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Abdel Kadir

Abdel Kadir

`Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī (6 September 1808 - 26 May 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري) was an Algerian military leader who led a struggle against the French invasion in the mid-nineteenth century, for which he is seen as a Algerian national hero. (He is frequently known only by his first name, `Abd al-Qādir, which is variously spelled Abd al-Kadir, Abdel Kader, Abdelkader, etc.; he is also given the titles Amir, prince, and Shaykh.) He was born in the town of Muaskar in the area of Oran. His father was a shaykh in the Qadiri sufi order. In his childhood he learned to memorize the Qur'an and was well trained in theological and linguistic studies, having an education far better than that of his peers. In 1825 he set out for hajj with his father. While in Mecca he encountered Imam Shamil; the two spoke at length on different topics. He also traveled to Damascus and Baghdad, and visited the graves of famous Muslims. This experience cemented his religious enthusiasm. On his way back to Algeria, he was impressed by the reforms carried out by Muḩammad `Ali in Egypt. He returned to his homeland a few months before the arrival of the French. In 1830, Algeria was invaded by France; French dominion over Algeria supplanted that of the Ottoman Empire. Within two years, `Abd al-Qādir was made an amir and with the loyalty of a number of tribes began a rebellion against the French. He was effective at using guerrilla warfare and for a decade, up until 1842, he had many victories. He often signed tactical truces with the French, but these did not last. His power base was in the western part of Algeria, where he was successful in uniting the tribes against the French. He was noted for his chivalry; once he released his French captives simply because he had insufficient food to feed them. However, `Abd al-Qādir was eventually forced to surrender. The French armies grew large, and brutally suppressed the native population and practiced a scorched-earth policy. `Abd al-Qādir's failure to get support from eastern tribes, apart from the Berbers of western Kabylie also contributed to the quelling of the rebellion. On December 21, 1847, after being denied refuge in Morocco (strangely parallelling Jugurtha's career two thousand years earlier), `Abd al-Qādir was forced to surrender. Two days later, his surrender was made official to the French Governor-General of Algeria, Henri d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale. `Abd al-Qādir was exiled to France, in violation of the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or Acre, on the faith of which he surrendered. `Abd al-Qādir and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the château of Amboise. There he remained until October 1852, when he was released by Napoleon III on taking an oath never again to disturb Algeria. The emir then took up his residence in Brusa, removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when conflict between the Druze and Maronites of Mount Lebanon spread to Damascus and local Muslims attacked the Christian quarter killing over 3,000 persons, `Abd al-Qādir and his personal guard saved large numbers of Christians, bringing them to safety in his house and in the citadel. For this action the French government, which granted the emir a pension of 4000 Louis, bestowed on him the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. He thereafter devoted himself to writing and philosophy until his death in Damascus in 1883. There is a Mosque in Constantine, Algeria dedicated to him. His remains were returned to Algeria in the 1970's. The town of Elkader, Iowa was named in his honor. [http://www.elkader-iowa.com/history.htm]

External link

- [http://www.naqshbandi.net/haqqani/Islam/Shariah/muamalaat/jihad/amir_abdul_qadir.html Abd Al-Kadir's Struggle For Truth] Category:1808 births Category:1883 deaths Category:Algerian people Category:History of Algeria Category:Sufis

1808

1808 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - Importation of slaves into the United States is banned
- February - Russia issues an ultimatum to Sweden, to join France, Denmark and Russia and attacks Finland.
- 26 January - Rum Rebellion: On the twentieth anniversary of the foundation of the colony of New South Wales, disgruntled military officers of the New South Wales Corps (the "Rum Corps") overthrow and imprison Governor William Bligh and seize control of the colony.
- February 2 - French troops occupy Papal States (Vatican)
- February 11 - Anthracite coal first burned as fuel, experimentally.
- February 21 - Russian troops cross border to Finland without declaration of war - the Finnish War begins
- March 2 - Russian troops occupy Helsinki and threaten Sveaborg
- March 11 - Russian troops occupy Tampere
- March 22 - Russian troops occupy Turku
- March 26 - Charles IV of Spain abdicates in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII
- April 6 - John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company.
- April 16 - Troops under colonel Carl von Döbeln clash with Russian troops in Pyhäjoki, Finland
- May 2 - Peninsular War: The people of Madrid uprise against the French troops.
- May 3:
- The fortress of Sveaborg is lost by Sweden to Russia, during the Finnish War.
- Peninsular War: The Madrid rebels who uprose on May 2 are fired near Príncipe Pío hill.
- June 12 - Landing of Swedish troops to Ala-Lemu fails
- June 19 - Second landing of Swedish troops fails in Ala-Lemu
- July 5 - Battle of Buenos Aires - locals repel the British troops
- July 14 - Troops under colonel Adlercreutz force Russians to withdraw in Lapua
- August 10 - Troops under Carl von Döbeln defeat Russian attack in Kauhajoki
- August 21 - Battle of Vimiero - British troops under Duke of Wellington defeat French under general Junot
- September 29-October 19 - Truce between Swedish and Russian troops in Finland
- November 19 - New truce ends fighting in Finland
- November - Swedish troops evacuate Finland. Tsar Alexander I of Russia proclaims Finland a part of Russia.
- November - James Madison defeats Charles C. Pinckney in U.S. presidential election
- December - Napoleon invades Spain
- December 9 - At 20:34 UTC Mercury occults Saturn. There are no observation records.
- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mustafa IV (1807-1808) to Mahmud II (1808-1839)
- Academy of Fine Arts, Munich founded

Ongoing events

- Napoleonic Wars

Births

- January 19 - Lysander Spooner, American philosopher (d. 1887)
- January 27 - David Strauss, German theologian (d. 1874)
- February 5 - Carl Spitzweg, German painter (d. 1885)
- February 26 - Honoré Daumier, French painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 1879)
- May 22 - Gérard de Nerval, French writer (d. 1855)
- June 3 - Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States (d. 1889)
- June 17 - Henrik Wergeland, Norwegian author (d. 1845)
- June 20 - Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi (d. 1888)
- July 9 - Alexander William Doniphan, American lawyer and military leader (d. 1887)
- September 13 - Saverio Bettinelli, Italian writer (b. 1718)
- October 6 - King Frederick VII of Denmark (d. 1863)
- October 20 - Karl Andree, German geographer (d. 1875)
- November 1 - John Taylor, American religious leader (d. 1887)
- November 2 - Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly, French writer (d. 1889)
- December 29 - Andrew Johnson, 17th President of the United States (d. 1875)

Deaths

- February 14 - John Dickinson, American lawyer and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (b. 1732)
- March 13 - King Christian VII of Denmark (b. 1749)
- May 18 - Elijah Craig, American minister and inventor
- May 28 - Richard Hurd, English bishop and writer (b. 1720)
- September 3 - John Montgomery, American delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1722)
- September 5 - John Home, Scottish writer (b. 1722)
- September 6 - Louis-Pierre Anquetil, French historian (b. 1723)
- September 17 - Benjamin Bourne, American politician (b. 1755)
- November 10 - Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, British soldier and Governor of Quebec (b. 1724)
- November 17 - David Zeisberger, Moravian missionary (b. 1721) Category:1808 ko:1808년 ms:1808 simple:1808

1883

1883 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 10 - A fire at the Newhall Hotel in Milwaukee kills 71
- January 16 - The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing the United States Civil service, is passed
- January 19 - The first electric lighting system employing overhead wires begins service (Roselle, New Jersey) It was built by Thomas Edison.
- February 16 - Ladies Home Journal is published for the first time.
- February 23 - Alabama becomes the first U.S. state to enact an antitrust law.
- February 28 - The first vaudeville theater is opened, in Boston, Massachusetts.
- March - An Australian Catholic school, Star of the Sea College is founded in Elsternwick, Victoria (now known as Gardenstown) by the Irish Presentation Sisters.
- May 24 - Brooklyn Bridge is opened to traffic after 14 years of construction.
- May 30 - In New York City, a rumor that the Brooklyn Bridge was going to collapse causes a stampede which crushes twelve people.
- June 30 - First appearance of The Black Arrow by Robert Louis Stevenson as a serial in Young Folks; A Boys' and Girls' Paper of Instructive and Entertaining Literature
- July 3 - SS Daphne disaster in Glasgow leaves 124 dead.
- July 4 - Worlds first rodeo held in Pecos, TX.
- July 22 – Zulu king Cetshwayo barely escapes rebel attack with his life.
- August - King William's College is opened on the Isle of Man.
- August 12 - The last quagga dies at the Artis Magistra zoo in Amsterdam.
- August 26 - 28 - Krakatau volcano eruption (local time)- 163 villages destroyed, 36380 dead.
- September 15 - The Bombay Natural History Society is founded.
- September 29 - A consortium of flour mill operators in Minneapolis, Minnesota form the Minneapolis, Sault Ste. Marie and Atlantic Railway as a means to get their product to the Great Lakes ports but avoid the high tariffs of Chicago, Illinois.
- October 1 - Sydney Boys High School is founded in Sydney, Australia. It is the first boys public school in Australia.
- October 15 - The Supreme Court of the United States declares part of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional since it allowed individuals and corporations to discriminate based on race.
- October 20 - Peru and Chile signed the Treaty of Ancón, by which the Tarapacá province was ceded to the latter, bringing an end to Peru's involvement in the War of the Pacific.
- October 30 - Two Clan na Gael dynamite bombs explode in the London underground, injuring several people. Next day Home Secretary Vernon Harcourt drafts 300 policemen to guard the underground and introduces the Explosives Bill. Public continues as before.
- November 3 - American Old West: Self-described "Black Bart the Po-8" gets away with his last stagecoach robbery, but leaves an incriminating clue that eventually leads to his capture.
- November 18 - US and Canadian railroads institute five standard continental time zones, ending the confusion of thousands of local times.
- November 28 - Whitman College is chartered as a four-year college in Walla Walla, Washington.

Unknown date

- Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (German.bacteriologist) discovers the cholera bacillus.
- Antonio Gaudi begins to build Sagrada Familia cathedral.
- Fabian Society founded.
- Orient Express begins operation.

Births

January-June

- January 3 - Clement Attlee, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1967)
- January 6 - Khalil Gibran, Lebanese poet, painter, and novelist (d. 1931)
- January 10 - Francis X. Bushman, American actor (d. 1966)
- January 10 - Aleksei Nikolaevich Tolstoi, Russian writer (d. 1945)
- January 21 - Olav Aukrust, Norwegian poet (d. 1929)
- February 15 - Sax Rohmer, English author (d. 1959)
- February 7 - Eubie Blake, American musician and composer (d. 1983)
- February 22 - Marguerite Clark, American silent film actress (d. 1940)
- February 23 - Karl Jaspers, German philosopher (d. 1969)
- February 23 - Victor Fleming, American film director (d. 1949)
- March 19 - Walter Haworth, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)
- March 19 - Joseph Stilwell, American soldier (d. 1946)
- April 1 - Lon Chaney, Sr., American actor (d. 1930)
- April 11 - Hozumi Shigeto, Japanese author (d. 1951)
- April 15 - Stanley Bruce, eighth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)
- April 30 - Jaroslav Hašek, Czech writer (d. 1923)
- May 1 - Tom Moore, Irish actor (d. 1955)
- May 18 - Walter Gropius, German architect (d. 1969)
- May 20 - King Faisal I of Iraq (d. 1933)
- May 21 - Swan Glassey, inventor (d. 1962)
- May 23 - Douglas Fairbanks, American actor (d. 1939)
- May 31 - Lauri Kristian Relander, President of Finland (d. 1942)
- June 5 - John Maynard Keynes, English economist (d. 1946)
- June 7 - Sylvanus G. Morley, American scholar and World War I spy (d. 1948)
- June 21 - Lluís Companys i Jover, President of Catalonia (d. 1940)
- June 24 - Victor Franz Hess, Austrian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1964)
- June 28 - Pierre Laval, Prime Minister of France (d. 1945)

July-December

- July 3 - Franz Kafka, Austrian writer (d. 1924)
- July 4 - Rube Goldberg, American cartoonist (d. 1970)
- July 29 - Porfirio Barba-Jacob, Colombian writer (d. 1942)
- July 29 - Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy (d. 1945)
- August 19 - Elsie Ferguson, American actress (d. 1961)
- August 23 - Jesse Pennington, English footballer (d. 1970)
- August 23 - Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright IV, American general (d. 1953)
- August 30 - Theo van Doesburg, Dutch artist, painter, architect, and poet (d. 1931)
- September 15 - Esteban Terradas i Illa, Catalan mathematician, scientist, and engineer (d. 1950)
- October 8 - Otto Heinrich Warburg, German phsyician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)
- October 26 - Paul Pilgrim, American athlete (d. 1958)
- November 4 - Nikolaos Plastiras, Greek general and politician (d. 1953)
- November 8 - Arnold Bax, English composer (d. 1953)
- November 11 - Ernest Ansermet, Swiss conductor (d. 1969)
- November 18 - Carl Vinson, U. S. Congressman (d. 1981)
- November 25 - Harvey Spencer Lewis, American Rosicrucian mystic (d. 1939)
- November 25 - Merrill C. Meigs, American newspaper publisher and aviation promoter (d. 1968)
- December 3 - Anton Webern, Austrian composer (d. 1945)
- December 13 - Belle da Costa Greene, librarian, bibliographer, archivist (d. 1950)
- December 16 ? Max Linder, French actor (d. 1925)
- December 22 - Edgar Varèse, French composer (d. 1965)
- December 25 - Maurice Utrillo, French artist and illustrator (d. 1955)

Unknown date

- Alberto Gerchunoff, Argentine writer (d. 1949)
- T. F. O'Rahilly, Irish academic
- Lothrop Stoddard, American eugenicist and racist (d. 1950)

Deaths

- January 10 - Samuel Mudd, American doctor to John Wilkes Booth (b. 1833)
- January 23 - Gustave Doré, French artist (b. 1832)
- January 24 - Friedrich von Flotow, German composer (b. 1812)
- February 13 - Richard Wagner, German composer (b. 1813)
- February 17 - Napoleon Coste, French guitarist and composer (b. 1806)
- March 14 - Karl Marx, German philosopher (b. 1818)
- April 30 - Edouard Manet, French painter (b. 1832)
- May 24 - Abdel Kadir, Algerian leader (b. 1808)
- May 26 - Edward Sabine, Irish astronomer (b. 1788)
- July 22 - Edward Ord, U.S. Army officer (b. 1818)
- September 3 - Ivan Turgenev, Russian writer (b. 1818)
- October 30 - Robert Volkmann, German composer (b. 1815)
- December 13 - Victor de Laprade, French poet and critic (b. 1812) Category:1883 ko:1883년 ms:1883 simple:1883 th:พ.ศ. 2426

AlgeriA

Algeria

19th century

:Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) The 19th century lasted from 1801 to 1900 in the Gregorian calendar (using the Common Era system of year numbering). Historians sometimes define a "Nineteenth Century" historical era stretching from 1815 (The Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (The outbreak of the First World War).

Europe

For Europe, the period is marked with revolution, social upheaval, and the emergence of a united conservatism from the monarchs of Europe in response to the emerging republican firestorm spreading from revolutionary France. There were many revolutions in Europe in 1848. Furthermore, the later end of the century was dominated by what many call the New Imperialism, which was the rapid aquisition of colonies worldwide by European powers, most noteworthy is the Scramble for Africa. Many countries in Europe underwent an Industrial Revolution, especially Britain and Germany, that spread elsewhere by the end of the century, with factories and railway lines built all over the continent. The start of the 19th century there was a struggle between France and Britain and their allies for control of Europe and the world during the Napoleonic Wars, with Napoleon being finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. During the rest of the century, the British empire became the largest and most powerful empire in history, during the period known as the Pax Britannica.

Americas

In the Americas, the United States slowly grew economically, militarily, and politically, but nevertheless faced dramatic changes domestically, best seen in the Civil War, the end of slavery, and the expansion across the American continent known as Manifest Destiny. Industrially, America will explode following the Civil War, and would eventually begin expansion outward across the Pacific Ocean and in Latin America.

Other countries

For the rest of the world, there were few places not influenced by the West in some fashion, whether through colonialism, imperialism, or war. European powers gained increasing influence in China, where Qing control had weakened, and wars were fought by the western powers against China, such as the first and the second Opium wars and Sino-French War. Japan, which was forcibly opened to Western trade, began a rapid industrialisation. Africa which was largely free from European control at the start of the century, was almost completely dominated by Europe at the end of it, with the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s and 1890s. Large European settlement, especially British, of colonies such as Australia, New Zealand and the Cape Colony continued during the nineteenth century.

Events

- 1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
- 1803: The United States buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase.
- 1804-06: Americans Meriwether Lewis and William Clark lead an expedition to the Pacific Coast and back.
- 1805-48: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.
- 1806: Holy Roman Empire dissolved as a consequence of the Treaty of Lunéville.
- 1809: Napoleon strips the Teutonic Knights of their last holdings in Bad Mergentheim.
- 1813-1917: The contest between the British Empire and Imperial Russia for control of Central Asia is referred to as the Great Game.
- 1815: Congress of Vienna redraws the European map.
- 1815: Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo brings a conclusion to the Napoleonic Wars and marks the beginning of a Pax Britannica which lasts until 1870.
- 1816: Year Without a Summer
- 1816-28: Shaka's Zulu kingdom becomes the largest in Southern Africa.
- 1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company.
- 1820: Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.
- 1830: France invades and occupies Algeria.
- 1830: The Belgian Revolution in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of Belgium.
- 1833: Slavery Abolition Act bans slavery throughout the British Empire.
- 1834: Spanish Inquisition officially ends.
- 1835-36: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas.
- 1837-1901: Queen Victoria's reign is considered the apex of the British Empire and is referred to as the Victorian era.
- 1845-49: Irish Potato Famine
- 1848: The Communist Manifesto published.
- 1848: Revolutions of 1848 in Europe
- 1848-58: California Gold Rush
- 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time.
- 1851-60s: Victorian gold rush in Australia
- 1851-64: The Taiping Rebellion in China
- 1854: The Convention of Kanagawa formally ends Japan's policy of Sakoku.
- 1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass produced.
- 1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania
- 1857-58: Indian rebellion of 1857
- 1859: The Origin of Species published.
- 1864-67: French intervention in Mexico
- 1865-77: Reconstruction in the United States
- 1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
- 1866: Creation of the North German Confederation and the Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.
- 1866-69: Meiji Restoration in Japan
- 1867: The United States purchased Alaska from Russia.
- 1867: Canadian Confederation formed.
- 1869: First Transcontinental Railroad completed in United States.
- 1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
- 1870-71: Unifications of Germany and Italy.
- 1871-1914: Second Industrial Revolution
- 1870s-90s: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America
- 1872: Yellowstone National Park created.
- 1874: The British East India Company is dissolved.
- 1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide labor strike.
- 1877-78: The Balkans are freed from the Ottoman Empire after another Russo-Turkish War.
- 1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut.
- 1880-1902: Great Britain conquers Dutch settlers in South Africa in two Boer Wars.
- 1882: First electrical power plant and grid in Manhattan.
- 1884-85: The Berlin Conference signals the start of the European Scramble for Africa. Attending nations also agree to ban trade in slaves.
- 1885: Unification of Bulgaria
- 1890: The Wounded Knee Massacre is the last battle in the American Indian Wars.
- 1894-95: After the First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
- 1895-1896: Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1896: Olympic games revived in Athens.
- 1896: Klondike Gold Rush in Canada
- 1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.
- 1898-1900: The Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by an Eight-Nation Alliance.

Wars

List of wars 1800–1899
- 1799-1815: Napoleonic Wars.
- 1801-15: Barbary Wars between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa.
- 1806-12: Russo-Turkish War
- 1810-21: Mexican War of Independence.
- 1810s-20s: South American Wars of Independence.
- 1812-15: War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain.
- 1821-32: Greek War of Independence.
- 1828-29: Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829
- 1833-76: Carlist Wars in Spain.
- 1839-60: After two Opium Wars, Great Britain, France, the United States and Russia gain many concessions from China.
- 1854-56: Crimean War between Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
- 1861-65: American Civil War between the Union and seceding Confederacy.
- 1866: Austro-Prussian War.
- 1877-78: Russo-Turkish War.
- 1879: Anglo-Zulu War in South Africa.
- 1879-84: War of the Pacific between Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
- 1880-81: First Boer War.
- 1894-95: First Sino-Japanese War.
- 1895-96: First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1899-13: The Philippine-American War.

Significant people

- Gilbert and Sullivan, playwright, composer
- William Gilbert Grace, English cricketer
- Baron Haussmann, civic planner
- Sándor Körösi Csoma, explorer of the Tibetan culture
- Fitz Hugh Ludlow, writer and explorer
- Florence Nightingale, nursing pioneer
- Ignaz Semmelweis, founder of hygiene
- Dr. John Snow, the founder of epidemiology
- F R Spofforth, Australian cricketer

Science

- Henri Becquerel, physicist
- Charles Darwin, biologist
- Thomas Alva Edison, inventor
- Michael Faraday, scientist
- Gottlob Frege, mathematician, logician and philosopher
- Carl Friedrich Gauss, mathematician, physicist, astronomer
- James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist
- Gregor Mendel, biologist
- Louis Pasteur, biologist
- Nikola Tesla, inventor
- Amedeo Avogadro, physicist
- Johann Jakob Balmer, mathematician, physicist
- Pierre Curie, physicist
- Christian Doppler, physicist, mathematician

Philosophy and Religion

- Bahá'u'lláh, Persian religious leader and founder of Bahá'í Faith
- Báb, Persian prophet and founder of Bábísm
- Nikolai of Japan, religious leader who introduced Eastern Orthodoxy into Japan.
- Mikhail Bakunin, anarchist
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, philosopher
- Søren Kierkegaard, philosopher
- Karl Marx, political philosopher and economist
- John Stuart Mill, philosopher
- Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher
- Joseph Smith, Jr., religious leader, founder of Mormonism
- Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Hindu mystic
- Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher
- Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French socialism
- Brigham Young, Mormon religious leader
- William Morris, social reformer

Politics

- Otto von Bismarck, German chancellor
- Napoleon Bonaparte, French general, first consul and emperor
- Guiseppe Garibaldi, unifier of Italy and Piedmontese soldier
- Ulysses S. Grant, U.S. general and president
- Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political Zionism
- Andrew Jackson, U.S. general and president
- Thomas Jefferson, American statesman, philosopher, and president
- Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian governor; leader of the war of independence
- Hong Xiuquan, revolutionary, self-proclaimed Son of God
- Benjamin Disraeli, novelist and politician
- Libertadores, Latin American liberators
- Robert E. Lee, Confederate general
- Abraham Lincoln, U.S. president; led the nation during the Civil War
- Mutsuhito, Japanese emperor
- István Széchenyi, aristocrat, leader of the Hungarian reform movement
- Queen Victoria, British monarch
- Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 19th century inventions
- Department stores
- Electromagnetism
- Epidemiology
- Mail order businesses
- Philology
- Postage stamps
- Public busses
- Subway
- The invention of the telegraph connected the world like never before, leading to quicker communication and interaction.
- One of the more devestating technologies emerging from this period is the machine gun, first used during the Civil War (considered the first modern war)

Decades and years

Category:19th century Category:Centuries Category:Romanticism als:19. Jahrhundert zh-min-nan:19 sè-kí ko:19세기 ja:19世紀 simple:19th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 19

National hero

:This article is about the type of character. For other meanings, see Hero (disambiguation). :Distinguish heroine, "female hero," from heroin, the drug. heroin ]] ---- In mythology and folklore, a hero (male) or heroine (female) is an eminent character who quintessentially embodies key traits valued by its originating culture. The hero commonly possesses superhuman capabilities or idealized character traits which enable him or her to perform extraordinary, beneficial deeds (i.e., a "heroic deed") for which he or she is famous (compare villain).

Overview

A person normally becomes a hero by performing an extraordinary and praiseworthy deed. Traditional deeds are slaying of monsters and saving people from certain death. A hero normally fulfills the definitions of what is considered good and noble in the originating culture. However, in literature, particularly in tragedy, the hero may also have serious flaws which lead to a downfall, e.g. Hamlet. Sometimes a real person might achieve enough status to become a hero in people's minds. This is usually complemented by a rapid growth of myths around the person in question, often attributing to him or her powers beyond those of ordinary people. Some social commentators prescribe the need for heroes in times of social upheaval or national self-doubt, seeing a requirement for virtuous role models, especially for the young. Such myth-making may have worked better in the past: current trends may confuse heroes and their hero-worship with the cult of mere celebrity. Well-known heroes approach the gods in status in some cultures. The word hero comes from ancient Greek, where it describes a culture hero who figures in mythology. The Greek heroes were often the mythological characters who were the eponymous founders of Greek cities, states, and territories. These mythological heroes were not always role models or possessed of heroic virtue; many were demigods, the offspring of mortals and the gods. The age when heroes of this sort were active, and where the stories of Greek mythology were set, is frequently known as the "heroic age"; the heroic age ends shortly after the Trojan War is over and the legendary combatants have returned to home or exile. The classic hero often came with what Lord Raglan (a descendant of the FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan) termed a "potted biography" made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets with a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy sepulchres. Most European indigenous religions feature heroes in some form. Germanic, Hellene and Roman heroes, along with their attributes and forms of worship have been largely absorbed by the Orthodox and Catholic denominations of Christianity, forming the basis of modern day Saint reverring. In opera and musical theatre, the hero/heroine is often played by a tenor/soprano (more vulnerable characters are played by lyric voices while stronger characters are portrayed by spinto or dramatic voices.) In modern movies, the hero is often simply an ordinary person treated unfairly by society who prevails in the end. A book of recent fame, dealing with the telling of heroic stories, is called The Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph Campbell.

External links

- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/heroes.htm Exploring the Function of Heroes and Heroines in Children's Literature from around the World]
- [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/heroes/tour1.html The British Hero] - online exhibition from screenonline, a website of the British Film Institute, looking at British heroes of film and television.

Amir

.]] Emir (also sometimes rendered as Amir or Ameer, Arabic: أمير commander) is a high title of nobility or office, historically used in Islamic nations of the Middle East, North Africa, the Turkic world etc.

Middle eastern origins

Originally it was a title of honor given to descendants of Muhammad via his daughter Fatima Zahra. Centuries after the time of Muhammad it became used in a wider range of contexts, such as the title used by chieftains of Bedouins of Arabia and by nobles and officials of the Ottoman Empire. Emir is also the term used by the Kuwaiti al-Sabah dynasty to refer to their ruling monarch since their independence on June 19, 1961. Qatar likewise uses this title since 1971, and Bahrain did so from 1971 to 2002. In Arabic and Persian :
- a country ruled by an independent emir is an emirate, as in the United Arab Emirates (but they're part of an elective, federal monarchy).
- Another meaning of the word "emir" is prince, specifically, the male descendant of a sovereign, as in the sultanate of the Maldives (besides the native title Manippulu). In some states it could mean "crown prince" (more typically Wali al-Ahd). For example, before the crowning as King Abdullah of Jordan, the son of King Hussein was still referred to as "Emir Abdullah" (in this case a obsolete title of the dynasty, which adopted the higher title of Malik = king).

In other muslim cultures

- In various muslim states, Amir was also a nobiliary title, as under the (Turkic?) form ämir in the Tartar Khanate of Kazan
- In India it is also means rich.
- In certain decimally organised Muslim armies, e.g. in Mughal India, Amir was an officer rank, commanding 1000 horsemen (divided in ten units, each under a Sipah salar), ten of them under each Malik.
- Emir is also the title of the religious leader (without political power) of the Ahmadiyya anjuman ishaat-i Islam, a minor Muslim sect, established in Lahore since April 1914, with five incumbents to date

Derived titles

The word emir is also used less formally for leaders in certain contexts, for example the leader of a group of pilgrims to Mecca is called an emir hadji. Where an adjectival form is necessary, "emiral" suffices. The Caliphs first used the title emir ul-mu'mineen, "Commander of the Faithful", stressing their leadership in the military formof Jihad (Holy War); both this command and the title have been assumed by various other Muslim Princes, including Sultans and Emirs. The Western naval rank admiral comes from the Arabic title amir al-bahr, "general at sea", which has ben used for naval commanders and occasionally the Minister of Marine

Other uses

Emir is also a common Muslim male name in Bosnia (see also Azra), taken from Arabic, just as the Latin Rex ('king') in the West.

Sources and References

- [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Religious_Organizations.html#Caliphate WorldStatesmen] Here Religious Organisations - see also many present Muslim countries
- List of Emirs of Harar
- List of emirs of Kuwait
- List of emirs of Qatar
- Category:Heads of state Category:Islamic law
- Category:Military ranks Category:Monarchy Category:Noble titles Category:Religious leaders ja:アミール

Muaskar

Muaskar (formerly known by the anglicization Mascara) (Arabic: ولاية معسكر ) is a city and wilaya in Algeria. There was an earthquake in Muaskar on August 18 1994 - 5.6 on the Richter scale - which killed 171 people. Category:Provinces of Algeria

Shaykh

Shaikh (Arabic: شيخ ),(also rendered as Sheik, Shaykh or Sheikh) is a word in the Arabic language meaning elder of tribe, lord or a revered old man. The term linguistically means a man of old age, and is used in that sense in Qur'anic Arabic. Later it came to be a title meaning leader, elder or noble, especially in the Arabian Peninsula, where shaikh became a traditional title of a Bedouin tribal leader in recent centuries. For example, it was the term used to refer to the leaders of Kuwait's ruling al-Sabah dynasty until June 19, 1961, when Kuwait joined the Arab League, and the title Emir was adopted. The title is also used by Arab Christians for elder men of stature, showing that it is independent of religion. In Sufi tariqah (orders), it is an honorific for an elder sufi who has been authorized by the order to teach, initiate Dervishes (monks) and otherwise lead a sufi circle in a Dargah (monastery). In this sense, it is not restricted to sufi elders, but to any learned man in religion, such as Faqihs, Muftis, and Muhaddiths. In the Persian Gulf, the title is used for men of stature, whether they are managers in high posts, wealthy business owners, or local rulers. The title is often more informally used to address learned men as a courtesy. Shaikh signifies Arab ancestory in South Asia. Shaikh is a multiethnic community in South Asia, found particularly in Pakistan and Bangladesh, and generally in India.

Other

:Quraishi, Hashemi, Syed, Siddiqui, Shaikh Siddiqui, Farooqi, Osmani, Alavi are family names signifying Arab ancestory and belong to Shaikh community.
External links

- [http://www.shaikhsiddiqui.com Shaikh Siddiqui Family]. Category:Titles

Qadiri

Qadiriyyah (Arabic: القادريه ) (also transliterated Qadiri), is one of the oldest Sufi tariqas, derives its name from Abdul Qadir Jilani (also transliterated other ways) (1077-1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gilan. In 1134 he was made principal of a Hanbalite school in Baghdad. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world and can be found in India, Pakistan, Turkey and the Balkans and much of East and West Africa. Some famous Qadiri Sheikhs include Sheikh Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri who led the Algerian resistance to French colonialism and Sheikh Usman dan Fodio whose followers Islamized much of West Africa and established the Caliphate of Sokoto in Northern Nigeria. The Chechen people are also mostly followers of the Qadiri Sufi order as was the famous traveller and writer Isabelle Eberhardt. The Qadiriyyah has not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience. As a result, even opponents to Sufism such as the Hanbali Sheikhs Ibn Taymiya, his student ibn al-Qayyim and ibn Rajb al-Hanbali were all followers of the Qadiri Sufi order and spoke highly of Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani.

Spiritual Chain

This is the spiritual chain (silsila) of the Qadiriyyah:
- The Prophet Muhammad
- The Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Husayn
- Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin
- Imam Muhammad Baqir
- Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq
- Imam Musa al-Kazim
- Imam Ali Musa Rida
- Ma'ruf Karkhi
- Sari Saqati
- Junayd al-Baghdadi
- Sheikh Abu Bakr Shibli
- Sheikh Abdul Aziz al-Tamīmī
- Abu al-Fadl Abu al-Wahid al-Tamīmī
- Abu al-Farah Tartusi
- Abu al-Hasan Farshi
- Abu Sa'id al-Mubarak Mukharrami
- Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani

External links

- [http://www.tariqa.org/qadiriya/ Tariqa Qadiriya Boutshishiya]
- [http://www.zikranash.net Videos of Chechen Qadiri dhikr]
- [http://www.fanoosphoto.com/thumb.php?gallery_id=64&cat=photojornalism Photos of Qadiri Kasnazani dervishes in Suleimaniya, Iraq]
- [http://www.haqqaniya.org Siraajiya 'Haqqaaniya ] Category:Sufi orders

Sufi

Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a mystic tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi (one who practices Sufism). It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism. While other branches of Islam generally focus on exoteric aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of Truth or God through mystic practices based on divine love. Sufism embodies a number of cultures, philosophies, central teachings and bodies of esoteric knowledge. Sufis are active in a diverse range of brotherhoods and sisterhoods, with a wide diversity of thought. Sufi orders ("tariqas") can be Shi'a Islam, Sunni Islam, both or neither.

Etymology

A few etymologies for the word Sufi have been suggested. The first etymological theory states that the root word of Sufi is the Arabic word "saaf", meaning pure, clean or blank. This etymology refers to the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul. Another view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, implying a cloak and refers to the simple cloaks the original Sufis wore. Some scholars (see Tor Andrae's Garden of Myrtles) have suggested that this derivation might give credence to early Sufism's link with Syriac Christian monastic orders, because woolen clothes were common in these monastic orders, but uncommon amongst orthodox Muslims of the time. However, it is well documented that early Muslim ascetics were known to don the coarse garments as a symbol of their renunciation of worldly comforts. Historically, the most noteworthy example is the second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, who insisted that all representatives of his administration wear wool and live a life of simplicity. Others have suggested the origin of the word Sufi is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"). They are mentioned in the hadiths. These were a group of poor Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer and who renounced worldly trappings. The Greek words Sophos/Sophia, literally meaning wisdom or enlightenment, have also sometimes been asserted as the source of the word Sufi. Although this etymology has now largely been discredited, it was popular amongst orientalists in the early 20th Century. This origin was also advocated by Biruni. Most Sufis agree with the first definition, while most scholars tend to adhere to the second or third. The two were combined by the acclaimed Sufi, Junayd al-Baghdadi (d. 920 CE) in the famous saying, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity...." Idries Shah writes in "The Way of the Sufi" about the word Sufi being said to have no etymology.

History of Sufism

The history of Sufism can be divided into the following principal periods:

Origins

Sufism may have begun in the eighth century. It does not seem to have a single founder and it isn't clear when the term Sufi was first used to refer to early Sufis. The general opinion holds that initially, Sufis were individuals in search of communication with God through ascetic practices without any doctrines of their own and it was not until the doctrines of divine love, union with God, and necessity of following a spiritual guide were formulated that Sufism became recognized as a tradition. It is not known who first proposed these ideas but Rabia al-Adawiya and Bayazid Bastami are some famous early sufis who are known to have held such opinions. As Sufism cannot be traced back to a single definite origin, different theories have been presented which highlight the expanding of Qur’anic mysticism through the new perspective originated from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/persian_sufism.htm], an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam as a reaction against the prevailing impersonal, formal and hypocrytical practice of religion [http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/sufism/67134], and possibility of the incorporation of ideas and practices from other mystic systems such as Gnosticism and Hinduism into Islam. The evidences in support of non-Islamic influences in formation of Sufism include the existance of similiarities between Sufism and mystic systems outside Islam. Some Muslim and Western scholars belive that these theories show errors and biases of orientalists specially in early 20th century [http://www.unc.edu/~cernst/articles/wheeler.doc]. There are also claims regarding ancient Egyptian roots of Sufism which are not widely accepted.[http://www.egypt-tehuti.org/articles/sufism.html],[http://www.kheper.net/topics/Islamic_esotericism/Universal_Sufism.htm] Traditionally many Sufis believe that Sufism is only the mystic aspect of Islam and date back the origins of Sufism to a group of companions of Muhammad known as Ahl as Suffa (People of the Veranda) that lived lives of poverty and piety, many of whom were of foreign origin (like Bilal from Ethiopia, Salman from Persia and Suhaib from Rome) and consider Ali ibn Abi Talib as the first point of the line of transmission of mystic heritage from Muhammad to Sufi tradition. Some of these beliefs lack historic evidence. Some scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of evolution of Islam in a more mystic direction. For example, Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. And Louis Massignon states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."

Influences

A number of scholars percieve influences on Sufism from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic sources and schools of mysticism and philosophy. From Animism and Shamanism to Neoplatonic immanentism, from Gnosticism and Hermetic writings to the panvitalism of Paracelsus, from Zoroastrianism to the the concept of qi and transmigration found in Taoism, Vedic religions, and other forms of Eastern philosophy, the number of possible influences on Sufism ranges far and wide. Others oppose the idea of extensive non-Islamic influences on Sufism and believe that these theories are based on misunderstanding Islam as a harsh and sterile religion, incapable of developing mysticism.[http://meti.byu.edu/mysticism_chittick.html] Those who adopt a phenomenological approach to mysticism belive that an argument can be made for concurent lines of thought througout mysticism, regardless of interaction[http://www.csp.org/experience/james-varieties/james-varieties16.html]. Some Western scholars with a mystic tendency go on to say that : "Of all the strands of thought, tradition and belief that make up the Islamic universe, Sufism in its doctrinal aspect stands out as the most intact, the most purely Islamic: the central strand" [http://www.kheper.net/topics/Islamic_esotericism/introduction.htm] The distinction is quite key, as Islam is not generally seen to be a faith inclusive of interdenominationalism, yet Sufism is sometimes seen to be the exception to this. Some Sufi orders emphasize the influence of some pre-Islamic traditions on ethics of Sufism[http://nimatullahi.org/us/DJN.html#Chivalry].

The great Masters of Sufism

At a time when Iraq was the centre of the Muslim Caliphate and an intellectual crucible and crossroads of various influences, there were mystical circles in cities such as Basra and Baghdad, and Sufism appears in the historical record as a discipline and school bearing this name. The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterised by the practice of an apprentice (murid) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir), as exemplified in the original Prophetic model. Schools started to form around some famous masters, such as Junayd in Baghdad and Al-Tustari in Basra. These were developed in a very open and public way, and were then written up as treatises concerning such topics as: mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and especially the approach towards Allah through a series of progressive stages or stations (maqaam) and states (haal). These schools were formed by reformers in reaction to the disappearance of values and manners in the society of the time, which was marked by a material prosperity that was seen as eroding the spiritual life. The Qur'anic verses which were the favourites of the Sufis included: :"We [God] are closer to him [man] than his jugular vein." :"Say, surely we belong to God and to Him do we return." :"He is the First and the Last and the Manifest and the Hidden." :"God is the light of the heavens and the earth." Hasan Ul-Basri is regarded as the first mystic in Islam. Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya was renowned for her love and passion for God. Junayd was the first theorist of Sufism, known for his teachings on ‘fanaa and baqaa’, the state whereby the annihilation of the self occurs in the divine presence and is accompanied by a great clarity towards the world of phenomena. In addition to these famous names Soulami (325-416 AD) quotes more than one hundred Shaykhs (spiritual masters) in his book ‘Tabaqat’. The most famous of them are: Foudail Bin Ayad, Dhu Nun Al Misri, Ibrahim Bin Adham, Sari Saqti, Al Harith Al Muhassibi, Abu Yazid Al Bustami, Marouf Khalkhi and Ibrahim Al Khawass. The revolution of religious thought engendered through the Sufism of this time did not go without causing some reactions. Certain attitudes of the Sufis were not considered to be very orthodox. The crisis culminated in the famous case of Al Hallaj, who was executed for making what were considered to be heretical remarks in public whilst in a state of spiritual intoxication (sukr).
Formalisation of Philosophies of Sufism
Sufism was now recognized and understood by virtue of the spiritual values that it propagates, and because of the intellectual efforts of the great thinkers of this time. These scholars used all due discretion when they addressed matters of high spirituality. They respected the social and cultural hierarchies of their time, and spoke to everyone according to their level of understanding. This time was marked primarily by a proliferation in the number of treaties on Sufism and in particular by the personality of Al Ghazali, considered by some as the greatest philosopher of Sufism. His works influenced influential Western thinkers such as Kant. His famous treatises - the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences," the "Alchemy of Happiness," and other works - set out to convince the Islamic world that Sufism and its teachings originated from the Qur'an, and were compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It was Al Ghazali who bridged the gap between traditional and mystical Islam. It was around 1000 CE that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations. Another very important Sufi of that period was Ibn Arabi . Ibn Arabi was a contemporary of the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes). The relations and relationship between this exceptional trio ( Ghazali, Ibn Rushd and Ibn Arabi ) is worthy of study. Ibn Arabi met with Ibn Rushd and attended his burial. At their first meeting, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was an elderly man renowned for his books of learning and Ibn Arabi was a young man known as a ‘wali’ (saint). Contrary to the traditional view that a man must pass through three stages (sharia, tariqa and haqiqah) to reach realization, Ibn Arabi received the ‘fath’ (literally ‘the opening’ or direct Gnostic knowledge) when he was barely ten years old. It was only thereafter that he followed the tariqa (the spiritual way) and acquired book knowledge. Ibn Rushd is to some extent the ‘father’ of modernistic thought, and Ghazali and Ibn Arabi the ‘fathers’ of post-modernist thought. The Malamatiyya (the blameworthy) order can be considered a proto-Sufi order that arose in the 9th century CE before the crystallization of the Sufi orders.
Propagation of Sufism
It was during 1200 - 1500 CE that Sufism enjoyed a period of intense activity in various parts of the Islamic world. Hence this period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students and novices but also places for "spiritual retreat" for practising Sufis and other mystics. This period is characterized by the propagation of Sufism starting from its centre in Baghdad in Iraq, from where it spread towards Persia , India , North Africa & Muslim Spain. It is characterized by tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.) and starting of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq). One of the first orders to originate in this period was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern Kazakhstan. The Kubrawiya order, originating in Central Asia, was named after Najmeddin Kubra, known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , since a number of his disciples became great shaykhs themselves. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, founder of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, Shihabuddin Yahya as-Suhrawardi in Asia minor, Moinuddin Chishti in India and Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, founder of the Ashrafi Order. Although each order had a regional flavour, their fundamental teachings and practices remained substantially the same. After having gained influence over the whole of the central Islamic world, the brotherhoods (turuq) became the focus for Islam in the new territories that came under Muslim domination or influence. This included the Indo-Malay territories in the East, and West Africa and Andalusia in the West. The brotherhoods made a significant contribution throughout the centuries in presenting the true face of Islam – the Islam of beauty and love. Sufism not only represented a practical and specific stream of religious thought, but also played an important cultural role in Islam. It played an important role in the development of literature, in Persian, Turkish and Urdu. Sufism also appears in other art forms, such as dance and music (like Qawwali ) and the Indo-Persian miniatures which decorate the philosopher’s stones in verse and prose). It became an integral and fundamental element of religious thought and Islamic sensitivities, and became fully absorbed into the culture of the time.
Modern Sufism
This period includes the effects of modern thoughts on Sufism, and the advent of Sufism to the West. Important Sufis of this period include Hazrat Inayat Khan , Idries Shah, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Muzaffer Ozak, Javad Nurbakhsh, Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani & Nuh Ha Mim Keller, who have tried to explain Sufi concepts in the light of modern culture.
Basic beliefs
The central concept in Sufism is love. Dervishes—the name given to initiates of sufi orders—believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe.They believe that God desires to recognize

Abdel Kadir

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Amir

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