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Umber

Umber

Umber is a natural brown clay pigment which contains iron and manganese oxides. The color becomes more intense when calcined (heated), and the resulting pigment is called burnt umber. The name derives from Umbria, a mountainous region of central Italy, but it is found in many parts of the world. Some of the finest umber comes from Cyprus. It has been used as a pigment since prehistoric times. Chemical formula: Fe2O3 + MnO2 + nH2O + Si + Al2O3 See also: sienna, ochre, clay earth pigment

External links

[http://essentialvermeer.20m.com/palette/palette_umber.htm Discussion of umber and its use by Vermeer and other painters] Category:Pigments ja:アンバー (顔料)

Pigment

:For the drug referred to as "pigment," see black tar heroin. In biology, pigment is any material resulting in colour in plant or animal cells which is the result of selective absorption. Some biological material has so-called structural colour, which is the result of selective reflection or iridescence, usually done with multilayer structures. Unlike structural colour, pigment color is the same for all viewing angles. Nearly all types of cells, such as skin, eyes, fur and hair contain pigment. Butterfly wings typically contain structural colour, although many of them contain pigment as well. Creatures that have deficient pigmentation are called albinos. Because pigment colour is the result of selective absorption, there is no such thing as white pigment. A white object is simply a diffuse reflecting object which does not contain any pigment. In the coloring of paint, ink, plastic, fabric and other material, a pigment is a dry colorant, usually an insoluble powder. There are both natural and synthetic pigments, both organic and inorganic ones. Pigments work by selectively absorbing some parts of the visible spectrum (see light) whilst reflecting others. A distinction is usually made between a pigment, which is insoluble, and a dye, which is either a liquid, or is soluble. There is a well-defined dividing line between pigments and dyes: a pigment is not soluble in the vehicle while a dye is. From this follows that a certain colourant can be both a pigment and a dye depending on in which vehicle it is used. In some cases, a pigment will be made by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a "lake".

List of pigments

Heme/Porphyrin based


- Chlorophyll
- Bilirubin
- Hemocyanin
- Hemoglobin
- Myoglobin

Light emitting


- Luciferin

Lipochromes


- Carotenoids
  - Alpha and Beta Carotene
  - Cyanins
    - Anthocyanin
  - Lycopene
  - Rhodopsin
  - Xanthophylls
    - Canthaxanthin
    - Zeaxanthin
    - Lutein

Photosynthetic


- Chlorophyll
- Phycobilin

Other


- Hematochrome
- Melanin - Which causes human skin coloration
- Phthalocyanine blue
- Urochrome
- polyene enolates are a class of red pigments unique to parrots.

Painting pigments


- Alizarin (Alizarin Crimson)
- Bone black (also known as bone char)
- Cadmium pigments (Cadmium Green, Cadmium Red, Cadmium Yellow, Cadmium Orange)
- Caput Mortuum
- Carbon black
- Cerulean blue
- Chromium pigments (Chrome Green, Chrome Yellow)
- Cobalt pigments (Cobalt Blue)
- Crimson
- Fugitive pigments
- Gamboge
- Indian Yellow
- Indigo
- Ivory black
- Vine black
- Lamp black
- Mars black
- Lead pigments (Lead white, Naples Yellow, Cremnitz White, Foundation White, Red Lead)
- Paris Green
- Phthalocyanine (Phthalo Green, Phthalo Blue)
- Prussian blue
- Quinacridone (Quinacridone Magenta)
- Oxide Red
- Red ochre
- Sanguine
- Sienna (Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna)
- Titanium dioxide (Titanium White)
- Ultramarine (Ultramarine Green Shade, French Ultramarine)
- Umber (Raw Umber, Burnt Umber)
- Van Dyke brown
- Venetian Red
- Verdigris
- Vermilion
- Viridian
- Yellow ochre
- Zinc white

External links


- [http://webexhibits.org/pigments/ Pigments through the ages]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/733747.stm Earliest evidence of art found] ja:顔料

Manganese

Manganese is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Mn and atomic number 25.

Notable characteristics

Manganese is a gray-white metal, resembling iron. It is a hard metal and is very brittle, fusible with difficulty, but easily oxidized. Manganese metal is ferromagnetic only after special treatment. The most common oxidation states of manganese are +2, +3, +4, +6 and +7, though oxidation states from +1 to +7 are observed. Mn2+ often competes with Mg2+ in biological systems, and manganese compounds where manganese is in oxidation state +7 are powerful oxidizing agents.

Applications

oxidizing agents Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur-fixing, deoxidizing, and alloying properties. Steelmaking, including its ironmaking component, has accounted for most manganese demand, presently in the range of 85% to 90% of the total demand. Among a variety of other uses, manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel formulations and certain widely used aluminium alloys. It is also added to gasoline in order to reduce engine knocking. Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide) is used in the original type of dry cell battery. Manganese dioxide is also used as a catalyst. Manganese is used to decolorize glass (removing the greenish tinge that presence of iron produces) and, in higher concentration, make violet-colored glass. Manganese oxide is a brown pigment that can be used to make paint and is a component of natural umber. Potassium permanganate is a potent oxidizer and used in chemistry and in medicine as a disinfectant. The overall level and nature of manganese use in the United States is expected to remain about the same in the near term. No practical technologies exist for replacing manganese with other materials or for using domestic deposits or other accumulations to reduce the complete dependence of the United States on other countries for manganese ore. Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications.

History

Manganese (Latin magnes, meaning "magnet") was in use in prehistoric times; paints that were pigmented with manganese dioxide can be traced back 17,000 years. The Egyptians and Romans used manganese compounds in glass-making, to either remove color from glass or add color to it. Manganese can be found in the iron ores used by the Spartans. Some speculate that the exceptional hardness of Spartan steels derives from the inadvertent production of an iron-manganese alloy. In the 17th century, the German chemist Johann Glauber first produced permanganate, a useful laboratory reagent (although some people believe that it was discovered by Ignites Kaim in 1770). By the mid 18th century, manganese dioxide was in use in the manufacture of chlorine. The Swedish chemist Scheele was the first to recognize that manganese was an element, and his colleague, Johan Gottlieb Gahn, isolated the pure element in 1774 by reduction of the dioxide with carbon. Around the beginning of the 19th century, scientists began exploring the use of manganese in steelmaking, with patents being granted for its use at the time. In 1816, it was noted that adding manganese to iron made it harder, without making it any more brittle. In 1837, British academic Couper noted an association between heavy exposure to manganese in mines with a form of Parkinson's Disease.

Biological role

Manganese is an essential trace nutrient in all forms of life. The classes of enzymes that have manganese cofactors are very broad and include such classes as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, lectins, and integrins. The best known manganese-containing polypeptides may be arginase, Mn-containing superoxide dismutase, and the diphtheria toxin.

Occurrence

diphtheria Manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite (MnO2), and to a lesser extent as rhodochrosite (MnCO3). Land-based resources are large but irregularly distributed; those of the United States are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs. South Africa and Ukraine account for more than 80% of the world's identified resources; South Africa accounts for more than 80% of the total exclusive of China and Ukraine. US Import Sources (1998-2001): Manganese ore: Gabon, 70%; South Africa, 10%; Australia, 9%; Mexico, 5%; and other, 6%. Ferromanganese: South Africa, 47%; France, 22%; Mexico, 8%; Australia, 8%; and other, 15%. Manganese contained in all manganese imports: South Africa, 31%; Gabon, 21%; Australia, 13%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 27%. Manganese is mined in Burkina Faso. Vast quantities of manganese exist in manganese nodules on the ocean floor. Attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were abandoned in the 1970s.

Compounds

Potassium permanganate, also called Condy's crystals, is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties and finds use as a topical medicine (for example, in the treatment of fish diseases). Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide) is used in dry cells, and can be used to decolorize glass that is polluted by trace amounts of iron. Manganese compounds can color glass an amethyst color, and are responsible for the color of true amethyst. Manganese dioxide is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine, and in drying black paints. The most stable oxidation state for manganese is +2, and many manganese(II) compounds are known, such as manganese(II) sulfate (MnSO4) and manganese(II) chloride (MnCl2). This oxidation state is also seen in the mineral rhodochrosite, (manganese(II) carbonate). The +3 oxidation state is also known, in compounds such as manganese(III) acetate, but these are quite powerful oxidising agents.

Isotopes

Naturally occurring manganese is composed of 1 stable isotope; 55-Mn. 18 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 53-Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54-Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52-Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than 3 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states. Manganese is part of the iron group of elements which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before supernova explosion. Manganese-53 decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years. Because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is an extinct radionuclide. Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating. Mn-Cr isotopic ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the solar system. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotopic systematics must result from in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system. The isotopes of manganese range in atomic weight from 46 amu (46-Mn) to 65 amu (65-Mn). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 55-Mn, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.

Precautions

Manganese in excess is toxic. Exposure to manganese dusts and fumes should not exceed the ceiling value of 5 mg/m3 for even short periods because of its toxicity level. Acidic permanganate solutions will oxidize any organic material they come into contact with. The oxidation process can generate enough heat to ignite some organic substances. In 2005, a [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2005.01.043 study] suggested a possible link between manganese inhalation and central nervous system toxicity in rats. It is hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally-occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8.7 million Americans at risk. A form of Parkinson's Disease-type neurodegeneration called "manganism" has been linked to manganese exposure since the early 19th Century. Allegations of inhalation-induced manganism have been made regarding the welding industry. Listed on the Hazardous Substance List, manganese is regulated by OSHA due to its high level of toxicity.

See also


- Potassium permanganate
- Magnet
- Chemical element
- Periodic table

References


- [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/25.html Los Alamos National Laboratory – Manganese]

External links


- [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Mn/index.html WebElements.com – Manganese]
- [http://www.manganese.org International Manganese Institute]
- [http://www.onlinelawyersource.com/manganese/manganese_parkinsons.html Parkinson's Disease and Manganese]
- [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2005.01.043 Neurotoxicity of inhaled manganese: Public health danger in the shower?] Category:Chemical elements Category:Transition metals ja:マンガン th:แมงกานีส

Umbria

Umbria is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany to the west, the Marche to the east and Lazio to the south. The region covers 8,456 km² and has a population of 834,000 (2003 census). The region is named for the Umbri tribe, who settled in the region in the 6th century BC. Their language was Umbrian, a relative of Latin. The modern region of Umbria, however, is essentially a different region of Italy than that bearing the same name in Roman times (see Roman Umbria), which extended through most of what is now the northern Marche, to Ravenna, but excluded the west bank of the Tiber — and thus for example Perugia — which was in Etruria, and the area around Norcia, which was in the Sabine territory.

Geography

Umbria is mostly hilly or mountainous. Its relief is dominated by the Apennines to the east — accounting for the highest point in the region at the summit of Mt. Vettore on the border of the Marche (2476 m =  8123 ft) — and the Tiber valley basin, accounting for the lowest point at Attigliano (96 m = 315 ft). The Tiber forms the approximate border with the Lazio; although the remainder of its course northwards from its source just over the Tuscan border does lie in Umbria, the river is mercurial and thus over the centuries very few towns have been situated on it: the Tiber itself thus is not a major factor in the history and human geography of Umbria. The same cannot be said of the Tiber's three principal tributaries, each flowing in a generally southward course: they are responsible for much of the landscape of Umbria. Most of the course of the Chiascio takes it through relatively uninhabited areas until Bastia Umbra, and about 10 km later it flows into the Tiber at Torgiano. The Topino, cleaving the Apennines with passes that in Antiquity made the Via Flaminia possible and the main successor roads even today, makes a sharp turn at Foligno to flow NW for a few miles before joining the Chiascio below Bettona. The third river system is that of the Nera, flowing into the Tiber much further south, at Terni: its valley, called the Valnerina, is widely considered by Umbrians the most scenic area of Umbria. While the Nera flows more or less in isolation between rather high mountains, the lower course of the Chiascio-Topino basin widens out into a fairly large floodplain, which in Antiquity was actually a pair of shallow, interlocking, swamp-like lakes, the Lacus Clitorius and the Lacus Umber. They were drained a first time by the Romans over a span of several hundred years, but an earthquake in the 4th century and the political collapse of the Roman Empire resulted in the reflooding of the basin, which was drained a second time over a span of five hundred years: Benedictine monks from various abbeys in the region started the process in the 13th century, and it was completed on the private initiative of an engineer from Foligno in the 18th century.

The "green heart of Italy"

In tourist literature one sometimes sees Umbria called il cuor verde d'Italia (the green heart of Italy). The phrase, taken from a poem by Giosuè Carducci — the subject of which is not Umbria but rather a specific small place in it, the source of the Clitunno river, treasured since Antiquity as a beauty spot — is to a certain extent appropriate since the modern administrative region is the only one to have neither a coast nor a border with a foreign country, and, except for August and September, is notoriously green.

Provinces and towns

The regional capital is Perugia. The region is divided into two provinces: Perugia, with 59 comuni, and Terni, with 33 comuni. Notable towns and cities:
- Amelia (Italy)
- Assisi
- Città di Castello
- Deruta
- Foligno
- Gubbio
- Montefalco
- Narni
- Norcia
- Orvieto
- Perugia
- Spoleto
- Terni
- Todi

External links


- [http://www.regione.umbria.it/ Official Site of the Region of Umbria]
- [http://www.umbria.org Umbria.org]
- [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/maps/italy/tuscany.gif Map of Umbria]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Umbria/map.html Gazetteer of Umbria] (Bill Thayer's site)
- [http://cidoc.iuav.it/circe/igm/umb/img/umg0.htm IGM (Istituto Geografico Militare) Maps of Umbria]
- [http://global.umbria2000.it/ciecm/umbria.htm Umbria 2000]
- [http://www.bellaumbria.net/ BellaUmbria]
- [http://www.argoweb.it/umbria/umbria.it.html ArgoNet]
- [http://www.umbriaonline.com/ Umbria Online]
- [http://www.abcumbria.com ABC Umbria]
- [http://www.umbrialacarte.it Umbria A La Carte]
- [http://www.aboutumbria.com/ AboutUmbria.com]
- [http://www.umbriaeventi.it Umbria Eventi]
- [http://www.primitaly.it/umbria PrimItaly section on Umbria]
- [http://www.umbriaturismo.it Umbria Turismo]
- [http://cidoc.iuav.it/circe/igm/umb/img/umg0.htm IGM (Istituto Geografico Militare) Maps of Umbria]
- [http://www.umbriatourism.com/ Umbria Tourism]
- [http://www.umbriatravel.com/ Umbria Travel]
- [http://www.italianvisits.com/umbria/ ItalianVisits.com: Umbria]
- [http://www.slowtrav.com/italy/planning/where_umbria.htm SlowTrav section on Umbria] ja:ウンブリア州

Cyprus

:See also Cypress (a common misspelling) for other meanings. The Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κύπρος, Kýpros; Turkish: Kıbrıs; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is an island nation in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, 113 kilometres (70 miles) south of Turkey and around 120 km west of the Syrian coast.

Terminology

The name Cyprus has a somewhat uncertain etymology. One suggestion is that it comes from the Greek word "κυπάρισσος (kypa'rissos)" meaning "cypress tree" or even from the Greek name of the plant Lawsonia alba (henna), "κύπρος (kypros)". Another school suggests that it stems from the eterocyprian word for copper. Dossin, for example, suggests that it has roots to the Sumerian word for copper, "zubar" or even the word "kubar" (bronze), due to the large deposits of copper ore found on the island. Through overseas trade, the island has already given its name to the Classical Latin word for the metal, which appears in the phrase aes Cyprium , "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to cuprum. From there the word passed into European languages as "copper" in the English language, "cuivre" in French, "Kupfer" in German and "cobre" in Portuguese and in Spanish. Another probable suggestion is that it was named after the Greek goddess Aphrodite which was also called "Κυπρίς (kipris)". Note that Cyprus was the mythical birthplace of Aphrodite. Homer in his epics Iliad and Odyssey refers to the island of "Kύπρον (kypron)": “Μούσα μοι έννεπε έργα πολυχρύσου Αφροδίτης Κύπριδος” – “Muse sing to me the works of golden haired Aphrodite Cypridos”. It is also characteristic that in ancient times the name "Κύπρος (Cyprus)" in Greek was the first or second synthetic of names, such as: Αριστόκυπρος, Φιλόκυπρος, Κυπράνορας, Κυπροθέμης.

History

:Main article: History of Cyprus

Prehistoric and Ancient Cyprus

:Main article: Cyprus (Prehistory), Ancient history of Cyprus There are but scanty traces of the Stone Age, but the Bronze Age is characterized by a well-developed and clearly marked civilization. The people quickly learned to work the rich copper mines of the island. The Mycenæan civilization seems to have reached Cyprus at around 1600 B.C. and several Greek and Phœnician settlements that belong to the Iron Age can be found on the island. Cyprus was invaded by Thothmes III of Egypt about 1500 B.C., and was forced to pay tribute. Around 1200 B.C. begins the massive arrival of the Mycenæan Greeks as permanent settlers to Cyprus, a process which lasted for more than a century. This migration is remembered in many sagas concerning how some of the Greek heroes that participated in the Trojan war came to settle in Cyprus. The newcomers brought with them their language, their advanced technology and introduced a new outlook for visual arts. Thus from 1220 B.C. Cyprus has remained predominantly Greek in culture, language and population despite various influences resulting from successive conquests. In times Cyprus supplied the rest of the Greeks with timber for their fleets. In the 16th century B.C., Amasis of Egypt conquered Cyprus, which soon fell under the rule of the Persians when Cambyses conquered Egypt. In the Persian Empire, Cyprus formed part of the fifth satrapy and in addition to tribute it had to supply the Persians with ships and crews. In their new fate the Greeks of Cyprus had as companions the Greeks of Ionia (west coast of Anatolia) with whom they forged closer ties. When the Ionian Greeks revolted against Persia (499 BC) the Cypriots except for the city of Amathus, joined in at the instigation of Onesilos, brother of the king of Salamis, whom he dethroned for not wanting to fight for independence. The Persians reacted quickly sending a considerable force against Onesilos. The Persians finally won despite Ionian help. After their defeat, the Greeks mounted various expeditions in order to liberate Cyprus from the Persian yoke, but all their efforts bore only temporary results. Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) finally liberated the island from the Persians. Later, the Greek rulers of Egypt controlled it; finally Rome annexed it in 58-57 BC. No doubt the most important event that occurred in Roman Cyprus was the visit by Apostles Paul and Barnabas accompanied by St Mark who came to the island at the outset of their first missionary journey in 45 AD. After their arrival at Salamis they proceeded to Paphos where they converted the Roman Governor Sergius Paulus to Christianity. In this way Cyprus became the first country in the world to be governed by a Christian ruler.

Cyprus in ancient myth

Christianity Cyprus is the legendary birthplace of the goddess of beauty, love, sex and passion, the beautiful Aphrodite. According to Hesiod's Theogony, the goddess, who was also known as Kypris or the Cyprian, emerged fully grown from the sea where the severed genitals of the god Uranus were cast by his son, Kronos, causing the sea to foam (Greek: Aphros). The legendary site of Aphrodite's birth from the foam is at 'Petra tou Romiou' ('Aphrodite's Rock'), a large stack in the sea close to the coastal cliffs near Paphos. Throughout ancient history, Cyprus was a flourishing centre for the cultic worship of Aphrodite. Her birth was famously depicted by the artist Botticelli in The Birth of Venus.

Post-Classical and Modern Cyprus

Cyprus became part of the Byzantine Empire after the partitioning of the Roman Empire in 395, and remained so for almost 900 years. The Arabs pillaged the island in 646. In 654 a second, devastating Arab invasion took place. The island negotiated a relatively secure independence, but paid tribute to the Ummayads. After the rule of an independent Emperor (Isaac Comnenus), King Richard I of England captured the island in 1191 during the Crusades. Guy of Lusignan purchased the island from Richard in 1192. The Republic of Venice took control in 1489 after the death of the last Lusignan Queen, after which the Ottoman Empire conquered the Island in 1570. Cyprus was placed under British control on 4 June 1878 as a result of the Cyprus Convention, which granted control of the island to Britain in return for British support of the Ottoman Empire in the Russian-Turkish War. Famagusta harbour was completed in June 1906; by this time the island was a strategic naval outpost for the British Empire, shoring up influence over the Eastern Mediterranean and Suez Canal, the crucial main route to India. Cyprus was formally annexed by the United Kingdom in 1913 in the run-up to the First World War. Many Cypriots, now British subjects, signed up to fight in the British Army, in this and in the Second World War. During the 1940s and 1950s, Cypriots began to demand union with Greece. The Greek community held referenda in support of annexation, while the British sought to quell any movement which could threaten their possession of the island. In 1955 the struggle erupted into guerrilla activity with the foundation of EOKA, and in the closing years of the 1950s the political and intercommunal atmosphere on the island became increasingly fraught. Independence was attained in 1960 after exhaustive negotiations between the United Kingdom, as the colonial power, and Greece and Turkey, the cultural 'motherlands' for the two communities on Cyprus. The constitution produced by the negotiations was a biding document allocating government posts and public offices by ethnic quota. The constitution did not promote a healthy relationship between the residents of the island. The first President was the Greek Cypriot leader Archbishop Makarios III, and his Vice President was the leading Turkish Cypriot politician Dr Fazıl Küçük.

Post-independence

Dr Fazıl Küçük :Main article: Cyprus dispute During the 1960s, Makarios and Küçük pursued a non-aligned foreign policy, cultivating good relations with the Britain, Greece and Turkey and taking a leading role in developing the Non-Aligned Movement. However, by 1974 dissatisfaction among right-wing elements in favour of the long-term goal of Enosis - union with Greece - precipitated a coup d'etat against Makarios which was sponsored by Greece and led by the Cypriot National Guard. The new regime replaced Makarios with Nikos Giorgiades Sampson as president, and Bishop Gennadios as head of the Cypriot Orthodox Church. Diplomacy failed to resolve the crisis. Turkey invaded Cyprus by sea and air on 20 July, 1974, asserting its right to protect the Turkish Cypriot minority. Talks in Geneva involving Greece, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the two Cypriot factions failed in mid-August, and the Turks subsequently moved to gain control of 37% of the island's territory. Upwards of 200,000 Cypriots were uprooted, with Greek Cypriots forced to flee from the Turkish-controlled north and Turkish Cypriots displaced from the south. Greece made no armed response to the superior Turkish force but bitterly suspended military participation in the NATO alliance. The tension continued after Makarios returned to the presidency on December 7, 1974. He accepted a bizonal bicommunal federation as the form of a future state, but rejected any solution "involving transfer of populations and amounting to partition of Cyprus." The events of the summer of 1974 have dominated Cypriot politics ever since and have been a major point of contention between Greece and Turkey. After 1974 there were near-continual efforts to negotiate a settlement, which met with varying levels of hostility from either side. Turkish Cypriots proclaimed a separate state under Rauf Denktash on November 15, 1983, naming it the “Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.” The UN Security Council, in its Resolution 541 of November 18, 1983, declared the action illegal and called for withdrawal. Turkey is to date the only country to recognise the government of northern Cyprus. Conversely, it continues to reject calls to recognise the Republic of Cyprus as the sole legitimate government of Cyprus, and this political point has caused strained relations with the European Union. Relations in the eastern Mediterranean were particularly frayed in the mid-1990s, especially after the acquisition by the Cypriot government of Russian missiles in 1997 which were capable of reaching the Turkish coast. The S-300 missiles, in fact, never arrived in Cyprus but stayed on the neighbouring island of Crete. In April 2005, Turkish Cypriots elected Mehmet Ali Talat as their leader to succeed the retiring long-time leader Rauf Denktash, who staunchly opposed reunification. In contrast, Talat has been a keen supporter of reunification and subsequently the recently proposed "Annan Plan".

Geography

Mehmet Ali Talat :Main article: Geography of Cyprus Cyprus is geographically close to the Middle East (see also Southwest Asia and Near East) and due to the island's geographic proximity is often included in the region, though politically and culturally it is closely aligned with Europe, in particular Greece and to a lesser extent Turkey. Historically, Cyprus has been at the crossroads between Europe, Southwest Asia, and North Africa, with lengthy periods of mainly Greek and intermittent Levantine, Anatolian and British influences. The central plain (Mesaoria) with the Kyrenia and Pentadactylos mountains to the north and the Troodos mountain range to the south and west. There are also scattered but significant plains along the southern coast. The climate is temperate and Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and cool, variably rainy winters. The capital city, Nicosia, is located to the north-east of the centre of the island. All the other major cities are situated on the coast: Paphos to the south-west, Limassol to the south, Larnaca to the south-east, Famagusta to the east and Kyrenia to the north. See also:
- List of cities in Cyprus, Greek and Turkish names

Politics

:Main article: Politics of Cyprus After independence Cyprus became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement despite all three guarantor powers (Greece, Turkey and the UK) being NATO members. Cyprus left the Non-Aligned Movement in 2004 to join the EU. The 1960 Cypriot Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances, including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive, for example, was headed by a Greek Cypriot president, Archbishop Makarios III, and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, Dr Fazıl Küçük, elected by their respective communities for 5-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions. The House of Representatives was elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls. Since 1964, following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish seats in the House have been vacant after their withdrawal from the government, and the Greek Cypriot Communal Chamber was abolished. The responsibilities of the chamber were transferred to the newfounded Ministry of Education. By 1967, when a military junta had seized power in Greece, the political impetus for enosis had faded, partly as a result of the non-aligned foreign policy of Cypriot President Makarios. Enosis remained an ideological goal, despite being pushed significantly further down the political agenda. Dissatisfaction in Greece with Makarios's perceived failure to deliver on earlier promises of enosis convinced the Greek colonels to sponsor the 1974 coup in Nicosia. Turkey responded by invading Cyprus in a move not approved by the other two international guarantor powers, Greece and the United Kingdom. Turkey did not use its authority as a guarantor to restore the status quo before the coup. Claiming to be responding to an imminent threat to the Republic of Cyprus and the need to protect the Turkish minority in Cyprus from attacks by Greek militias, it captured the northern third of the island, causing 180,000 Greek Cypriots to flee to the south. 55,000 Turkish Cypriots subsequently relocated from the south to the north (see Cyprus dispute). Many thousands of others, from both sides, left the island entirely. Subseqently, the Turkish Cypriots established their own seperatist institutions with a popularly elected de facto President and a Prime Minister responsible to the National Assembly exercising joint executive powers. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriots declared an independent "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC), an action opposed by the United Nations Security Council. In 1985, the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections. See also:
- Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
- Foreign relations of Cyprus
- List of political parties in Cyprus
- Military of Cyprus

Political division

Cyprus gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, with the UK, Greece and Turkey retaining limited rights to intervene in internal affairs. Since 1974, Cyprus has been divided, de facto, into the Greek-Cypriot controlled southern two-thirds of the island and the Turkish-occupied northern one-third. The Republic of Cyprus is the internationally recognised government of Cyprus, which controls the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkey aside, all foreign governments and the United Nations recognise the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the whole island of Cyprus. United Nations The Turkish Cypriot administration of the northern part of the island, together with Turkey, does not accept the Republic's rule over the whole island and refer to it as the "Greek Authority of Southern Cyprus". Its territory, the status of which remains disputed, extends over the northern third of the island. The north proclaimed its independence in 1975, and the self-styled Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was established in 1983. This state was recognised only by Turkey. The Organization of the Islamic Conference granted it observer member status under the name of "Turkish Cypriot State". The other power with territory on Cyprus is the United Kingdom. Under the independence agreement, the UK retained title to two areas on the southern coast of the island, around Akrotiri and Dhekelia, known collectively as the UK sovereign base areas. They are used as military bases.

Exclaves and enclaves

Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia. The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotimbou. Additionally there is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an enclave like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an enclave —although it has no territorial waters of its own [http://geosite.jankrogh.com/cyprus.htm]. The United Nations (UN) buffer zone separating the territory controlled by the Turkish Cypriot administration from the rest of Cyprus runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side, off of Ayios Nikolaos (connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor). In that sense, the buffer zone turns the south-east corner of the island, the Paralimni area, into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave.

Reunification, the Annan Plan and EU entry

The results of early negotiations between the Greek and Turkish sides resulted in a broad agreement in principle to reunification as a bi-cameral, bi-zonal federation with territory allocated to the Greek and Turkish communities within a united island. However, agreement was never reached on the finer details, and the two sides often met deadlock over the following points, among others: The Turkish side:
- favoured a weak central government presiding over two sovereign states in voluntary assocation, a legacy of earlier fears of domination by the majority Greek Cypriots; and
- opposed plans for demilitarisation, citing security concerns. The Greek side:
- took a strong line on the right of return for refugees to properties vacated in the 1974 displacement of Cypriots on both sides;
- took a dim view of any proposals which did not allow for the repatriation of Turkish settlers from the mainland who had emigrated to Cyprus since 1974; and
- supported a stronger central government. The continued difficulties in finding a settlement presented a potential obstacle to Cypriot entry to the European Union, for which the government had applied in 1997. UN-sponsored talks between the Greek and Turkish leaders, Glafkos Klerides and Rauf Denktash, continued intensively in 2002, but without resolution. In December 2002 the EU formally invited Cyprus to join in 2004, insisting that EU membership would apply to the whole island and hoping that it would provide a significant enticement for reunification resulting from the outcome of ongoing talks. However, weeks before the UN deadline, Klerides was defeated in presidential elections by right-wing candidate Tassos Papadopoulos. Papadopoulos had a reputation as a hard-liner on reunification and had rejected previous UN attempts to reunify the island. By mid-March, the UN declared that the talks had failed. A United Nations plan sponsored by Secretary-General Kofi Annan was announced on 31 March 2004, based on what progress had been made during the talks in Switzerland and fleshed out by the UN, was put to both sides in separate referenda on 24 April 2004. The Greek side overwhelmingly rejected the Annan Plan, and the Turkish side voted in favour. In May 2004, Cyprus entered the EU, although in practice membership only applies to the southern part of the island. In acknowledgement of the Turkish Cypriot community's support for reunification, however, the EU made it clear that trade concessions would be reached to stimulate economic growth in the north, and remains committed to reunification under acceptable terms. See also:
- Annan Plan
- 2004 referendum
- Cyprus dispute
- UN Buffer Zone on Cyprus.

Economy

:Main article: Economy of Cyprus Economic affairs in Cyprus are dominated by the division of the country into the southern (Greek) area controlled by the Cyprus Government and the northern Turkish Cypriot-administered area. The Greek Cypriot economy is prosperous but highly susceptible to external shocks. Erratic growth rates in the 1990s reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in Western Europe. Economic policy in the south in the years leading up to 2005 focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union. As in the Turkish sector, water shortage is a growing problem, and several desalination plants are planned. Recently, oil has been discovered in the sea South of Cyprus (between Cyprus and Egypt) and talks are under way with Egypt to reach an agreement as to the exploitation of these resources. The level of the oil field in terms of production (barrels per day) that the two countries will be able to produce is still a matter of speculation. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-fifth the population and one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognised only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the Turkish lira is legal tender. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to tourism, education, industry, etc. Eventual adoption of the euro currency is required of all new countries joining the European Union, and the Cyprus government currently intends to adopt the currency on 1 January 2008.

Demographics

:Main article: Demographics of Cyprus Greek and Turkish Cypriots share many customs but maintain their ethnicity based on religion, language, and close ties with their respective motherlands. The major part of Greek Cypriots are Eastern Orthodox Christians, whereas Turkish Cypriots are Muslims. Greek is the predominant language in the south, Turkish in the north. This delineation is only reflective of the post-1974 division of the island, which involved an expulsion of Greek Cypriots from the north and the analoguous move of Turkish Cypriots from the south. Historically however, Greek and Turkish (the Cypriot dialects) were largely evenly distributed throughout the island, although Greek-speakers were in a substantial majority (82%). English is widely understood, and is taught in schools from primary age.

Education

Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. Unlike in other countries, state schools are generally seen as equivalent or better in quality of education than private sector institutions. The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, EU & US universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and Australia. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities. According to the 1960 constitution, education is under the control of the two communities (the communal chambers). State education was based on nationalisation of existing community supported schools from the colonial period. Thus following 1974 the Cypriot system follows the Greek system in the south, in other words providing their students with an apolytirion, and the Turkish system in the north. A large number of students after sitting for A-levels and/or SATs study abroad, mainly in English speaking countries such as the US or UK, but also in other European destinations such as France and Germany. Traditionally the left wing party AKEL provided scholarships for its members to study in Eastern Europe. Eastern European countries, especially Bulgaria and Hungary, are still popular destinations for students .
- [http://www.ucy.ac.cy University of Cyprus]
- [http://www.tucy.ac.cy Technical University of Cyprus]
- [http://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/hti/hti.nsf/dmlindex_en/dmlindex_en?OpenDocument Higher Technical Institute] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia
- [http://www.cycollege.ac.cy Cyprus College] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia
- [http://www.intercollege.ac.cy/ Intercollege] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia and Larnaca
- [http://www.fit.ac.cy/ The Frederick institute] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia and Limassol
- [http://www.philips.ac.cy/ Philips College] (taught in English/Greek) situated in Nicosia
- [http://www.ac.ac.cy/ Americanos College] (taught in English/Greek) situated in Nicosia Also on the Turkish Side:
- [http://www.emu.edu.tr/ Eastern Mediterranean University ] (taught in English) in Famagusta (Gazi Magosa)
- [http://www.gau.edu.tr/ Girne American University ] (taught in English) in Kyrenia
- [http://www.neu.edu.tr/ Near East University ] (taught in English) in Nicosia
- [http://www.ciu.edu.tr/ International Cyprus University ] (taught in English) in Nicosia
- [http://www.lefke.edu.tr/ European University of Lefke] (taught in English) in Lefka
- [http://ncc.metu.edu.tr/ Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus ] (taught in English) in Kalkanli

Miscellaneous


- Communications in Cyprus
- Holidays in Cyprus
- List of Cypriots
- Military of Cyprus
- Music of Cyprus
- Alexander the Great
- Transportation in Cyprus
- Districts of Cyprus

External links

Government
- [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/ Republic of Cyprus]
- [http://www.moi.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/index_en/index_en?opendocument# Press and Information Office]
- [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/0/AC8717AD3CF09FC1C2256FC8003AFBD8?OpenDocument&languageNo=1 Religious Groups in Cyprus]
- [http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/index_en/index_en?OpenDocument Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus] General information
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cy.html CIA World Factbook - Cyprus]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/eur/ci/cy/ US State Department - Cyprus] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Cyprus/ Open Directory Project - Cyprus] directory category
- [http://cyprus.angloinfo.com/ AngloINFO Cyprus - information in English]
- [http://www.ikypros.com/ Portal about villages in Greek]
- [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/cyprus/indexcyprus.asp Cyprus taxes, business and economy].
- [http://www.phigita.net/ Cyprus Blogs & News]
- [http://www.cyprus-hotelguide.com/ Cyprus Hotel and Travel Guide ]
- [http://www.willgoto.com/246/1/categories.aspx Travel guide to Cyprus] Category:Middle Eastern countries Category:Southwest Asian countries Category:European Union member states Category:Bicontinental countries Category:Phoenician colonies Category:Hellenistic colonies zh-min-nan:Kypros ko:키프로스 ms:Cyprus ja:キプロス simple:Cyprus th:ประเทศไซปรัส fiu-vro:Küprüs

Ochre

Ochre or Ocher (pronounced OAK-ur, from the Greek ochros, yellow) is a color, usually described as golden-yellow or light yellow brown.

Pigment

color As a painting pigment it exists in at least three forms:
- yellow ochre, Fe2O3 • H2O, a hydrated Iron oxide
- red ochre, Fe2O3, chemically identical to yellow ochre, but reddened through heating
- brown ochre (Goethite), also partly hydrated iron oxide (rust) For further information, see the articles on the individual ochres. They are found throughout the world in many shades. Many sources consider the best brown ochre to come from Cyprus, and the best yellow and red ochre from Roussillon, France. All have been used since prehistoric times, and are some of oldest pigments used.

See also


- clay earth pigment
- List of colors

Further reading


- [http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/redochre.html Red Ochre], [http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/yellowochre.html Yellow ochre], and [http://webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/brownochre.html Brown ochre], from Pigments through the ages.
- Fuller, Carl; Natural Colored Iron Oxide Pigments, pp. 281-6. In: Pigment Handbook, 2nd Edition. Lewis, P. (ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
- Thomas, Anne Wall. Colors From the Earth, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980. Category:Shades of brown

Category:Pigments

:See also the category Dyes. Category:Chemical compounds Category:Art materials

Punia

Punia - miestelis Alytaus rajone, Punios seniūnijoje, prie Nemuno kranto. Priskiriamas prie 14 ankstyvųjų LDK miestų, beveik 400 metų turėjo Magdeburgo teises. Pirmąkart minima 1382 m. 1425 m. pastatyta bažnyčia.

Nuoroda

[http://punia.puslapiai.lt/ Punios tinklalapis] category:Lietuvos gyvenvietės

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