the rest of the church. After Michelangelo's death his student Giacomo della Porta continued with the unfinished portions of the church. Carlo Maderno became the chief architect later on, and designed the entrance. In 1939, workers renovating the grottoes beneath St. Peter's, the traditional burial area of the popes, made a stunning find. Just below the floor level, they discovered an ancient Roman grave. It soon became clear that there wasn't just one grave, but an entire city of the dead. After many months of digging, the excavators came to a section of older graves, near the area underneath the high altar. Directly beneath the altar, they found a large burial site and a wall painted red. In a niche connected to that wall, they found the bones of a man. Nearly 30 years later, in 1968, Pope Paul VI announced that those bones belonged to St. Peter.

Details

St. Peter's Square

Directly to the east of the church is St. Peter's Square (Piazza San Pietro), built between 1656 and 1667. It is surrounded by an elliptical colonnade with two pairs of Doric columns which form its breadth, each bearing Ionic entablatures. This is an excellent example of Baroque architecture, where creativity is coupled with flexible guidelines. In the center of the colonnade, which was designed by Bernini, is a 25.5 m (83.6 ft) tall obelisk. The obelisk was moved to its present location in 1585 by order of Pope Sixtus V. The obelisk dates back to the 13th century BC in Egypt, and was moved to Rome in the 1st century to stand in Nero's Circus some 250 m (820 ft) away. Including the cross on top and the base the obelisk reaches 40 m (131 ft). On top of the obelisk there used to be a large bronze globe allegedly containing the ashes of Julius Caesar, this was removed as the obelisk was erected in St. Peter's Square. There are also two fountains in the square, the south one by Maderno (1613) and the northern one by Bernini (1675). Latitude 41°54'08"N, Longitude 12°27'26"E

The dome

1675 The dome or cupola was designed by Michelangelo, who became chief architect in 1546. At the time of his death (1564), the dome was finished as far as the drum, the base on which domes sit. The dome was vaulted between 1585 and 1590 by the architect Giacomo della Porta with the assistance of Domenico Fontana, who was probably the best engineer of the day. Fontana built the lantern the following year, and the ball was placed in 1593. As built, the double dome is brick, 42.3 m (138.8 ft) in interior diameter (almost as large as the Pantheon), rising to 120 m (394 ft) above the floor. In the pocket 18th century cracks appeared in the dome, so four iron chains were installed between the two shells to bind it, like the rings that keep a barrel from bursting. (Visitors who climb the spiral stairs between the dome shells can glimpse them.) The four piers of the crossing that support it are each 18 metres (59 ft) across. It is not simply its vast scale (136.57 m or 448.06 ft from the floor of the church to the top of the added cross) that makes it extraordinary . Michelangelo's dome is not a hemisphere, but a paraboloid: it has a vertical thrust, which is made more emphatic by the bold ribbing that springs from the paired Corinthian columns, which appear to be part of the drum, but which stand away from it like buttresses, to absorb the outward thrust of the dome's weight. The grand arched openings just visible in the illustration but normally invisible to viewers below, enable access (not to the public) all around the base of the drum; they are dwarfed by the monumental scale of their surroundings. Above, the vaulted dome rises to Fontana's two-stage lantern, capped with a spire. The egg-shaped dome exerts less outward thrust than a lower hemispheric one (like Mansart's at Les Invalides) would have done. The dome conceived by Donato Bramante at the outset in 1503, was planned to be carried out with a single masonry shell, a plan that was discovered not to be feasible. San Gallo came up with the double shell, and Michelangelo improved on it. The piers at the crossing which were the first masonry to be laid, which were intended to support the original dome, were a constant concern, too slender in Bramante's plan, they were redesigned several times as the dome plans evolved. Other domes around the world built since, are always compared to this one, which served as model: Saint Joseph's Oratory in Montreal, Quebec, St Paul's Cathedral in London, Les Invalides in Paris, United States Capitol in Washington, DC, [http://www.pbase.com/yardbird/image/26416677 Harrisburg, PA] , and the more literal reproduction at the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro, Cote d'Ivoire.

Entrances

Above the main entrance is the inscription IN HONOREM PRINCIPIS APOST PAVLVS V BVRGHESIVS ROMANVS PONT MAX AN MDCXII PONT VII (In honor of the prince of apostles; Paul V, citizen of Rome, Supreme Pontiff, in the year 1612 and the seventh year of his pontificate). The façade is 114.69 metres (376.28 ft) wide and 45.55 m (149.44ft) high. On top are statues of Christ, John the Baptist, and eleven of the apostles; St. Peter's statue is inside. Two clocks are on either side of the top, the one on the left is electrically operated since 1931, with its oldest bell dating to 1288. Between the façade and the interior is the portico. Mainly designed by Maderno, it contains an 18th century statue of Charlemagne by Cornacchini to the south, and an equestrian sculpture of Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) to the north. Entering The southernmost door, designed by Giacomo Manzù, is called the "Door of the Dead". The door in the center is by Antonio Averulino (1455), and preserved from the previous basilica. The northernmost door is the "Holy Door" in bronze by Vico Consorti (1950), which is by tradition only opened for great celebrations such as Jubilee years. Above it are inscriptions. The top reads PAVLVS V PONT MAX ANNO XIII, the one just above the door reads GREGORIVS XIII PONT MAX. In between are white slabs commemorating the most recent openings. | IOANNES PAVLVS II P.M.
PORTAM SANCTAM
ANNO IVBILAEI MCMLXXVI
A PAVLO PP VI
RESERVATAM ET CLAVSAM
APERVIT ET CLAVSIT
ANNO IVB HVMANE REDEMP
MCMLXXXIII – MCMLXXXIV
| IOANNES PAVLVS II P.M.
ITERVM PORTAM SANCTAM
APERVIT ET CLAVSIT
ANNO MAGNI IVBILAEI
AB INCARNATIONE DOMINI
MM-MMI
| PAVLVS VI PONT MAX
HVIVS PATRIARCALIS
VATICANAE BASILICAE
PORTAM SANCTAM
APERVIT ET CLAVSIT
ANNO IVBILAEI MCMLXXV
|In the jubilee year of human redemption 1983-4, John Paul II, Pontifex Maximus, opened and closed again the holy door closed and set apart by Paul VI in 1976. |John Paul II, Pontifex Maximus, again opened and closed the holy door in the year of the great jubilee, from the incarnation of the Lord 2000-2001. |Paul VI, Pontifex Maximus, opened and closed the holy door of this patriarchal Vatican basilica in the jubilee year of 1975. Image:Acrosstiber.jpg|The Basilica of Saint Peter as viewed from the Ponte Sant'Angelo Image:Facciata di San Pietro (febbraio 2005) resize.jpg|The facade of the Basilica of Saint Peter Image:stpetes.JPG|Giovanni Paolo Pannini painting of the entrance to the Basilica of Saint Peter Image:st peter_large.jpg|Interior view of the sanctuary from the dome towards the apse Image:Michelangelo Petersdom Pieta.JPG|The Pietà sculpted by Michelangelo

Interior

Walking along the right aisle of the basilica, there are several noteworthy monuments and memorials. The first is Michelangelo's Pietà, located immediately to the right of the entrance. After an incident in 1972 when an individual damaged it with an axe, the sculpture was placed behind protective glass. Up the aisle is the monument of Queen Christina of Sweden, who abdicated in 1654 in order to convert to Catholicism. Further up are the monuments of popes Pius XI and Pius XII, as well as the altar of St Sebastian. Even further up is the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, which is open during religious services only. Inside it is a tabernacle on the altar resembling Bramante's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio. Bernini sculpted this gilded bronze tabernacle in 1674. The two kneeling angels were added later. Further still are the monuments of popes Gregory XIII (completed in 1723 by Carlo Rusconi) and Gregory XIV. In the northwestern corner of the nave sits the statue of St. Peter Enthroned, attributed to late 13th century sculptor Arnolfo di Cambio (with some scholars dating it back to the 5th century). The foot of the statue is eroded due to centuries of pilgrims kissing it. Along the floor of the nave are markers with the comparative lengths of other churches, starting from the entrance (not an original detail). Along the pilasters are niches housing 39 statues of saints who founded religious orders. Walking down the left aisle there is the Altar of Transfiguration. Walking down towards the entrance are the monuments to Leo XI and Innocent XI followed by the Chapel of the Immaculate Virgin Mary. After that come the monuments to Pius X and Innocent VIII, then the monuments to John XXIII and Benedict XV, and the Chapel of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin. After that comes the Monument to the Royal Stuarts, directly opposite the one to Maria Clementina Sobieska. Symmetrically, the two monarchs who gave up their thrones for their Catholic faith in the 17th century, are honored side by side in the most important church in Catholicism. Finally, right before the end of the church, is the Baptistry. The right transept contains three altars, of St. Wenceslas, St. Processo and St. Martiniano, and St. Erasmus. The left transept also contains three altars, that of St. Peter's Crucifixion, St. Joseph and St. Thomas. West of the left transept is the monument to Alexander VII by Bernini. A skeleton lifts a fold of red marble drapery and holds an hourglass symbolising the inevitability of death. He is flanked on the right by a statue representing religion, who holds her foot atop a globe, with a thorn piercing her toe from the British Isles, symbolizing the pope's problems with the Church of England. Over the main altar stands a 30 m (98 ft) tall baldachin held by four immense pillars, all designed by Bernini between 1624 and 1632. The baldachin was built to fill the space beneath the cupola, and it is said that the bronze used to make it was taken from the Pantheon. Underneath the baldachin is the traditional tomb of St. Peter. In the four corners surrounding the baldachin are statues of St Helena (northwest, holding a large cross in her right hand, by Andrea Bolgi), St Longinus (northeast, holding his spear in his right hand, by Bernini in 1639), St Andrew (southeast, spread upon the cross which bears his name, by Francois Duquesnoy) and St Veronica (southwest, holding her veil, by Francesco Mochi). Each of these statues represents a relic associated with the person, respectively, a piece of The Cross, the Spear of Destiny, St Andrew's head (as well as part of his cross) and Veronica's Veil. In 1964, St Andrew's head was returned to the Greek Orthodox Church by the Pope. It should be noted that the Vatican makes no claims as to the authenticity of several of these relics, and in fact other Catholic churches also possess "the same" relics. Along the base of the inside of the dome is written, in letters 2 m (6.5 ft) high, TV ES PETRVS ET SVPER HANC PETRAM AEDIFICABO ECCLESIAM MEAM. TIBI DABO CLAVES REGNI CAELORVM (Vulgate, from ; "...you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church. ... I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven...."). Near the top of the dome is another, smaller, circular inscription: S. PETRI GLORIAE SIXTVS PP. V. A. M. D. XC. PONTIF. V. (To the glory of St. Peter; Sixtus V, pope, in the year 1590 and the fifth year of his pontificate). Vulgate At the apse of the church is the Triumph of the Chair of Saint Peter (1666) by Bernini, a focus of the Feast of Cathedra Petri celebrated annually on February 22 in accordance to the calendar of saints. The triumph is topped by a yellow window in which is a dove, portraying the Holy Spirit, surrounded by twelve rays, symbolising the apostles. Beneath it is the bronze encasing of the relic of the chair of St. Peter, given to the Vatican from Charles the Bald in 875. To the right of the chair are St Ambrose and St Augustine (fathers of the Latin church), and to the left are St Athanasius and St John Chrysostom (fathers of the Greek church). Further to the right is the monument to Urban VIII, by Bernini, and further to the left is the monument to Paul III.

Miscellaneous

Despite a frequent confusion due to the similar names, the church of San Pietro in Vincoli (famous for hosting the precious Michelangelo's "Moses") is a different church, situated on the other side of the Tiber river. The Guinness Book of Records currently lists Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro - which was largely inspired by St. Peter's Basilica - as the largest church, surpassing St. Peter's when it was completed in 1989. The validity of this, however, continues to be debated. The Emirates Palace hotel entrance hall dome in Dubai is said to surpass St. Peter's Basilica in height.

Notes and references

[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/11/1118_vaticanbasilica.html Inside the Vatican], a National Geographic Television Special

External links

- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=vatican&ll=41.901806,12.455138&spn=0.004081,0.007298&t=h&hl=en Satellite image of the Basilica]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/Lanciani/LANPAC/3
- .html#sec16 Circus of Nero and the old and new Basilicas superimposed, showing the tomb of Peter]
- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/roma/st_peter_basilica.htm St. Peter's Basilica, Rome] pictures and virtual reality movies
- [http://www.activitaly.it/inglese/monument/basilica_St_Peter_rome.htm Basilica of St. Peter, Rome by Activitaly]
- [http://www.stpetersbasilica.org stpetersbasilica.org] Maps, Photos, Books, Blog
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.902117,12.455578&spn=0.007981,0.012924&t=k&hl=en Google Maps] St. Peter's Basilica and Square on Google Maps Category:Baroque architecture Category:Vatican City Peter in Vatican ja:サン・ピエトロ大聖堂

St Albans Cathedral

What is usually called "St Albans Cathedral" is actually The Cathedral and Abbey Church of St Alban. It has the longest nave, at 106 metres, of any cathedral in England.

England's first Christian martyr

Saint Alban was a pagan living in the Roman city of Verulamium, where St Albans is now, in Hertfordshire, England, about twenty miles from London along Watling Street. Prior to Christianity becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire, local Christians were being persecuted by the Romans. Alban sheltered their priest, Saint Amphibalus, in his home and was converted to the Christian faith by him. When the soldiers came to Alban's house looking for the priest, Alban exchanged cloaks with the priest and let himself be arrested in his stead. Alban was taken before the magistrate, where he avowed his new Christian faith and was condemned for it. He was beheaded, according to legend, on the spot where the cathedral named for him now stands. The site is on a steep hill, and legend has it that his head rolled down the hill after being cut off, and that a well sprang up at the point where it stopped. A well certainly exists today and the road up to the Cathedral is named Holywell Hill. However the current well structure is no older than the late 19th century, and it is thought that the name of the street derives from the "Halywell" river and "Halywell Bridge", not from the well. [http://www.salbani.co.uk/Med%20Web/holywell_hill.htm] The date of Alban's execution is a matter of some debate, and is generally given as "circa 250" - scholars generally suggest dates of 209, 254 or 304.

History of the Abbey and Cathedral

A memoria over the execution point and holding the remains of Alban existed at the site from the mid-300s (possibly earlier), Bede mentions a church and Gildas a shrine. Bishop Germanus of Auxerre visited in 429 and took a portion of the, apparently still bloody, earth away. The style of this structure is unknown, Paris (see below) claimed that the Saxons destroyed the building in 586.

The Saxon buildings

Offa II of Mercia, who ruled in the 8th century, is said to have founded the abbey and monastery at St Albans. All later religious structures are dated from the foundation of Offa's abbey in 793. The abbey was built on Holmhurst hill, across the River Ver from the ruins of Verulamium. Again there is no information to the form of the first abbey. The abbey was probably sacked by the Danes around 890 and, despite Paris's claims, the office of abbot remained empty from around 920 until the 970s when the efforts of Dunstan reached the town. There was an intention to rebuild the abbey in 1005 when Abbot Ealdred was licensed to remove building material from Verulamium. With the town resting on clay and chalk the only tough stone is flint. This was used with a lime mortar and then either plastered over or left bare. With the great quantities of brick, tile and other stone in Verulamium the Roman site became a prime source of building material for the abbeys, and other projects in the area, up to the 18th century. Sections demanding worked stone used Lincolnshire limestone (Barnack stone) from Verulamium, later worked stones include Totternhoe freestone from Bedfordshire, Purbeck marble, and different limestones (Ancaster, Chilmark, Clipsham, etc.) Renewed Viking raids from 1016 stalled the Saxon efforts and nothing, or very little, from the Saxon abbey was incorporated in the later forms.

The Norman abbey

Much of the current layout and portions of the structure date from the first Norman abbot, Paul of Caen (1077-1093), the 14th abbot, he was appointed by the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc. Building work started in the year of Abbot Paul's arrival. The design and construction was overseen by the Norman Robert the Mason. The plan has very limited Anglo-Saxon elements and is clearly influenced by the French work at Cluny, Bernay, and Caen and shares a similar floorplan to St Etienne and Lanfranc's Canterbury - although the poorer quality building material was a new challenge for Robert and he clearly borrowed some Roman techniques, learned while gathering material in Verulamium. To take maximum use of the hilltop the abbey was oriented to the south-east. The cruciform abbey was the largest built in England at that time, it had a chancel of four bays, a transept containing seven apses, and a nave of ten bays - fifteen bays long overall. Robert gave particular attention to solid foundations, running a continuous wall of layered bricks, flints and mortar below and pushing the foundations down to twelve feet to hit bedrock. Below the crossing tower special large stones were used. The tower was a particular triumph - it is the only 11th century great crossing tower still standing in England. Robert began with special thick supporting walls and four massive brick piers, the four level tower tapers at each stage with clasping buttresses on the three lower levels and circular buttresses on the fourth stage, the entire structure masses 5,000 tons and is 144 feet high. The tower was probably topped with a Norman pyramidal roof, the current roof is flat. The original ringing chamber had five bells - two paid for by the Abbot, two by a wealthy townsman, and one donated by the rector of Hoddesdon. None of these bells have survived. There was a widespread belief that the abbey had two additional, smaller towers at the west end. No remains have been found. The monastic abbey was completed in 1089 but not consecrated until Holy Innocent's Day, 1115, by the Archbishop of Rouen. King Henry I attended as did many bishops and nobles. A nunnery was founded nearby in 1140. Internally the abbey was bare of sculpture, almost stark. The plaster walls were coloured and patterned in parts, with extensive tapestries adding colour. Sculptural decoration was added, mainly ornaments, as it became more fashionable in the 12th century - especially after the Gothic style arrived in England around 1170. In the current structure the Norman arches under the central tower and on the north side of the nave are the original ones, although the arches in the rest of the building are Gothic, following Victorian era restoration. The abbey was extended by Abbot John de Cella (1195-1214) in the 1190s, as the number of monks grew from fifty to over a hundred, the abbey was extended westwards with three bays added to the nave. The severe Norman west front was also rebuilt by Hugh de Goldclif - although how is uncertain, it was very costly but its 'rapid' weathering and later alterations have erased all but fragments. A more prominent shrine and altar to Saint Amphibalus were also added. The worked was very slow under de Cella and was not completed until the time of Abbot William de Trumpington (1214-1235). The low Norman tower roof was demolished and a new, much higher, broached spire was raised, sheathed in lead. Matthew Paris, a monk at St Albans from 1217, kept its chronicles; he died in about 1259. Eighteen of his manuscripts survive and are a rich source of contemporary information for historians. Nicholas Breakspeare was born in St Albans and applied to be admitted to the abbey as a novice, but he was turned down. He eventually managed to get accepted into an abbey in France. In 1154 he was elected Pope Adrian IV, the only English pope there has ever been. The head of the abbey was confirmed as the premier abbot in England also in 1154.

13th to 15th century

An earthquake shook the abbey in 1250 and damaged the eastern end. In 1257 the dangerously cracked sections were knocked down - three apses and two bays. The thick Presbytery wall supporting the tower was left. The rebuilding and updating was completed during the rule of Abbot Roger de Norton (1263-1290). On October 10, 1323 two piers collapsed dragging down much of the roof and wrecking five bays. Mason Henry Wy undertook the rebuilding, matching the Early English style of the rest of the bays but adding distinctly 14th century detailing and ornaments. The shrine to St. Amphibalus had also been damaged and was remade. In the 15th century a large west window of nine main lights and a deep traced head was commissioned by John of Wheathampstead. The spire was reduced to a 'Hertfordshire spike', the roof pitch greatly reduced and battlements liberally added. Further new windows, at £50 each, were put in the transept by Abbot Wallington, who also had a new high altar screen made.

The Dissolution and after

After the death of Abbot Ramryge in 1521 the abbey fell into debt and slow decay under three weak abbots. At the time of its surrender on December 5, 1539 the income was £2,100 annually. The abbot and remaining forty monks were pensioned off and then the buildings were looted. All gold, silver and gilt objects carted away with all other valuables, stonework was broken and defaced and graves opened to burn the contents. The abbey became part of the diocese of Lincoln in 1542 and was moved to the diocese of London in 1550. The buildings suffered - neglect, second-rate repairs, even active damage. Richard Lee purchased all the buildings, except the church and chapel and some other Crown premises, in 1550. Lee then began the systematic demolition for building material to improve Lee Hall at Sopwell. In 1551, with the stone removed, Lee returned the land to the abbot, the area was named Abbey Ruins for the next 200 years or so. In 1553 the Lady Chapel became a school, the Great Gatehouse a town jail, some other building passed to the Crown, and the Abbey Church was sold to the town for £400 in 1553 by King Edward VI to be the church of the parish. The cost of upkeep fell upon the town, although in 1596 and at irregular intervals later the Archdeacon was allowed to collect money for repairs by Brief in the diocese. After James I visited in 1612 he authorised another Brief, which collected around £2,000 - most of which went on roof repairs. The English Civil War slashed the monies spent on repairs, while the abbey was used to hold prisoners of war and suffered from their vandalism, as well as that of their guards. Most of the metal objects that had survived the Dissolution were also removed and other ornamental parts were damaged in Puritan sternness. Another round of fund-raising in 1681-84 was again spent on the roof, repairing the Presbytery vault. A royal grant in 1689 went on general maintenance, 'repairs' to conceal some of the unfashionable Gothic features, and on new internal fittings. The was a second grant from William and Mary in 1698. By the end of the 17th century the dilapidation was sufficient for a number of writers to comment upon it. In 1703, from November 26 to December 1, the 'Great Storm' raged across southern England, the abbey lost the south transept window which was replaced in wood at a cost of £40. The window was clear glass with five lights and three transoms in an early Gothic Revival style by John Hawgood. Other windows, although not damaged in the storm, were a constant drain on the abbey budget in the 18th century. A Brief in 1723-24, seeking £5,775, notes a great crack in the south wall, that the north wall was eighteen inches from vertical, and that the roof timbers were decayed to the point of danger. The money raised was spent on the nave roof over ten bays. Another Brief was not issued until 1764. Again the roof was rotting, as was the south transept window, walls were cracked or shattered in part and the south wall had subsided and now lent outwards. Despite a target of £2,500 a mere £600 was raised. In the 1770s the abbey came close to demolition, the expense of repairs meant a scheme to destroy the abbey and erect a smaller church almost succeeded. A storm in 1797 caused some subsidence, cracking open graves, scattering pavement tiles, flooding the church interior and leaving a few more arches off-vertical. Great Storm. Statues of Saint Alban and Saint Amphibalus stand on either side of the altar.]]

The 19th century

This century was marked with a number of repair schemes. The abbey received some money from the 1818 "Million Act" and in 1820 £450 was raised to buy an organ - a second-hand example made in 1670. The major efforts to revive the abbey came under four men - L. N. Cottingham, Rector H. J. B. Nicholson, and, especially, George Gilbert Scott and Edmund Beckett, 1st Baron Grimthorpe. In February 1832 a portion of the clerestory wall fell through the roof of the south aisle, leaving a hole almost thirty feet long. With the need for serious repair work evident the architect Cottingham was called in to survey the building. His Survey was presented in 1832 and was worrying reading, everywhere mortar was in wretched condition and wooden beams were rotting and twisting. Cottingham recommended new beams throughout the roof and a new steeper pitch, removing the spire and new timbers in the tower, new paving, ironwork to hold the west transept wall up, a new stone south transept window, new buttresses, a new drainage system for the roof, new ironwork on almost all the windows, and on and on. He estimated a cost of £14,000. Using public subscription £4,000 was raised, of which £1,700 vanished in expenses. With the limited funds the clerestory wall was rebuilt, the nave roof releaded, the tower spike removed, some forty blocked windows reopened and glazed, and the south window remade in stone. Henry Nicholson, rector from 1835 to 1866, was also active in repairing the abbey - as far as he could - and also uncovering Gothic features lost or neglected. In 1856 repair efforts began again, £4,000 was raised and slow moves started to gain th abbey the status of cathedral. Scott was appointed the project architect and oversaw a number of works from 1860 until his death in 1878. Scott began his efforts by having the medieval floor restored, necessitating the removal of tons of earth, and fixing the north aisle roof. The restored floors were retiled in matching stone and copies of old tile designs from 1872-77. A further 2,000 tons of earth were shifted in 1863 during work on the foundation and a new drainage system. In 1870 the tower piers were found to have been shockingly weakened with many cracks and cavities. Huge timbers were inserted and the arches filled with brick as an emergency measure, repair work took until May 1871 and cost over £2,000. The south wall of the nave was now 28 inches from straight, Scott reinforced the north wall and put in scaffolding to take the weight of the roof off the wall then had it jacked straight in under three hours. The wall was then rebuttressed with five huge new masses and set right. Scott was lauded as "saviour of the Abbey." From 1870-75 around £20,000 was spent on the abbey. In 1875 the Bishopric of St. Albans Act was passed and on April 30, 1877 the See of St Albans was created, which comprises about 300 churches in the counties of Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire. On June 12 of that year, Bishop Thomas L. Claughton (1877-1890) was enthroned. Scott was continuing to work on the nave roof, vaulting and west bay when he died on March 27 1878. His plans were partially completed by his son, John Oldrid Scott, but the remaining work fell into the hands of Lord Grimthorpe, who's efforts have attracted much controversy - Nikolaus Pevsner calling him a "pompous, righteous bully." Much of the immense £130,000 for the work was donated by Grimthorpe. Scott's work had clearly been in sympathy with the existing building, Grimthorpe's plans reflected the Victorian ideal - indeed he spent considerable time dismissing and criticising the work of Scott and the efforts of his son. Grimthorpe first directed the return of a nave roof matching the original high-pitched design, although the battlements added for the lower roof were retained. Completed in 1879 the roof was leaded, following on Scott's desires. His second major project was the most controversial. The west front, with the great Wheathampstead window, was cracked and leaning, and Grimthorpe, never more than an amateur architect, designed the new front himself - attacked as dense, misproportioned and unsympathetic, "his impoverishment as a designer... [is] evident," "this man, so practical and ingenious, was utterly devoid of taste... his great qualities were marred by arrogance... and a lack of historic sense". Counter proposals were deliberately substituted by Grimthorpe for poorly drawn versions and Grimthorpe's design was accepted. During building it was considerably reworked in order to fit the actual frontage and is not improved by the poor quality sculpture. Work began in 1880 and was completed in April 1883, having cost £20,000. Grimthorpe was noted for his aversion to the Perpendicular - to the extent that he would have sections he disliked demolished as "too rotten" rather than remade. In his reconstruction, especially of windows, he commonly mixed architectural styles carelessly (see the south aisle, the south choir screen and vaulting). He spent £50,000 remaking the nave. Elsewhere he completely rebuilt the south wall cloisters, with new heavy buttresses, and removed the arcading of the east cloisters during rebuilding the south transept walls. In the south transept he completely remade the south face, completed in 1885, including the huge lancet window group - his proudest achievement - and the flanking turrets, a weighty new tiled roof was also made. In the north transept Grimthorpe had the Perpendicular window demolished and his design inserted - a rose window of circles, cusped circles and lozenges arrayed in five rings around the central light, sixty-four lights in total, each circle with a different glazing pattern. Grimthorpe continued through the Presbytery in his own style, adapted the antechapel for Consistory Courts, and into the Lady Chapel. After a pointed lawsuit with Henry Hucks Gibbs, 1st Baron Aldenham over who should direct the restoration, Grimthorpe had the vault remade and reproportioned in stone, made the floor in black and white marble (1893), and had new Victorian arcading and sculpture put below the canopy work. Externally the buttresses were expanded to support the new roof and the walls were refaced. Unfortunately, as early as 1897, Grimthorpe was having to return to previously renovated sections to make repairs. His use of over-strong cement led to cracking, while his fondness for ironwork in windows led to corrosion and damage to the surrounding stone. Grimthorpe died in 1905 and was interred in the churchyard. He left a bequest for continuing work on the buildings.

The 20th century

John Oldrid Scott (d. 1913), despite frequent clashes with Grimthorpe, had continued working within the cathedral. Scott was a steadfast supporter of the Gothic revival and designed the tomb of the first bishop, had a new bishop's throne built (1903), commemorative stalls for Bishop Festing and two Archdeacons, and new choir stalls. He also repositioned and rebuilt the organ (1907). Further work was interrupted by the war. A number of memorials to the war were added to the cathedral, notably the painting The Passing of Eleanor by Frank Salisbury (stolen 1973) and the reglazing of the main west window, dedicated in 1925. Following the Enabling Act of 1919 control of the buildings passed to a Parochial Church Council (replaced by the Cathedral Council in 1968), who appointed the woodwork specialist John Rogers as Architect and Surveyor of the Fabric. He uncovered extensive death watch beetle damage in the presbytery vault and oversaw the repair (1930-31), he had four tons of rubbish removed from the crossing tower and the main timbers reinforced (1931-32), and invested in the extensive use of insecticide throughout the wood structures. In 1934 the eight bells were overhauled and four new bells added to be used in the celebration of George V's jubilee. Cecil Brown was architect and surveyor from 1939 to 1962. At first he merely oversaw the lowering of the bells for the war and established a fire watch, with the pump in the slype. After the war, in the 1950s, the organ was removed, rebuilt and reinstalled and new pews added. His major work was on the crossing tower, Grimthorpe's cement was found to be damaging the Roman bricks, every brick in the tower was replaced as needed and reset in proper mortar by one man, Walter Barrett. The tower ceiling was renovated as were the nave murals. Brown established the Muniments Room to gather and hold all the church documents. In 1972, to encourage a closer link between celebrant and congregation, the choir stalls and the massive nine-ton pulpit, and the permanent pews were dismantled and removed. The altar space was enlarged and improved, new 'lighter' wood choir stalls put in, and chairs replaced the pews. A new wooden pulpit was acquired from a Norfolk church and installed in 1974. External floodlighting was added in 1975. A major survey in 1974 revealed new leaks, decay and other deterioration and a ten-year restoration plan was agreed. Again the roofing required much work, the nave and clerestory roofs were repaired in four stages with new leading. The nave project was completed in 1984 at a total cost of £1.75 million. The clerestory windows were repaired with the corroded iron replaced with delta bronze and other Grimthorpe work on the clerestory was replaced. Seventy-two new heads for the corbel table were made. Grimthorpe's west front was cracking, again due to too strong mortar, and was repaired. A new visitors centre was proposed in 1970, planning permission was sought in 1973, there was a public inquiry and approval was granted in 1977. Constructed to the south side of the cathedral close to the site of the original chapter house of the abbey, the new 'Chapter House' cost around £1 million and was officially opened on June 8, 1982. The main building material was 500,000 replica Roman bricks.

Modern times

The current Bishop of St Albans is the Right Reverend Christopher Herbert (since 1995), and the current Archdeacon of St Albans is the Venerable Helen Cunliffe. On July 2, 2004, the Reverend Canon Dr Jeffrey John became the ninth Dean of the Cathedral. Robert Runcie, later Archbishop of Canterbury, was bishop of St Albans from 1970 to 1980 and returned to live in the city after his retirement; he is commemorated by a gargoyle on the Cathedral as well as being buried in the graveyard. Colin Slee, now Dean of Southwark Cathedral, was sub-dean at St Albans under Runcie and then Dean, Peter Moore. The bishop's house is in Fishpool Street, St Albans, as is the house of the Bishop of Hertford. The Reverend Canon Eric James, Chaplian Extraordinary to HM the Queen, was Canon at St Albans for many years. The post of organist and choirmaster has been held by a number of well-known musicians including Peter Hurford, Stephen Darlington, and Barry Rose. Since 1965 the Cathedral has been home to the St Albans International Organ Festival, whose competition winners include Dame Gillian Weir and Thomas Trotter. Among the persons buried at St Albans are Thomas de la Mare, who died at the age of 87 in 1396, having been abbot for 47 years, and Sir Anthony (or Antony) Grey, who died in 1480 and was the brother-in-law of Elizabeth Woodville, the queen consort of Edward IV of England. The brasses are still on their tombs, all the others in the church having been destroyed at the time of the Dissolution. The University of Hertfordshire holds graduation ceremonies in the cathedral and St Albans School holds regular services there.

Reference

- The Hill of the Martyr: an Architectural History of St. Albans Abbey, Eileen Roberts (Book Castle, 1993), ISBN 187119212

External links

- [http://www.stalbanscathedral.org.uk/ Official website of St Albans Cathedral]
- [http://www.stalbans.anglican.org/ Diocese of St Albans] Category:Buildings and structures in Hertfordshire Category:Visitor attractions in Hertfordshire Category:St Albans Category:Abbeys and priories in England Category:Cathedrals in the United Kingdom Saint Alban

Saint Peter

Saint Peter, also known as Peter, Simon ben Jonah/BarJonah, Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha—original name Simon or Simeon (Acts 15:14)—was one of the twelve original disciples or apostles of Jesus. His life is prominently featured in the New Testament Gospels. A Galilean fisherman, he (with his brother Andrew) was literally "called" by Jesus to be an apostle. Above all the other disciples, Peter was assigned a leadership role by Jesus (Matt 16:18; John 21:15–16); and indeed, he became a prominent leader within the early Church. Simon Peter is considered a saint by many Christians, and the first Pope by the Roman Catholic Church and its Eastern Rites. Other Christian denominations recognize his office as Bishop of Antioch and later Bishop of Rome, but do not hold the belief that his episcopacy had primacy over other episcopates elsewhere in the world. Still others do not view Peter as having held the office of bishop or overseer, holding the view that the office of bishop was a development of later Christianity. Furthermore, many Protestants do not use the title of "saint" in reference to Peter, believing instead in the sainthood of all believers. The Liturgy of the Hours records June 29, AD 69 as his date of death. However, the date is uncertain. Some scholars believe that he died on October 13, AD 64. He is traditionally believed to have been sentenced to death by crucifixion by the Roman authorities. According to tradition, Simon Peter was crucified upside down, and is buried in the grottoes underneath the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City. He is often depicted in art as holding the "keys" to the gates of heaven, as described in the Gospel of Matthew.

Name

Gospel of Matthew Peter's original name of Simon or שמעון comes from the Hebrew language meaning "hearkening and listening". In standard Hebrew it is pronounced as , and in Tiberian Hebrew it is pronounced as . According to New Testament gospels of Mark, Luke, and John, Jesus renames him "Petros" or Πετρος, which comes from the Greek meaning "pebble" or "piece of rock" (but can also be understood to be Matthew changing the feminine "Petra" to the masculine "Petros"). The name is also occasionally given in the Aramaic form "Cephas" (כיפא).

Life

Most reconstructions of Peter's life depend primarily on the New Testament; there are no other contemporary accounts of his life or death. According to the New Testament, before becoming a disciple of Jesus, Simon (i.e., Peter) Bar Jonah was a fisherman. He was originally a native of Bethsaida (John 1:44), the son of Jonah (Matt 16:17) or son of Jochanan (John 1:42). The synoptic gospels all recount how his mother-in-law was healed by Jesus at their home in Capernaum (Matt 8:14–17; Mark 1:29–31; Luke 4:38f), so we know he was married, but the name of his wife is not known. A number of later legends allege that he had a daughter. In one of his epistles, the apostle Paul of Tarsus also mentioned that Peter had a wife. While fishing in the Lake of Gennesaret, Simon was called by Jesus to be his follower (Matt 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–10; John 1:40–42), along with his brother Andrew. Seeing them cast a net for fish, Jesus is said to have told them, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men." Peter is often depicted as spokesman of the twelve disciples, and he and James and John seem to have formed the core of an intimate group which was "closest" to Jesus, present in many moments of special revelations, such as the Transfiguration. The gospels also state that Jesus foretold that Peter would deny him three times after Jesus' arrest. Again according to the Gospel of Matthew, on the evening before the Feast of Unleavened Bread (which is called the Passover), Jesus predicted to his disciples that they would "fall away" from him that night. Peter replied, "Even if all desert you, I will never desert you." Jesus answered, "In truth I tell you, this very night, before the cock crows, you will have denied me three times." Confronted after Jesus had been arrested, Peter did deny knowing Jesus to avoid being arrested himself. When he heard a cock crow, he remembered what Jesus had said, and wept bitterly (Matt 26:31–35, 69–75; Mark 14:26–31, 66–72; Luke 22:31–34,54–62; John 18:15–18, 25–27). However, after Jesus' resurrection, Peter is presented as meeting the risen Jesus. As Peter reaffirms his love for his master, Jesus reaffirms Peter's calling (John 21:15–17). Passover]] The author of the Acts of the Apostles portrays Peter as an extremely important figure within the early Christian community. Peter delivers a speech immediately after the event of Pentecost. Furthermore, according to the Acts of the Apostles, Peter takes the lead in selecting a replacement for Judas (1:15). Peter is twice examined, with John, by the Sanhedrin and directly defies them (4:7–22; 5:18–42). Once, Peter was arrested, but an angel appeared and miraculously secured his release. He undertakes a missionary journey to Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea (9:32–10:2). He is instrumental in the decision to evangelize the Gentiles (Acts 10), and he is present at the Council of Jerusalem, where Paul further argues the case for admitting gentiles into the Christian community without circumcision. From the early Christian writings, it is clear that Peter was considered one of the principal members, if not leaders, of the early community. Most of the gospels suggest that he was favored by Jesus. Although, since Peter does not reappear in Matthew's gospel after his denial of Jesus, a few scholars have suggested that for Matthew, Peter was an apostate. Perhaps the mystery is solved by the fact that Jesus appeared to Peter and charged him to return. After Acts turns its attention away from Peter and to the activities of Paul, Peter's movements are not recorded. It is clear that he lived in Antioch for a while, for not only did Paul confront him there (Gal 2:11f), but tradition makes him the first bishop of that city, and thus the first Patriarch of Antioch. Paul's account of his confrontation with Cephas might suggest that the latter was no more important than James, since envoys from James turn Peter away from eating with Gentiles. James was reportedly the leader of the Jewish Christian church at Jerusalem, and apparently Peter was deferring to James' authority, as did Barnabus, Paul's traveling companion. Some scholars interpret Paul's mention of Peter in 1 Cor 1:12 as evidence that Peter had visited Corinth. A far more insistent tradition, at least as early as the first century, is that he came to Rome, where he was martyred during the time of burning of Rome, as Nero wanted to put the blame of fire on Christians. The Gospel of John may be interpreted as suggesting that Peter was martyred by crucifixion ("when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will dress you and take you where you do not want to go" John 21:18), and Clement of Rome in his Letter to the Corinthians placed his death in the time of Nero. Later traditions hold that the Romans crucified him upside down by his request, as he did not want to equate himself with Jesus. On the way to his execution, it is said he encountered Jesus and asked, "Domine, Quo Vadis" ("Lord, where are you going?"). Other versions of this story claim that this occurred as Peter was fleeing Rome to avoid his execution, and that Jesus' response, "I am going to Rome, to be crucified again," caused him to turn back. This story is commemorated in an Annibale Carracci painting. The Church of Quo Vadis, near the Catacombs of Saint Callistus, contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was actually apparently an ex-voto from a pilgrim, and indeed a copy of the original, housed in the Basilica of St. Sebastian. This story is recorded in a number of places, notably the apocryphal Acts of Peter (35):

And as they considered these things, Xanthippe took knowledge of the counsel of her husband with Agrippa, and sent and showed Peter, that he might depart from Rome. And the rest of the brethren, together with Marcellus, besought him to depart. But Peter said unto them: Shall we be runaways, brethren? and they said to him: Nay, but that thou mayest yet be able to serve the Lord. And he obeyed the brethren's voice and went forth alone, saying: Let none of you come forth with me, but I will go forth alone, having changed the fashion of mine apparel. And as he went forth of the city, he saw the Lord entering into Rome. And when he saw him, he said: Lord, whither goest thou thus (or here)? And the Lord said unto him: I go into Rome to be crucified. And Peter said unto him: Lord, art thou (being) crucified again? He said unto him: Yea, Peter, I am (being) crucified again. And Peter came to himself: and having beheld the Lord ascending up into heaven, he returned to Rome, rejoicing, and glorifying the Lord, for that he said: I am being crucified: the which was about to befall Peter. (M.R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Clarendon Press, 1924.)

The ancient historian Josephus describes how Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. This is consistent with the ancient traditions about Peter’s crucifixion.

Roman Catholic Church

:Main articles: Primacy of Simon Peter, Primacy of the Roman Pontiff In Roman Catholic tradition, Peter is considered the first bishop of Antioch, and later bishop of Rome and therefore the first pope. The first epistle ends with "The church that is in Babylon, chosen together with you, salutes you, and so does my son, Mark." (1 Pet 5:13), but Babylon has sometimes been taken figuratively to mean Rome. The preterist view of the Book of Revelation concludes that Babylon is figurative for Jerusalem. It could also be a symbolic code name for Antioch or some other large city. More literally, it could refer to some city in Mesopotamia. The Roman Catholic Church makes use of his position as first bishop of Rome and Jesus' statement that Peter was the "rock" upon which he would build his community as the case for papal primacy. Numerous authors have noticed that the terminology of the commission is unmistakably parallel to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in Isa 22:15, 19–23. The popes are thus the successors of Peter and, as a result, retain his privileges given by Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew (Matt 16:18–19). (Protestants argue against this, saying that Jesus is the "petra" upon which God will build his church, and the "chief cornerstone", not Peter.) In honor of Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the Fisherman's Ring, which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The so-called "Keys of Heaven" or Papal Keys were, according to tradition, received by Peter from Jesus, marking Peter's role as head of the Christian faith on earth. Thus, the Keys are a symbol of the pope's authority still to this day. Controversy between Roman Catholics and Protestants still remains to this day on the interpretation of Matt 16:18–19. Protestant theologians try to resolve this question by looking at two words in the original Greek text: The word "Peter" and the word "rock." In the original language of the New Testament, the text reads: "You are Petros, and on this petra I will build my church." According to Protestants Matthew distinguished between Petros ("little stone" or "pebble") and petra ("bedrock" or "boulder"). Evangelical Christians believe that the Saviour told Simon Peter that he would build his church on Peter's confession, not on him. The Roman Catholic argument is that Peter was called Petros because he was male, and Petros is merely the masculinized form of the Greek word for "rock", Petra, which is a feminized form. Thus, the apparent dichotomy of Petros and Petra is merely a grammatical necessity. Furthermore, as renowned Catholic Apologist Karl Keating explains, 'Greek scholars—even non-Catholic ones—admit, the words petros and petra were synonyms in first century Greek. They meant "small stone" and "large rock" in some ancient Greek poetry, centuries before the time of Christ, but that distinction had disappeared from the language by the time Matthew’s Gospel was rendered in Greek. The difference in meaning can only be found in Attic Greek, but the New Testament was written in Koine Greek—an entirely different dialect. In Koine Greek, both petros and petra simply meant "rock."' Moreover, Catholics argue that although the gospel was written in Greek, the actual language Jesus spoke was likely Aramaic. In Aramaic the word for "rock" is Kepha, without masculinized/feminized forms. Therefore, Jesus would have stated, "You are Kepha, and on this Kepha I will build my church." This is attested to in the first chapter of the Gospel of John. St. Peter's Basilica is built at the site of Peter's alleged crucifixion, and beneath the main altar there is an altar dedicated to St. Peter. Recent excavations have discovered a burial chamber even deeper beneath this altar where one skeleton, which was missing its feet, was interred with special honor. Some archeologists propose that these are the actual remains of Saint Peter, supposing that after dying by crucifixion (upside down according to tradition), his feet were cut off to remove him from the cross. They also cite, among other things, the age of the deceased (60–70, which would be consistent with Peter's age), and the fact that a piece of plaster which had come off the marble-lined repository in which the bones were supposedly buried bore the Greek inscription PETROS ENI, "Peter is within". Pope John Paul II would always visit the altar of Saint Peter before leaving Rome on an apostolic journey.

His writings

The New Testament includes two letters (or epistles) ascribed to Peter. While neither demonstrates the quality of Greek expected from an Aramaic fisherman who learned it as a second or third language, a number of scholars argued that if his first epistle was not at least written by him with the help of a secretary or amanuensis, then its author was a close associate of Peter who not only knew his opinions well, but felt comfortable speaking in Peter's name. The Second Epistle of Peter is another possible case. This letter demonstrates a dependence on the Epistle of Jude, and some modern scholars date its composition as late as AD 250. However, this epistle is included in numerous early Bibles of around that time and before, such as Papyrus 72 (3rd century) and the Bible of Clement of Alexandria (ca. 200). See the following section for more detail. The Gospel of Mark is generally attributed as being the teachings of Peter, recorded by John Mark. According to Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History 3.39.14–16, Papias recorded this from John the Presbyter: "Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving a regular or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings. Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictitious into the statements." If this tradition is authentic, and Mark was the faithful amanuensis of Simon Peter, then very strong doubt is cast on Peter stories found in the NT but not in the Gospel of Mark, including the paean to Peter in Matt 16:17–19. If this were authentic, then Mark would certainly have included it, but it is found only in Matthew and nowhere else. However, Matthew was also an eyewitness to Jesus' sayings, and a companion of Peter.

Further detail on the authenticity of Second Peter

Until the early 4th century, there was controversy in the Western Church over the authorship of Second Peter. In the East as well, the work was not accepted universally for an even longer period; the Syriac Church only admitted it into the canon in the 6th century. It is to be noted, however, that the church historian Eusebius remarks on Origen's reference to the epistle before 250. In the collection of Cyprian's letters, the Bishop Firmilian speaks in favor of authenticity. Many scholars have noted the similarities between pseudo-Second Clement (1st century, related to Clement of Rome) and Second Peter. Several early church writers, the author of the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas among others, make allusions to the letter, which may give it an earlier priority. Second Peter may be earlier than AD 250, but there is no reference to it dating back to the first century or even the early second century, according to liberal scholars. The strongest evidence, they allege, that it is a late forgery is the reference in 3:15 to "our beloved brother Paul," and to Paul's writings as "Scriptures." Many historians believe that relations between Paul and Peter were tense, even antagonistic (see Gal 2:11), and it would thus be impossible that Simon considered his opponent's letters as "Scripture," which may give credence to the liberal argument (unless you take the possibility of Christian "forgiveness" into account; and that Peter may have had a "change of heart"). In fact, even for followers of Paul, the elevation of the Pauline epistles to scriptural status would have been far more gradual and slow. Regardless of doubt on the legitimacy of Second Peter, conservative scholars had insisted that it was written in the first century (not the second or even third century AD), and had long questioned the methods used by liberals. They also rejected the controversial claim that it was a forgery, which they argue is based on questionable textual criticism, and the fact that these liberal scholars do not apply these same textual criticisms to other ancient sources.

Pseudepigrapha

In Jewish folklore St. Peter has a pristine reputation as a greatly learned and holy man who stopped the establishment of the Sunday Sabbath for Gentiles instead of Saturday, Noel (as a new year feast but not as Christmas) instead of Hannukah, the Feast of the Cross instead of Rosh Hashana, Pascha instead of Pesakh, remembering the feast of the Jews instead of Sukkot, and the Ascension for them instead of Shavuot. R. Judah Ha-Hassid, who led Germany's 12th-century Hasidei Ashkenaz, considered him to be a Tzaddik (a Jewish saint or spiritual Master among Hasidim). The Tosaphist R. Jacob Tam wrote that he was "a devout and learned Jew who dedicated his life to guiding gentiles along the proper path". He also passed on the traditions that St. Peter was the author of the Sabbath and feast-day Nishmat prayer, which has no other traditional author, and also that he authored a prayer for Yom Kippur. There are also a number of other apocryphal writings that have been either attributed or written about Peter. They were from antiquity regarded as pseudepigrapha. These include:
- Gospel of Peter, a Docetic narrative that has survived in part
- Acts of Peter
- A Letter of Peter to Philip, which was preserved in the Nag Hammadi library
- Apocalypse of Peter, which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the fourth century
- The Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the Clementine literature

External links

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- [http://www.stpetersbasilica.org/tours.htm stpetersbasilica.org] Books on Peter in Rome
- [http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/Cephas.htm Etymology of Peter]
- [http://www.petrine-noahide.info The Jewish St. Peter]
- [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=790&letter=S&search=Simon%20Peter Jewish Encyclopedia: Simon Cephas] Peter Peter Peter Peter Peter Peter Peter Peter Peter ko:페트루스 ja:ペトロ

Alban

- Alban was the first British Christian martyr. See Saint Alban
- The Alban hills of Rome
- Alban is a town in Wisconsin. See: Alban, Wisconsin
- Alban is a township in South Dakota. See: Alban Township, South Dakota.
- Alban is a community in Ontario. See Alban, Ontario

Antimension

In the Orthodox liturgical tradition, the antimension (Greek "instead of the table") is one of the furnishings of the altar. It is a rectangular piece of cloth of linen or silk, decorated with representations of the entombment of Christ, the four evangelists, and scriptural passages related to the Eucharist, and a small relic is sewn into it. It is unfolded on the altar before the Anaphora, and the Eucharist is consecrated on it. The antimension must be consecrated and signed by the bishop, indicating his permission for the Eucharist to be celebrated in his absence. It is, in effect, the church's license to hold divine services. The antimension is a substitute altar. A priest may celebrate the Eucharist on the antimension even if there is no properly consecrated altar. In emergencies, war and persecution, the antimension therefore serves a very important pastoral need. Formerly if the priest celebrated at a consecrated altar, the sacred elements were placed on another cloth, the eiliton, equivalent to the western corporal. However, in current practice the priest always uses the antimension even on a consecrated altar, and the eiliton is now used to wrap the antimension when it is not in use. A wooden tablet, the ţablîtho, is the liturgical equivalent of the antimension in the churches of Syriac tradition. However, it is no longer used by the Antiochian Orthodox Church (which uses the antimension) or the Assyrian Church of the East and Chaldean Catholic Church. In the Ethiopian Tawahedo Church, the tâbot is functionally similar to the tablitho. However, this word is also used in the Ge'ez language to describe the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is symbolically represented by the manbara tâbôt ('throne of the Ark'), a casket that sits on the altar. The tabot itself, the wooden tablet, is taken out before the anaphora, and symbolizes the giving of the Ten Commandments. See also: tablitho; altar stone Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services Category:Eastern Orthodoxy Category:Prayer

Bishop

A bishop is an ordained member of the Christian clergy who, in certain Christian churches, holds a position of authority.

Meaning of bishop

The etymology of the word bishop comes from the Greek word episkopos (επισκοπος), which can be generally translated as bishop, overseer, superintendent, supervisor, or foreman. From the word episkopos are derived the English words episcopacy, episcopate and episcopal.

Bishops in the New Testament

The New Testament uses the word episkopos five times.
- Acts of the Apostles 20:28
- Epistle to the Philippians 1:1
- First Epistle to Timothy 3:2
- Epistle to Titus 1:7
- First Epistle of Peter 2:25 Words related to episkopos are used in two other verses. Some English Bibles translate this word as bishop (KJV, RSV, NRSV, etc.), while others, attempting to distance themselves from certain types of church hierarchy, use a more neutral alternative, such as "overseers" (NIV, ESV, etc.). The ministry of these New Testament episkopoi was not directly commissioned by Jesus, but appears to be a natural, practical development of the church during the first and second centuries AD. The portions of the New Testament that mention episkopoi do not appear to be ordering a new type of ministry, but giving instructions for an already existent position within the early church. In places (particularly in the verses from the Epistle to Titus) it appears that the position of episkopos is similar or the same as that of presbyter (πρεσβυτερος), or elder, and, later, priest. The Epistle to Timothy mentions deacons (διακονοι) in a manner that suggests that the office of deacon differs from the office of the bishop, and is subordinate to it, though it carries similar qualifications. In the Acts of the Apostles, episkopoi are mentioned as being shepherds of the flock, imagery that is still in use today. The other passages from the New Testament describe them as stewards or administrators, and teachers. In 1 Timothy episkopoi are required to be 'the husband of but one wife'. It is unclear whether this forbids men who have married a second time in series, or polygamists. However, it is clear that the New Testament has no prohibition against bishops marrying and having children. It is interesting to note that in the second chapter of the 1 Peter, Jesus is described as 'the Shepherd and Episkopos of your souls' (τον ποιμενα και επισκοπον των ψυχων υμων).

Bishops in the Apostolic Fathers

At the turn of the first century AD, the church started to acquire a clear organisation. In the works of the Apostolic Fathers, and Ignatius of Antioch in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important.

"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6:1.
"your godly bishop" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2:1.
"the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6:1.
"Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7:1.
"Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13:2.
"In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3:1.
"follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8:1.
"He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9:1.

— Lightfoot translation.

It is clear that, by this period, a single bishop was expected to lead the church in each centre of Christian mission, supported by a council of presbyters (now a distinct and subordinate position) with a pool of deacons. As the church continued to expand, new churches in important cities gained their own bishop, but churches in the regions around an important city were served by presbyters and deacons from the bishop's city church. Thus, in time, the bishop changed from being the leader of a single church to being the leader of the churches of a given geographical area.

Bishops and civil government

The efficient infrastructure of the Roman Empire became the template for the organization of the church in the fourth century, particularly after the Edict of Milan. As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy. In 391, Theodosius I decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned. The most usual term for the geographical area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the diocese, began as part of the structure of the Roman Empire under Diocletian. As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration. This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two popes: Pope Leo I in the fifth century, and Pope Gregory I in the sixth century. Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders. In the Eastern churches, latifundia entailed to a bishop's see were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring secular power was much weaker than in the West. However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called prince bishops, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages.

Sovereign bishops

prince bishop The most important of these prince bishops was the Pope, who ruled as monarch of the Papal States by virtue of his title as Bishop of Rome. His claim to this fief rested on the forged Donation of Constantine, but in fact his authority over this kingdom in central Italy grew slowly after the collapse of Roman and Byzantine authority in the area. The Papal States were abolished when King Victor Emmanuel II took possession of Rome in 1870 and completed the reunification of Italy. This became a perennial source of tension between the Papacy and the government of Italy. In 1929, Pope Pius XI made a deal with the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini and became the independent sovereign of the Vatican, while giving up any rights to the rest of the former Papal States. He was recognised as an independent monarch by the Lateran Treaties, an authority the current Pope continues to hold. The only other bishop who is a head of state is the Bishop of Urgell, a Co-Prince of Andorra. Three senior bishops served as Electors in the Holy Roman Empire. By the terms of the Golden Bull of 1356, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne were made permanent electors, who chose the next Holy Roman Emperor upon the death of his predecessor. The Archbishop of Mainz was President of the Electors and Archchancellor of Germany. Likewise, the Archbishop of Cologne was Archchancellor of Italy, and the Archbishop of Trier was Archchancellor of Burgundy. A number of other bishops within the Holy Roman Empire, although not being Electors, were sovereign prince-bishops in their own lands.

Bishops holding political office

As well as the Archchancellors of the Holy Roman Empire, bishops generally served as chancellors to mediaeval monarchs, serving as head of the justiciary and chief chaplain. The Lord Chancellor of England was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey by Henry VIII. Likewise, the position of Kanclerz in the Polish kingdom was always a bishop until the sixteenth century. In France before the French Revolution, representatives of the clergy — in practice, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries — comprised the First Estate of the Estates-General, until their role was abolished during the French Revolution. The more senior bishops of the Church of England continue to sit in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as representatives of the established church, and are known as Lords Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man, whose diocese lies outside of the United Kingdom, is ex officio a member of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man. In the past, the Bishop of Durham, known as a prince bishop, had extensive viceregal powers within his northern diocese — the power to mint money, collect taxes and raise an army to defend against the Scots.

Episcopacy during the English Civil War

During the period of the English Civil War (or rather, Civil Wars), the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy. John Calvin formulated a doctrine of Presbyterianism, which held that in the New Testament the offices of presbyter and episkopos were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession. Calvin's follower John Knox brought Presbyterianism to Scotland when the Scottish church was reformed in 1560. In practice, presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy. This vision of at least partial democracy in ecclesiology paralleled the struggles between Parliament and the King. A body within the Puritan movement in the Church of England sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines. The Martin Marprelate tracts, applying the pejorative name of prelacy to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended Elizabeth I and her Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift. The vestments controversy also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as "unedifying" and even idolatrous. King James I, reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted "No Bishop, no King" as a slogan; he tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as king, and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his own authority. Matters came to a head when King Charles I appointed William Laud as the Archbishop of Canterbury; Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Anglican liturgy on each church. The controversy eventually lead to Laud's impeachment for treason by a bill of attainder in 1645, and subsequent execution. Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland; the Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the Bishops' Wars in 1639-1640. During the height of Puritan power in the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, episcopacy was abolished in the Church of England in 1649. The Church of England remained Presbyterian until the Restoration of Charles II in